THE PRODUCTIVE CALIFORNIA SALT BEDSThe United States produces one-fourth of the entire output of the world. Salt was one of the first two great articles of international commerce in the history of the world trade.
THE PRODUCTIVE CALIFORNIA SALT BEDS
The United States produces one-fourth of the entire output of the world. Salt was one of the first two great articles of international commerce in the history of the world trade.
AN UNDERGROUND PASSAGE WAY THROUGH SOLID SALTThe most wonderful salt mines in the world are those of Galicia, in Austria. In this region there is a mass of salt estimated to measure 500 miles in length, 20 miles in breadth, and 1,200 feet in thickness.
AN UNDERGROUND PASSAGE WAY THROUGH SOLID SALT
The most wonderful salt mines in the world are those of Galicia, in Austria. In this region there is a mass of salt estimated to measure 500 miles in length, 20 miles in breadth, and 1,200 feet in thickness.
Acanthodus(a-kan-thō´dus).—Fossil fish, having thorn-like fins.
Aërodynamics(ā-ẽr-ō-di-nam´iks).—The science which treats of the air and other gaseous bodies under the action of force, and of their mechanical effects.
Aërognosy(ā-ẽr-ŏg´nô-sy̆).—The science which treats of the properties of the air, and of the part it plays in nature.
Aërolite(ā´ẽr-ô-līt).—A stone, or metallic mass, which has fallen to the earth from distant space; a meteorite; a meteoric stone.
Aërology(ā-ẽr-ŏl´ôjy̆).—That department of physics which treats of the atmosphere.
Aerometer(ā´ẽr-ŏm´ê-tẽr).—An instrument for ascertaining the weight or density of air and gases.
Ammonites(am´mo-nitz).—Fossil mollusks of spiral form, found in all strata from the palæozoic to the chalk; very numerous, varying greatly in size; all now extinct; sometimes called snakestones.
Anemology(ăn-ĕ-mŏl´ô-jy̆).—The science of the wind.
Anemometer(ăn-ĕ-mŏm´ẽ-tẽr).—An instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind; a wind gauge.
Attrition(ăt-trĭsh´ŭn).—The act of rubbing together; friction; the act of wearing by friction, or by rubbing substances together; abrasion.
Aurora(aw-rō´rȧ).—The rising light of the morning; the dawn of day; the redness of the sky just before the sun rises.
Aurora Borealis(bō´rẽ-ā´lĭs), i. e., northern daybreak; popularly called northern lights. A luminous meteoric phenomenon, visible only at night, and supposed to be of electrical origin. This species of light usually appears in streams, ascending toward the zenith from a dusky line or bank, a few degrees above the northern horizon. Occasionally the aurora appears as an arch of light across the heavens from east to west. Sometimes it assumes a wavy appearance. They assume a variety of colors, from a pale red or yellow to a deep red or blood color.
TheAurora Australis(aws-trā´lĭs) is a corresponding phenomenon in the southern hemisphere, the streams of light ascending in the same manner from near the southern horizon.
Barometer(bȧ-rŏm´ẽ-tẽr).—An instrument for determining the weight or pressure of the atmosphere, and hence for judging of the probable changes of weather, or for ascertaining the height of any ascent.
Calamites(kal´a-mītsorkal´a-mī´tēz).—Reed-like plants, found in coal.
Carboniferous(kär´bŏn-ĭf´ẽr-ŭs).—Producing or containing carbon or coal.
Conglomerate(kŏn-glŏm´ẽr-ât).—Pudding stone, composed of gravel and pebbles cemented together.
Corona(kô-rō´nȧ).—A circle, usually colored, seen in peculiar states of the atmosphere around and close to a luminous body as the sun or moon.
Cosmogony(kŏs-mŏg´o-ny̆).—The creation of the world or universe; a theory or account of such creation.
Cosmology(kŏz-mŏl´ô-jy̆).—The science of the world or universe; or a treatise relating to the structure and parts of the system of creation, the elements of bodies, the modifications of material things, the laws of motion, and the order and course of nature.
Crystallography(krĭs´tal-lŏg´rȧ-fy̆).—The science of crystallization, teaching the system of forms among crystals, their structure, and their methods of formation.
Cyclone(sī´klōn).—A violent storm, often of vast extent, characterized by high winds rotating about a calm center of low atmospheric pressure. This center moves onward, often with a velocity of twenty or thirty miles an hour.
Denudation(dĕn´û-dā´shŭnordē´nū-).—The laying bare of rocks by the washing away of the overlying earth, etc.; or the excavation and removal of them by the action of running water.
Deposit.—A body of ore distinct from a ledge; pocket of gravel or pay dirt.
Diplacanthus(dip-lä-kăn´thus).—A fish, belonging to Acanthodii, known only by fossil remains in Old Red Sandstone.
Drifts.—Tunnels leading off from the main shaft, or from other tunnels or levels, through and along the vein.
Drift Matter.—Earth, pebbles and bowlders that have been drifted by water, and deposited over a country while submerged.
Druse(drṳs).—A cavity in a rock, having its interior surface studded with crystals and sometimes filled with water.
Elephas(el´e-fas).—The Latin name for Elephant. The primitive elephant was what is known as the Mammoth.
Fata Morgana(fä´tȧ môr-gä´nȧ).—A kind of mirage by which distant objects appear inverted, distorted, displaced, or multiplied. It is noticed particularly at the Straits of Messina, between Calabria and Sicily, Italy.
Fire-damp.—An explosive carburetted hydrogen of coal mines.
Fissures.—Seams or crevices in rocks formed by volcanic or earthquake action, and when filled subsequently by metal or metallic ores they become fissure veins.
Fog.—Watery vapor condensed in the lower part of the atmosphere and disturbing its transparency. It differs from cloud only in being near the ground, and from mist in not approaching so nearly to fine rain.
Geography(je-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆).—The science which treats of the world and its inhabitants; a description of the earth, or a portion of the earth, including its structure, features, products, political divisions, and the people by whom it is inhabited.
Astronomical, orMathematical Geographytreats of the earth as a planet, of its shape, its size, its lines of latitude and longitude, its zones and the phenomena due to the earth’s diurnal and annual motions.
Physical GeographyorPhysiographytreats of the conformation of the earth’s surface, of the distribution of land and water, of minerals, plants, animals, etc., and applies the principles of physics to the explanation of the diversities of climate, productions, etc.
Political Geographytreats of the different countries into which the earth is divided with regard to political and social institutions and conditions.
Geology(jē-ŏl´o-jy̆).—The science which treats: (a) Of the structure and mineral constitution of the globe; structural geology. (b) Of its history as regards rocks, minerals, rivers, valleys, mountains, climates, life, etc.; historical geology. (c) Of the causes and methods by which its structure, features, changes, and conditions have been produced; dynamical geology.
Goniatites(gō-ni-a-tī´tēz).—Fossil remains of Ammonites, many species of which are found in Devonian and Carboniferous Limestone.
Hail(hāl).—Frozen rain, or particles of ice precipitated from the clouds, where they are formed by the congelation of vapor. The separate particles are called hailstones.
Harmattan(här-măt´tan).—A dry, hot wind, prevailing on the Atlantic coast of Africa, in December, January, and February, blowing from the interior or Sahara. It is usually accompanied by a haze which obscures the sun.
Hoarfrost(hōr´frŏst).—The white particles formed by the congelation of dew; white frost.
Hydrography(hī-drŏg´rȧ-fy̆).—The art of measuring and describing the sea, lakes, rivers, and other waters, with their phenomena.
Hygrometer(hī-grŏm´ê-tẽr).—An instrument for measuring the degree of moisture of the atmosphere.
Ignis fatuus(ĭg´-nĭs făt´ûŭs).—A phosphorescent light that appears, in the night, over marshy grounds, supposed to be occasioned by the decomposition of animal or vegetable substances, or by some inflammable gas,—popularly called also Will-with-the-wisp, or Will-o’-the-wisp, and Jack-with-a-lantern, or Jack-o’-lantern.
Ichthyosaurus(ĭk-thē-ō-saw´rus).—A large marine reptile, known only by fossil vertebræ and other bones, found in oolite rocks.
Labyrinthodon(lab-i-rin´thō-don), or Mastodon. A large animal, belonging to Amphibia, remains of which are found in Upper Trias rocks and strata.
Lepidodendron(lep-i-dō-den´dron).—Coal-plants, belonging to the Lycopods, of which very many remains are found in coal.
Lepidosteus(lep-i-dŏs´te-us).—Bony-pike fish, the fossil remains of which are found in rocks and earth strata.
Lightning(līt´nĭng).—A discharge of atmospheric electricity, accompanied by a vivid flash of light, commonly from one cloud to another, sometimes from a cloud to the earth. The sound produced by the electricity in passing rapidly through the atmosphere constitutes thunder.
Lithology(li-thŏl´ō-jy̆).—The science which treats of rocks, as regards their mineral constitution and classification, and their mode of occurrence in nature.
Lode(lōd).—A metallic vein; a longitudinal fissure or chasm filled with ore-bearing matter and having well-defined side walls; lode, lead, vein and ledge are synonymous; a mineral vein in the rock.
Mastodon(mas´tō-don).—An extinct elephant-like mammal of America, whose teeth have a nipple-like surface.
Metallurgy(mĕt´al-ler-jy̆).—The art of working metals, comprehending the whole process of separating them from other matters in the ore, smelting, refining and parting them; sometimes, in a narrower sense, only the process of extracting metals from their ores.
Meteorology(mĕ-tē-er-ŏl´o-jy̆).—The science which treats of the atmosphere and its phenomena, particularly of its variations of heat and moisture, of its winds, storms, etc.
Min´er-al´o-gy(mĭn-er-ăl´ō-jy).—The science which treats of minerals, and teaches how to describe, distinguish, and classify them.
Mist(mĭst).—Visible watery vapor suspended in the atmosphere, at or near the surface of the earth; fog.
Monsoon(mŏn-sōōn´).—A wind blowing part of the year from one direction, alternating with a wind from the opposite direction—a term applied particularly to periodical winds of the Indian Ocean, which blow from the southwest from the latter part of May to the middle of September, and from the northeast from about the middle of October to the middle of December.
Oceanography(ō´shan-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆).—A description of the ocean.
Oceanology(ō´shan-ŏl´ô-jy̆).—That branch of science which relates to the ocean.
Oreography(ō-rē-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆).—The science of mountains; orography.
Palæotherium(pā-lē-ō-thē´ri-um).—A tapir-like mammal, having canine teeth, known only by fossil remains found in Tertiary rocks.
Pampero(pȧm-pâ´rô).—A violent wind from the west or southwest, which sweeps over the pampas of South America and the adjacent seas, often doing great damage.
Parhelion(pär-hēl´yŭnorhē´lĭ-ŏn).—A mock sun appearing in the form of a bright light, sometimes near the sun, and tinged with colors like the rainbow, and sometimes opposite to the sun. The latter is usually called ananthelion. Often several mock suns appear at the same time.
Petrology(pē-trŏl´ô-jy̆).—The science which is concerned with the mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks, and with their classification; lithology.
Physiography(fiz-e-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆).—The science which treats of the earth’s exterior physical features, climate, life, etc., and of the physical movements or changes on the earth’s surface, as the currents of the atmosphere and ocean, the secular variations in heat, moisture, magnetism, etc.; physical geography.
Plesiosaurus(plē-zi-ō-saw´rus).—An oolithic reptile with crocodile-like head, known by fossil remains, chiefly vertebræ, found in lias and oolitic rocks, named from its fossil remains being found near those of the ichthyosaurus.
Pneumatics(nû-măt´ĭks).—That branch of science which treats of the mechanical properties of air and other elastic fluids, as of their weight, pressure, elasticity, etc.
Pterodactyl(ter-ō-dak´tīl).—Winged lizard: extinct reptile; fossil remains found in Kentish chalk.
Pyroscope(pĭr´ô-skōp).—An instrument for measuring the intensity of heat radiating from a fire, or the cooling influence of bodies. It is a differential thermometer, having one bulb coated with gold or silver leaf.
Rainbow.—A bow or arch exhibiting, in concentric bands, the several colors of the spectrum, and formed in the part of the hemisphere opposite to the sun by the refraction and reflection of the sun’s rays in drops of falling rain. Besides the ordinary bow, called also primary rainbow, which is formed by two refractions and one reflection, there is also another often seen exterior to it, called the secondary rainbow, concentric with the first, and separated from it by a small interval. It is formed by two refractions and two reflections, is much fainter than the primary bow, and has its colors arranged in the reverse order from those of the latter.
Seismology(sīs-mŏl´ô-jy̆).—The science of earthquakes.
Seismometer(sīs-mŏm´e-tẽr).—An instrument for measuring the direction, duration, and force of earthquakes and like concussions.
Simoon(sĭ-mōōn´).—A hot, dry, suffocating, dust-laden wind, that blows occasionally in Arabia, Syria, and the neighboring countries, generated by the extreme heat of the parched deserts or sandy plains.
Sirocco(sĭ-rŏk´kô).—An oppressive, relaxing wind from the Libyan deserts, chiefly experienced in Italy, Malta, and Sicily.
Sivatherium(siv-a-thē´ri-um).—A large four-horned antelope, known by fossil remains found in Pliocene rocks of Hindustan.
Strophomena(strō-fŏm´ĕ-nä).—A genus of shell-like animals similar to the nautilus, found in numerous fossil forms in Lower Silurian and the carboniferous strata.
Tornado(tor-nā´dô).—A violent whirling wind; specifically a tempest distinguished by a rapid whirling and slow progressive motion, usually accompanied with severe thunder, lightning, and torrents of rain, and commonly of short duration and small breadth; a small cyclone.
Typhoon(tï-fōōn´).—A violent whirlwind; specifically, a violent whirlwind occurring in the Chinese seas.
Wind.—Air naturally in motion with any degree of velocity; a current of air.
Zosterites(zos-ter-ī´tez).—Sear-wracks: marine plants, resembling sea-weeds, with small naked flowers, found at the bottom of the sea.
REALMS OF LIFE UPON THE EARTH
CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM:
(1)Cereals, Grasses and Forage Plants
(2)Kitchen Vegetables
(3)The Fruit Trees
(4)Fruit-bearing Shrubs and Plants
(5)Flowers and Other Ornamental Plants
(6)Wild Flowers and Flowerless Plants
(7)Trees of the Forest
(8)Fiber and Commercial Plants
(9)Poisonous Plants
(10)Some Wonders of Plant Life
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY, ILLUSTRATED
WORLD MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE
MAP INDICATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
MAP INDICATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
Large map(400 kB)
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM
Life in the world is represented by theVegetableandAnimalkingdoms. Plants and animals, unlike minerals, grow from germs, and develop into individuals with definite forms and organs. After a limited existence they die, their species being perpetuated by seed or offspring. Thefunctionsof plants and animals in nature are, however, entirely unlike. Plants are rooted in the soil; animals are free to move over the land, through the water or air. The plant, moreover, transforms the lifeless, inorganic elements (earth and air) into organic matter and thus prepares food for the animal. In its quiet, steady growth it gathers a store of force which the animal uses up in action. Thus the distribution of vegetation regulates that of animal life. Besides, vegetation clothes the surface of the land with that rich mantle of verdure and flowers which is its greatest ornament.
All living things are termedorganisms, and the science which takes account of them with special regard to their common characteristics is termedBiology, or Life-lore. The classification and life-history of plants are the objects of that part of biology known asBotany. That part similarly occupied with the study of animals is known asZoology.
Throughout the entire realm of nature, in theanimalworld as well as in thevegetable, the development of life increases in energy, and in the variety and perfection of the types, with the increasing intensity of light and heat, from the poles to the equator.
Within the tropics, under the stimulating rays of a vertical Sun, grow the most dense and varied forests, the most expanded foliage, and the largest and the most brilliant flowers. Here, also, are found the most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the greatest variety of plants capable of affording sustenance to man, and the largest number of those which contribute to the luxuries of civilized life.
In the tropical regions, also, are found the greatest variety of land animals; with the highest types, the greatest stature, the most intense activity, and the keenest intelligence exhibited in the brute creation.
This zone is the home of the gigantic elephant and giraffe; of the lion and the tiger, the most powerful of all the beasts of prey; and of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and ourang-outang, of all animals most resembling men.
Here, also, are the ostrich, the largest and most powerful of birds; the condor, surpassing in size all other birds of flight; and the humming-birds of South America, the smallest of the feathered tribes, unsurpassed in brilliancy of coloring, rapidity of motion, and grace of form.
In the same zone are those enormous reptiles, the crocodile and the boa-constrictor, with the hooded snakes and other serpents of most deadly venom; and insects of all sizes in indescribable profusion.
In the Warm-Temperate Zone, though the Sun never reaches the zenith, yet during the long summer his rays are almost vertical; while the winter is so mild that snow and ice are of rare occurrence.
Here the vegetable world is less prodigal in species, and less luxuriant in growth, than in the tropical regions; still, verdure is continuous throughout the year, and fruits and flowers succeed each other almost without interruption.
The animal world shows a similar, though less marked, decrease in the exuberance of life. The higher orders are less numerous, the individuals less gigantic and powerful; yet the antelopes, among the most graceful of animals, and the camel, one of the most useful, especially characterize this zone.
In the Temperate Zone, farther from the tropics, and receiving the Sun’s rays with greater obliquity, all the forms of vegetable growth are more modest than in the preceding. The forests are less dense and varied, the foliage is less luxuriant, and flowers of brilliant huesare confined to shrubs and herbaceous plants.
Though useful plants are numerous, yet scarce a species is of value in its spontaneous growth; and, above all, the long dormant season, when the trees and shrubs are bare and apparently lifeless, stamps the vegetation of this zone with an aspect of inferiority.
The animal world still shows a large number of noble species; yet there are some orders which, like the plants, are dormant during the winter; while many of the birds migrate to warmer climes. Associated with deciduous forests, boundless fertile prairies, and arid steppes—are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the bison, and many species of elk and deer.
Here is the home of the horse, the ass, and many varieties of oxen, sheep, and goats,—those animals which, domesticated by man, have accompanied him to all climes, adapting themselves to all circumstances. The American turkey, the European pheasant, and the Asiatic parents of many of our domestic fowls, also belong to the temperate zone; together with a multitude of song birds, whose sober plumage, contrasting so gloomily with the brilliant colors of their neighbors of the tropics, is compensated by the sweetness of their notes. Here, also, is the home of the honey-bee, and of the silk-worm, almost the only insects directly useful to man.
In these regions, where the sun is always low, and in winter is above the horizon but a small part of the time, all nature becomes increasingly monotonous. The conifers, with their stiff forms and sombre hues, impart a dreary aspect even to the summer landscape; and, during the long winter, all life seems suspended.
The animal world, however, is more rich and varied than the vegetable.
Here we meet the great moose and the brown bear, the beaver and other rodents, in large numbers; the sable, the mink, the ermine, and a host of other animals whose fine, soft furs form one of the main resources of this inhospitable clime.
In the Arctic Zone—where the forests give place to dwarf trees, stunted or creeping shrubs, mosses, and lichens—the reindeer, the musk-ox, and the white bear are the only representatives of the larger land animals, though the smaller furry tribes are still numerous.
The sea, however, more genial in its temperature than the land, swarms with living creatures of innumerable species, among which are the largest representatives of the animal kingdom. The whale, the walrus, and the seal, inhabit the Arctic seas; with every grade of marine life, down to the animalculæ, which are so numerous as to give their color to great areas of sea-water; and water-fowl, without number, and of many varieties, enlivens the icy shores.
The great divisions of the science of plant life, or botany, are: Structural Botany which treats of the gross anatomy of plants; Plant Histology, of their minute anatomy; Plant Morphology, of the forms of plants and their organs; Plant Physiology, of the functions of these organs; Systematic Botany, of the relationship and classification of plants; Geographical Botany, of the distribution of plants over the surface of the globe; Paleobotany, of the vegetable life of past ages and the successive appearance in the world of the great classes of plants, as traced in their fossil remains; and Economic Botany, which deals with the products of plants and their uses.
It is in the last division of the subject that our greatest practical interest lies, and, consequently, it is best to reverse the general order of treatment pursued by many botanists. Foremost in importance are those plants grown for food, which form the great products ofagriculture,gardeningandhorticulture. Scarcely less important are those which yield fibers used for industrial purposes, such as cotton, flax, jute and hemp; nor must we forget those producing vegetable oils, rubber, and the large number of drugs so valuable to the science of medicine in the alleviation of suffering.
(Seepage 176for scientific classification of the Vegetable or Plant Kingdom.)
AN AUTUMN HARVEST OF BEAUTY AND PLENTY
AN AUTUMN HARVEST OF BEAUTY AND PLENTY
Among all the plants in the world, the first place must be given to the food-producing cereals upon which our very existence depends. The most important among these are undoubtedly wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, Indian corn or maize, millets, sorghum and others less widely used. More than one-half the whole population of the world subsists to a great extent on rice, and the vital importance of wheat needs no demonstration. For our present purposes the use of the word “cereal” is extended to include buckwheat and other starch-yielding plants, but these are not true cereals.
The cereals are members of a great family of the grasses which have been cultivated by man from time immemorial. Originally, no doubt, they were wild plants which attracted attention owing to the comparatively large quantities of foodstuffs they yielded, the ease with which they could be collected, and their edible qualities. Now, in the majority of cases, the original wild forms are no longer known, and as is common with plants cultivated in many lands and during long periods, innumerable species and varieties have been evolved as the result of selection by man of the forms which appeared desirable for one or other of their qualities.
Their very name—cereals or cerealia—indicates the great value attached to them in early historic times. These are so named after the goddess Ceres, as the Romans called her—Demeter of the Greeks—the patroness of agriculture and all the fruits of the earth.
In the temperate regions of the world wheat is the principal cereal grown, and there are many different varieties suited to varying conditions. As we go farther north, barley, oats and rye increase in importance, and although they are grown for special purposes along with wheat, it is important to note that they willthrive in countries and under conditions not suited to wheat. Starting again from the temperate zones and traveling north or south, as the case may be, we enter the warmer countries where wheat cultivation is often associated with that of rice, corn, sorghum, etc. In the tropics, however, wheat will not thrive at low elevations, but rice, corn, sorghum and various millets form the great cereal crops, their relative importance varying in different countries.
The grasses proper grow upon our meadows, pastures, fields and in the woods and are only used as food for cattle.
The roots of most kinds of grasses are persistent; the stems are hollow and knotty, and the leaves consist of sheaths and discs. Their flowers are arranged either in spikes or panicles, and are essentially the same in form as those of the herbs. In the interior there is an ovary, from which project two pistils with feathery styles. Close to the ovary are three stamens, with very long filaments and large anthers. These internal organs are generally surrounded by two tender bracts called thepaleæ, and two harder outer bracts forming theglumes. In the grasses also self-fertilization does not take place, the wind here taking the place of the insects. Consequently the anthers are suspended from long filaments, and contain a quantity of pollen. As the grasses do not need to attract insects, their flowers are small with little color, and have no scent; nor do they secrete honey. The fruit is enclosed in a husk.
Alfalfa(Medicago sativa) is a cultivated hay and pasture plant, yielding per annum, without reseeding, three to six or more cuttings of hay, averaging a ton each and often much more, for an indefinite period. It is the richest forage plant known, and while old in history is comparatively new to the agriculture of North America.
Alfalfa thrives on all soils except those too wet or having too much acidity. The former calls for drainage and the latter demands lime. Besides its abundance of rich forage, the leaves of which approximate the value of wheat bran in animal rations, it is highly prized as a soil improver, as it restores and enriches the land in which it grows, and improves extraordinarily the physical character of the soil. Its roots reaching to great depths, make it drought-resistant; they also gather much nitrogen from the air, and it yields assuredly whether the season be wet or dry. It has been demonstrated the greatest fertilizing and soil renovating plant known to agriculture.
For hay it is cut whenever the first blossoms appear or when sprouts for a new growth from the root crowns are discovered, which in some regions is every month in the year. It is relished by all live stock, and is particularly valuable in dairy husbandry, affording at lowest cost important ingredients of the well balanced feeding ration. As pasturage it is excellent for hogs and horses, but ruminants, such as cattle and sheep are not safely grazed upon it, owing to its liability to cause bloat, which if not promptly treated may bring speedy death.
Alfalfa requires a carefully prepared seedbed, with a thoroughly fine, smooth surface, as the seeds are small. From fifteen to twenty pounds of seed per acre are generally sown, although often much more, or less, either with drills or broadcast, preferably in early fall and without a nurse crop. Where the winters are long or severe from two to ten tons of hay per acre in a season, and from two to seven bushels of seed.
Blue-Grass(Poa pratensis), frequently designated Kentucky Blue Grass, is a perennial, and the most highly prized pasture grass, but is not a profitable hay plant. Its growth has a wider range than timothy. It is sown in autumn or spring, the former being preferable, as it can endure cold better than heat, and thrives rather best when partially shaded. One approved way is to sow the seed on snow, where the ground is free from weeds. It is broadcasted at the rate of about one bushel of seed in the chaff to the acre. Blue-grass is an extremely aggressive and persistent plant voluntarily spreading among and displacing others where it has not been sown. Its taking possession of and thriving on land that has not been cultivated is not uncommon. The seed weighs fourteen pounds to the bushel.
English Blue-Grassor Meadow Fescue (Fescuta elatior) is a valuable and hardy grass either for mowing or pasture. It thrives on soils not too dry, and being long lived, is especially valuable for permanent pastures. It is sown either in the spring or fall, by drilling or broadcasting from one to three pecks per acre if for seed, and three pecks to an acre if for pasture. It is harvested and handled much the same as wheat. Kansas produces nearly seventy-five per cent of the seed raised in America and ninety per cent of the total for the United States is exported, Germany being the largest taker. This grass is very nutritious and grazing animals are fond of it. A bushel of seed weighs twenty-two pounds, and the yield of seed per acre is from five to fifteen bushels.
Brome-grass(Bromus inermis) is a vigorous, hardy perennial pasture and hay plant, with strong, creeping rootstocks, and is valuable for dry regions. It is not adapted to a rotation, as its sod becomes too matted and tough for comfortable cultivation. Owing to this tendency, after three or four years of hay cropping its better use is for pasture. It yields luxuriantly, is rich in flesh-forming elements, and much relished by farm animals. It is sown broadcast, in spring or fall, eighteen to twenty pounds of seed to the acre. The seed is chaffy and weighs but fourteen pounds per bushel.
Barleyis grown chiefly in the states of Minnesota, California, Wisconsin, North and South Dakota, in the order named, these states raising seventy-five per cent of the output grown in the United States. It is used as food for live stock, and as an article of commerce is in demand principally for the making of malt in brewing beer, but in California and other western states, where Indian corn does not flourish, barley is used as a substitute grain for horses and mules. About two bushels to the acre are sown in the spring, with[125]a drill or a broadcast seeder. It is admirably adapted as a nurse crop, as it stands up well and does not shade the ground so much as many other plants.
Barley for malting should be cut before fully ripe and put in well-capped shocks to cure; the price paid is largely governed by the color acquired in curing, which should be bright. A bushel weighs forty-eight pounds, and the yield is from twenty-five to forty bushels per acre.
Buckwheat(Fagopyrum esculentum) is a grain of minor importance, its flour being used as human food, mostly in the form of griddle cakes. The plant is esteemed for plowing under in summer, to supply humus, and its blossoms for the honey bee. Most of it is grown in New York and Pennsylvania, and it does well in soils too poor for most other crops. It is sensitive to frost, and used as a sort of catch crop, sown generally about the beginning of July, broadcast. Forty bushels, weighing forty-eight pounds per bushel, is a maximum yield.
Clover(Trifolium pratense). In the states east of the Missouri riverred cloveris highly esteemed. It has much the same qualities as alfalfa, except it is a biennial, enduring but two years without re-seeding and at best gives two cuttings of hay per year, aggregating two to three tons. It is from the second cutting that seed is usually saved. Four quarts of seed is a common quantity to sow per acre. Red clover makes excellent hay, except for horses. Its seed, like that of alfalfa, weighs sixty pounds per bushel, and its yield is from one to five bushels per acre.
White Clover(Trifolium repens) is a very useful pasture and honey plant, but is not used for hay. It spreads rapidly, and is widely used for sowing with other pasture grasses.
Alsike Clover(Trifolium hybridum) is largely sown on lands not well adapted to red clover, where land is either too wet or too dry for the latter, and it does not require so sweet a soil.