HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH
HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES
FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH
LETTER WRITING AND CORRESPONDENCE
DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES
WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MODERN LANGUAGES
DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS
ENGLISHANDAMERICANLITERATURE
CHARTS OFENGLISHANDAMERICANAUTHORS
DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY
CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS
BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH—Fundamental Rules—The Organ of Speech—Vowels—Consonants—Table of Consonants—Rules of Pronunciation—Common Errors in Pronunciation—Expression—Inflection of the Voice—WRITTEN ENGLISH—Rules Relating to Style—Grammatical Construction—Right and Wrong Use of Words in Speaking and Writing—Use of Capital Letters—Abbreviations, Contractions and Degrees—Punctuation—Rhetorical Figures of Speech—FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH—Letter Writing or Correspondence—Official and Titled Salutations—Narration—(Biography—Fiction and Drama—News)—Exposition—(Essay—Editorials)—Description—Argument—Poetry and Poetics—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES—ENGLISHANDAMERICANLITERATURE—OUTLINE CHARTS OFENGLISHANDAMERICANAUTHORS—DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS:Famous Books, Poems, Dramas, Literary Characters, Plots, Pen Names, Literary Shrines and Geography, and other Miscellany—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY:Gods, Heroes, and Mythical Wonder Tales—CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS,their Origin, Relationship and Descent.
Correctly spoken English is quite as important as correctly written English. Errors in pronunciation, modulation and general expression are of frequent occurrence, and it sometimes seems that the erroneous utterance of whole classes of words league the tongue and ear against their right use. An improved standard of pronunciation, therefore, is the safest bulwark against a permanent deterioration of our language, as well as a positive influence in advancing individual culture of speech.
Five Fundamental Rules.—The essential steps toward securing the unconscious ability to speak correctly may be set down as follows:
1. To thoroughly study the elementary sounds, and their mode of representation.
2. To observe the current usage of the best speakers with regard to such words as are most liable to be mispronounced.
3. To note the standard of pronunciation and expression of the best dramatic theaters.
4. By forming the habit of frequent reference to the dictionary and learning to interpret at sight the authorized pronunciation.
5. Ample practice in the reading and application of the leading principles of pronunciation that give words their true spoken values.
The Organ of Speech.—The mouth is the organ of speech; and the manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.
The sound uttered depends upon the form of the mouth. Change the form and you change the sound. Each particular sound is produced from a particular position.
Not more than one sound can be produced from one position of the mouth.
To produce a different sound you must change the position.
Each sound should be clear and precise. There should be no slurring.
The muscles must be under perfect control so that the mouth (lips and tongue included) may readily assume the position necessary for the emission of the required sound.
The proper use of the lips is the great factor in fluent speech.
It is from inability to use or negligence in using the muscles of the organ of speech that Americans are such indifferent linguists and frequently even incapable of distinct utterance of their own language.
The manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.
Vowels.—Pronounce the following words: moor; meer; merry; marry; mar; more. The whole compass of the mouth is brought into exercise by these words.
The first sound is produced from the lips. The second comes from a point just inside the mouth. The third sound point is farther back still. The last vowel is uttered from the throat.
If the sounda(long) as in bare, fair, is included, we have a scale of seven sounds produced by a gradual opening of the mouth, the sound point receding note by note from the front of the lips to the back of the throat, thus: moor, meer, merry, Mary, marry, mar, more.
In cultured English centers and in some parts of New England, the long sound ofä, No. 4, appears in such words as dance, France, glass, castle, cast, past, grasp, grant, etc.
In pronouncing the four words—meer merry, marry, mar—the mouth is gradually opened. The four separate “sound points” may be clearly recognized.
Repeat slowly:
Ois a single sound. In conversation, however, it usually becomes double, being combined with the sound—oo (as in too, tooth, woo)—thus:
The shortosound is pronounced as in hot, pot, nod, God.
Ofollowed by a double consonant is short:
The soundoounites with the open soundäto form the double sound in such words as—cow, how, now:
The sounduis a peculiar combination of at least three sounds. It is really a continued flow fromeetooo.
The letter is pronounced exactly as the wordyou. Speak the vowel very slowly.
The intermediate sound of û may be represented thus:
The same sounds occur in such words as few, new, mew.
The middle sound is the most important, and the first and last must be cut very short for a good style.
Ruandlu. Whenuis preceded byrorl, the first portion of the triple sound is omitted and a double vowel sound is heard—the last part also being cut very short.
Consonants.—Speak slowly and pronounce every letter.
Initial Consonants.—Of these only two require special attention:
thandshfollowed byr.
Children frequently say:—one, two,free; and grown-up people will speak of—shrimps assrimps.
Examples: three, shrimp; thread, shrill; throat, shrink; thrush, shroud; through, shrew.
Final Consonants.—The slurring or omission of final consonants is a greater fault than the mispronunciation of vowels, for it points directly to carelessness and indolence on the part of the speaker.
R.It is sometimes stated that there is norsound in English.
In singing theris always made distinct.
It should also be apparent in conversation. Thus:fatherandfartherare quite distinct. So, too,maandmar.
Thetbelongs to the preceding syllable and the words should be pronounced thus: nat-ure, feat-ure, pict-ure, premat-ure, creat-ure, fut-ure, indent-ure, nurt-ure.
The consonant values ofwandyare never terminal in a syllable, but are followed in the same syllable by a vowel. In attempting, for phonic practice, to sound either of these consonants apart from its vowel, make it continuous, not abrupt.
Hcannot be separated from its accompanying vowel. Pronounceha,he,hi,ho,hu,hy. Notice that the office ofhisto cover the following vowel with breath. It will be seen, on careful examination, that any attempt to soundhalone will result in whispering a vowel with it.
Whhas for its initial sound simply unvocalized breath, poured through the lips placed in position forw. As a whole the digraph is sounded as it would naturally be if the order of the letters were reversed, thus,hw; as,when,while,whip, pronouncedhwen,hwile,hwip.
Lisping children and Germans need to carefully observe the sounds ofsandth.
The sound ofsis formed by forcing unvocal breath between the tip of the tongue and the upper gum.
This produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth or against the upper front teeth, and forcing vocal or unvocal breath between the tongue and the teeth. If vocal breath is used, sonantthis heard, as inthis; if unvocal breath, then non-sonantthis produced, as inthin—this last is the sound made forsby those who lisp (lithp).
TABLE OF CONSONANTS
[13]Some of theBreathingsare often calledAspirates.
[13]Some of theBreathingsare often calledAspirates.
One syllable of every word with two or more syllables receives, in pronouncing,more forcethan another. This stronger force is calledAccent, and the syllable which receives this force is said to beaccent´ed.
Marks of Accent.—The primary accent is marked with a firm oblique stroke, thus:ob´ject,object´,discov´er. The secondary accent is marked by a similar but lighter stroke, or sometimes by two light strokes, thus:lem´on-ade´(orlem´´on-ade´).
Unaccented Vowels.—Every vowel, when under either the primary or the secondary accent, is distinct; that is, the exact sound of the vowel is evident, as shorta, longi, broado, etc. In an unaccented syllable, the vowel sound is sometimes doubtful; in most instances, however, it is not. For instance, a correct speaker says: ăttĕn´tĭve, ăn´ĕcdōte, cōmprēhĕnd´, ăllēgā´tiȯn, chăp´ĕl, prĕs´ent, ĕm´ĭnĕnt, prāi´rĭe, a̤u´dĭĕnce, căl´loŭs.
Rule I.—The letterushould not be sounded asōō, except when immediately preceded by the sound ofr.
Exceptions: sure and its derivatives, also sumac, tulle, hurrah, pugh.
Pronounce rule, fruit, garrulous, ruin, sure, tūne, mūle, institūte, constitūtion, sūture, dūty, lūcid.
Rule II.—Aconstituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italiana.
Examples: cȧnine´, lȧpel´, ȧgain´, ȧlas´, fȧtal´ity, al´kȧli, or´nȧment, pal´ȧtȧble.
When theaof terminalaryoranyis immediately preceded by an accented syllable, it has the sound of short Italiana; thus, pri´mȧry, epiph´ȧny.
Rule III.—Eoroconstituting or ending a syllable is long.
Examples: ēvent, mēmentō, lōcōmōtion, sōciety, nōtōriety, sōbriety, supērior, infērior, thēōries, cōteriē, lōcō-fōcō.
Rule IV.—Iconstituting or ending an unaccented syllable not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented.
Examples: Dĭvide, dĭrect, fĭnance, phĭlosophy, imĭtate, pĭazza, tĭrade, intĭmate, indĭvisĭble, nobilĭty.
In theinitialsyllablesi,bi,chi,cli,cri,pri,tri, however,iis generallylong.
Examples: īdea, īdle, īsothermal, bīology, Chīnese, chīrurgery, clīmatic, crīterion, prīmeval, trīangular, trīpod.
Rule V.—Ebefore terminalnshould always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.
Examples: given (giv n), taken (tak n), bitten (bit n), broken, spoken, riven, fallen.
But in the following wordsemust be sounded:
Aspĕn, chickĕn, glutĕn, kitchĕn, lichĕn, lindĕn, martĕn, mittĕn, suddĕn.
It must also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminalenis immediately preceded byl,m,n, orr.
Examples: womĕn, lĭnen, omĕn, barrĕn, Helĕn, Allĕn, Ellĕn, woolĕn, pollĕn.
Rule VI.—Ebefore terminallshould usually be sounded.
Examples: levĕl, bevĕl, novĕl, nickĕl, cancĕl, vessĕl, chapĕl, gravĕl, hovĕl, camĕl, channĕl, kernĕl, Abĕl, Mabĕl, panĕl, modĕl, funnĕl, flannĕl.
But in the following words theebefore terminallmust not be sounded:
Betel (bē´tl), chattel (chat´tl), drivel, easel, grovel, hazel, mantel, mussel, navel, ravel, shekel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, swivel, teasel, weasel, and their derivatives.
Rule VII.—In all but the following words,ibefore terminallornmust be sounded: devil, evil, weevil, basin, cousin, raisin.
Pronounce Latĭn, satĭn, matĭn, spavĭn, anvĭl, civĭl, cavĭl, councĭl, perĭl, javelĭn, lentĭl, pistĭl, resĭn, fusĭl, coffĭn, codicĭl, axĭl.
Rule VIII.—The eight words, bath, cloth, lath, moth, mouth, oath, path, wreath, and these only, require sonantthsin the plural.
Pronounce moths, paths, truths, oaths, heaths, cloths, baths, laths, deaths, wreaths, mouths, Sabbaths, sheaths, piths, plinths, lengths, widths, depths, breadths, earths, myths, Goths, fourths, breaths.
Rule IX.—Oin a final unaccented syllable ending in a consonant, frequently verges toward the sound of shortu; as in custom, felon, bigot, bishop, method, carol, Briton. But it has its regular short sound in pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.
When, however, the terminationonis immediately preceded byc,ck,sort, theois commonly suppressed.
Examples: bacon, beacon, beckon, benison, button, cotton, crimson, damson, deacon, garrison, glutton, lesson, mason, mutton, parson, person, poison, prison, reason, reckon, season.
Rule X.—Iaccented in most words from the French has the sound of longe.
Examples: pĭque, caprĭce, guillotĭne, quarantĭne, routĭne, suĭte, fatĭgue, valĭse, antĭque, Bastĭle, critĭque, palanquĭn, tambourĭne, regĭme (rā-zheem´), cuĭsĭne (kwe-zeen´), unĭque, intrĭgue, magazĭne.
Rule XI.—Ouin most words from the French has the value ofōō, but in Anglo-Saxon words it has the sound ofow, as incow.
Examples: bouquet, contour, croup; out, bound, sound.
Note.—Ouhas also other values, as in soul, rough, adjourn, could, ought, hough (hŏk), trough.
Rule XII.—Xfollowed by an accented vowel, or by an accented syllable beginning with a silenth, has the sound ofgz.
Examples: luxu´rious, exam´ple, exhaust´, exhale´, exhib´it, exam´ine, exalt´, exec´utive.
Rule XIII.—The terminationtionis alwaysshun, except when it follows the lettersorx, as in question (kwestyun), bastion, combustion.
Examples: notation, completion, equation, relation, suggestion, transition (tranzish´un).
Rule XIV.—The terminationsionimmediately preceded by an accented vowel iszhun; when not so preceded it isshun.
Examples: expulsion, immersion, mansion, excursion, diversion, explosion, adhesion, delusion.
Rule XV.—Cis soft (s) beforee,iandy, and hard (k) in other positions.
Examples:ca,ce,ci,co,cu,cy.
Exceptions:cis hard (k) in sceptic and scirrhus; and in the following words it has the sound ofz: sacrifice (fīz), sice, suffice, discern, and their derivatives. It is silent in czar, victuals, indict, and their derivatives, and also in the terminationscle, as inmuscle,corpuscle.
Rule XVI.—Gis generally soft (j) beforee,iandy, and always hard (g) before other vowels.
Examples:ga,ge,gi,go,gu,gy.
Note.—The exceptions to the rule thatgis usually soft beforee,iandyare many; but they are nearly all common Anglo-Saxon words, such as get, give, gild, girl, girdle, giddy, foggy, gimlet, geese, gig, giggle, gift, gills, begin, gimp, beget, gird, gear, gizzard.
Rule XVII.—In an accented syllable of any primitive word, a vowel beforerfollowed by a syllable beginning with a vowel or anotherrhas its short sound.
Examples: Ărab, ărabesque, ărid, Ăristotle, Săracen, bĕryl, pĕril, delĭrious, ĭrritate, mĭracle, delĭrium, abhŏrrence, flŏrid, cŏroner, fŏreign, tŭrret, bŭrrow, cŭrry, coŭrage, fŭrrow, py̆rrhic, empy̆real.
Rule XVIII.—Nending an accented syllable has the sound ofng, if immediately followed by hardgork, or any equivalent ofk(c,q, orx).
Examples: co̱ṉ´gress, ga̱ṉ´grene, co̱ṉ´cord, tra̱ṉ´quil, u̱ṉ´cle, a̱ṉ´ger, hu̱ṉ´ger, mo̱ṉ´key, sa̱ṉ´guine, si̱ṉ´gle, cla̱ṉ´gor, exti̱ṉ´guish, bla̱ṉ´ket, twi̱ṉ´kle, co̱ṉ´course, Li̱ṉ´coln.
Exceptions: concrete, penguin, mangrove, Mongol, pancreas, and some others.
Rule XIX.—C,s, ort, when immediately preceded by an accented syllable and followed bye,ioru, has usually the force ofsh, and is said to be “aspirated,” as in ocean, nauseate, Asiatic, negotiation.
Rule XX.—In pronouncing the terminal syllables,ble,cle,dle,fle,gle,kle,ple,stle,tle, andzle, no vowel sound is heard. Terminalcre, however, is pronouncedkẽr. The combination of any of these terminations withingforms but one syllable.
Examples: quibbling, doubling, circling, meddling, huddling, ruffling, shuffling, giggling, struggling, pickling, trickling, coupling, rippling, battling, whittling, whistling, jostling, puzzling, muzzling, massacring.
1. Do not pronounceinglikein; aseve´ninforeve´ning,writ´inforwrit´ing.
Pronounce the following: Speak´ing, read´ing, talk´ing, walk´ing, stop´ping, smok´ing, suppos´ing, expect´ing, cel´ebrating.
2. Do not pronounceowlikeuroruh; ashol´lurorhol´luhforhol´low,shad´urorshad´uhforshad´ow.
Pronounce the following: Bor´row, to-mor´row, nar´row, yel´low, fel´low, wid´ow, pil´low, mel´lowing, swal´lowing.
3. Do not pronounceedlikeidorud; asunit´idorunit´udforunit´ed,provid´idorprovid´udforprovid´ed.
Pronounce the following: Rest´ed, resid´ed, decid´ed, regard´ed, exhib´ited, cel´ebrated, excit´ed, delight´ed, support´ed.
4. Do not pronounceesslikeiss; asgood´nissforgood´ness,bold´nissforbold´ness.
Pronounce the following: Hard´ness, bad´ness, harm´less, care´less, clear´ness, ful´ness, seam´stress, host´ess, em´press.
5. Do not pronounceellikeil, noretlikeit, norestlikeist; ascru´ilforcru´el,bask´itforbask´et,for´istforfor´est.
Pronounce the following: Fu´el, du´el, bush´el, yet, get, mark´et, hatch´et, rock´et, rack´et, riv´ulet, hon´est, bold´est, larg´est, small´est, young´est, strong´est.
6. Do not pronounceentlikeunt, norencelikeunce; assi´luntforsi´lent,sen´tunceforsen´tence.
Pronounce the following: Pru´dent, de´cent, mo´ment, gar´ment, mon´ument, gov´ernment, superintend´ent, par´liament (par´lĭ-ment), pa´tience, expe´rience, superintend´ence.
7. Do not insert the sound of shortubefore a finalm; ashel´umforhelm,chas´umforchasm.
Pronounce the following: Spasm, rhythm, phan´tasm, bap´tism, pa´triotism, elm, film, overwhelm´, worm.
8. Do not give the drawling soundăōōforou(i. e.äōō); ascăōōforcow,hăōōsforhouse.
Pronounce the following: How, now, ground, sound, bound, found, town, gown, pound, confound´, around´, astound´.
9. Do not soundshbeforerlikes; assrubforshrub,srinkforshrink.
Pronounce the following: Shred, shrine, shriek, shroud, shriv´el, shrunk´en.
10. Do not soundwhlikew; aswenforwhen,watforwhat.
Pronounce the following: Where, wheat, wharf, whale, whine, white, whim´per, whis´per, whip´ping, whit´tle.
11. Do not omit to give the sound ofrafter a vowel in the same syllable, as inarm,form, etc., notahm,fawum, etc.
Pronounce the following: Dark, hark, start, chart, are, tar, remark´, course, for, nor, door, floor, lord, hon´or, do´nor, short, support´, report´, pa´per, or´der, horse, purse, warm, alarm´ing, return´ing, reform´ing.
12. Do not add the sound ofrto a final vowel or dipthong; aslawrforlaw,ide´arforide´a.
Pronounce the following: saw, draw, paw, claw, pota´to, toma´to, com´ma, Em´ma.
13. Do not shorten the sound of longoin certain words by leaving off its vanishing elementōō.
Pronounce the following: Boat, bone, broke, choke, cloak, colt, comb, dolt, hole, home, home´ly, hope, jolt, load, on´ly, road, rogue, smoke, spoke, spok´en, stone, throat, toad, whole, wrote, yoke, bolster.
14. Do not omit the sound ofdwhen preceded byn; asstanforstand,frenzforfriends.
Pronounce the following: Stands, bands, wĭnds, wīnds, depends´, defends´, demands´, blind´ness, grand´mother, grand´father, hand´ful.
15. Do not omit the sound ofdin the terminal letterslds; aswīlzforwilds,fēlzforfields.
Pronounce the following: Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds´, child´s.
16. Do not omit the sound oftwhen preceded byc hardin the same syllable; asaksforacts,exak´lyforexact´ly.
Pronounce the following: Facts, tracts, com´pacts, inspects´, respects´, inducts´, instructs´,correct´ly, direct´ly, ab´stractly, per´fectly.
17. Do not omit the sound oftin the terminal letterssts; asfis´sforfists,pes´sforpests.
Pronounce the following: Posts, boasts, coasts, hosts, ghosts, accosts´.
18. Do not improperly suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables; asev´ryforev´er-y,his´tryforhis´to-ry.
Pronounce the following: Belief´, crock´ery, fam´ily, fa´vorite, des´perate, des´olate, nom´inative, mis´ery, li´brary, sal´ary, com´pany, com´fortable, perfum´ery, mem´ory, vic´tory, slip´pery, part´iciple, sev´eral, bois´terous.
19. Do not suppress the sound ofeor ofibeforelornin those words in which it should be articulated; aslev´lforlev´el,civ´lforciv´il,kitch´nforkitch´en,Lat´nforLat´in.
Pronounce the following: Trav´el, nov´el, bar´rel, par´cel, hov´el, chap´el, quar´rel, sor´rel, pen´cil, chick´en, lin´en, sud´den, mit´ten, sat´in.
20. Do not soundeoribeforenorlin those words in which it is properly silent;e´venfore´vn,heav´enforheav´n,ba´sinforba´sn,haz´elforha´zl,e´vilfore´vl.
Pronounce the following: Ha´ven, sev´en, gold´en, o´pen, short´en, wood´en, wak´en, wid´en, fro´zen.
21. Afterr,ch, orshdo not give the sound of longuwhen the simple sound ofoo(long or short) should be heard; asruleforrool,fruit, forfroot.
Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly, crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund.
22. Do not substitute the soundoofor that of longu; astoonfortune,doo´tyfordu´ty.
Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day, du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute.
23. The vowela, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound ofä(as infar) somewhat shortened; ascom´manotcom´mĭnorcommā.
Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na, Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula.
24. Give to the vowelain the unaccented terminal syllablesal,ant,ance, its short sound, but do not make it prominent.
Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal, ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance, in´stance, fra´grance.
25. Do not give to the vowela(as infar), when unaccented and made brief, the sound of shortu; asŭbase´forabase´,ŭrouseforarouse´.
Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´, amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´.
26. Do not give to longe, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of shortu; asŭvent´forevent´,soci´ŭtyforsoci´ety.
Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety, anxi´ety, impi´ety.
27. Do not give to longo, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of shortu; asŭbey´forobey´,prŭpose´forpropose´.
Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´, provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence, disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion.
28. Do not sound shorto, when unaccented, as shortu; asŭbscure´forobscure´,cŭmmit´teeforcommit´tee.
Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´, condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´.
29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent; aspri´ma´ryforpri´mary,ex´act´lyforexact´ly.
Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion, vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated.
30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel too distinctly.
In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For instance,cab´bagein common conversation might becab´bij,pal´ace,pal´ăs, etc.
a. Whenaat the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next syllable bynorr, it has nearly the sound of shorte, as inmis´cel-la-ny,cus´tom-a-ry.
b. In the unaccented final syllableate, of adjectives and nouns, the vowelagenerally has a sound verging toward shorte, as indel´i-cate,con-sum´mate(adj.).
Speak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur.
Correct pronunciation: requires—1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct terminal consonants.
Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell whether you were reading or talking.
Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give expression to your natural feeling.
The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the other words in the sentence.
When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the back row.
Rising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise, prayer.
Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command, authority.
The voice has three pitches:—upper, middle, lower.
The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation, otherwise it is unpleasant.
Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice.
The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday use.
The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances. It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice.
Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and easily remembered.
To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject, we should be silent.
We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years.
Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words.
There are many forms of written English, or composition—from a simple letter to the most elaborate treatise—but all are made up of the same elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential, therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset. Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be summed up in four words:Accuracy,Clearness,StrengthandGrace.
AccuracyandClearnessare requisite in all kinds of writing to insure the faithful presentation of thought.
StrengthandGraceare more especially applicable to the higher branches of prose composition and to poetry.
Grammatical Connections.—No expression can form part of a good composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar. Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of two kinds:
(1) Errors in the use of single words or forms.
(2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses. (SeeRight and Wrong Use of Words.)
Choice and Use of Words.—Good usage—the usage of the best writers and speakers—sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and present usage.
The termBarbarismis applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses against good usage are the following:
1.Obsoletewords, words gone out of use.
2.Provincialisms, words peculiar to some locality.
3.Colloquialisms, words peculiar to familiar conversation.
4.Solecisms, ungrammatical expressions.
5.Archaisms, expressions which would be obsolete except for their occasional use in poetry.
The termImproprietyis used to designate reputable words misapplied.
Slangis a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism or impropriety.
Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear.
Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms.
Foreign and technical terms should be used with care.
Use idioms wherever it is possible.
Coherencedemands that the parts shall be so connected that the thought will be clear and compact.
The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight and rhythm.
A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible.
All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify.
ADangling Element—one that modifies nothing—must be avoided. Example:Looking into the water, a fish was seen.
A “Squinting Construction” is one that is so poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown,when he comes, I will be ready.
Redundancy—A weak repetition of an idea—must be avoided.
Pleonasmconsists in the addition of words which can be omitted without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence.
Tautology, or repeating a thought that has just been stated.
VerbosityorProlixityis the fault in sentence-making caused by using needless words.
Don’t begin a sentence with—and, but, also, so, then, next, however, after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact.
The Paragraph.—AParagraphis a division in composition treating only one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity, massing, and coherence.
Unitydemands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea.
Massingdemands that the important thoughts shall be placed in prominent places.
Coherencedemands that thoughts shall be closely connected.
The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new paragraph is begun with each change of speaker.
The Sentence.—Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic, loose, and balanced.
APeriodicsentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature.
ALoosesentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense; the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression suggests.
ABalancedsentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town.
The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer.