Turkey.—SeeDomesticated Animals.
Quail.—SeePartridgesandBobwhite.
The reptiles are vertebrates which are supplied with a horny or bony skin; they have red, cold blood, breathe by means of lungs, and generally lay eggs; many of them have no feet. When limbs are present, however, they do not raise the body far off the ground, for the elbows and knees are turned outward. Some reptiles pass the winter in sleep.
These animals have a wide body, which is enclosed between the arched shell of the back and the flat shell of the stomach. There are land, sea, and river tortoises. In some the head and legs can be retracted inside the shell. Over the outside of the case are horny plates which, in the hawkbill turtle are of value, as they afford the tortoise shell used for combs, etc. Turtles never have teeth, the edges of the jaws being covered with horny material. Most of the species are carnivorous. The largest species are the marine leather-backs of the tropics, which occasionally drift north to New England, and the giant species occurring on the Galapagos Islands, off the west coast of South America, and on some islands in the Indian Ocean.
Land Tortoiseshave a high arched shell under which the head and feet can be retracted. The feet have separate toes, and are adapted for walking. They are strictly herbivorous. Examples of this family are the large and strong Gopher-tortoises of the Carolinas, which burrow in the earth, the massive Amazon Tortoise, used for food by the natives, the Galapagos Tortoise, and the small Garden Tortoise.
Mud Tortoise(Emys lutaria) is frequently seen in Italy and the south of France. It inhabits lakes and slow-flowing waters, and feeds upon[221]small fish, spawn, frogs, water insects, etc. It lays its eggs in a hole, which it digs in the bank. Its flesh is edible. Small specimens are frequently kept in aquariums, and fed with meat, bread, lettuce leaves, etc.
Sea Turtleshave flat shells between which the flipper-like feet and huge head cannot be retracted. There are no nails or separate toes, and the fore feet are much the larger. The Green Turtle (Chelone midas) is much esteemed as food, with its eggs. It lives in or near the Gulf Stream, feeds on the roots of eelgrass, comes ashore at night, during May, and lays nearly one hundred eggs, which hatch in six weeks; the laying is usually repeated several times every two weeks, near the first nest. This Turtle may attain a weight of over eight hundred pounds. The Logger-head Turtle, so-called from its huge head and neck, ranges from Brazil to Massachusetts, attains a weight half that of the Green Turtle, and feeds on fish, crustacea, conchs, etc.
The Hawk’s Bill (Eretmochelys) has pointed plates that supply the “tortoise shell” of commerce. A large specimen may yield as much as eight pounds of the “shell.” The beautiful mottled color and semi-transparent characters of this material are well known. Its manufacture is carried on in the East, a fine tortoise-shell being exported from Celebes to China.
Snapping Turtleis a large voracious turtle, common in North America along stagnant waters and along the southern Mississippi where it sometimes reaches the weight of thirty pounds. It lives on fishes, frogs, and shells, and occasionally water-fowl. It has great strength of jaw and snaps when it bites. When fattened, its flesh is often esteemed as a delicacy. It is sometimes known as the Alligator-terrapin or Alligator Turtle.
Terrapinis the popular name of many species of fresh-water and tidal-water tortoises, native to tropical and the warmer temperate countries. About twenty fresh-water species are found in the United States. But the terrapinpar excellenceis the Diamond-back Salt-water Terrapin, highly prized as a delicacy for the table. It is caught in salt marshes along the coast from New England to Texas, the finest being those of the Massachusetts and the northern coasts.
Crocodiles are cruel, but in one way they serve us, by eating the dead bodies of animals which float down the rivers. But for the crocodiles these bodies might poison the water. Here we see the crocodile and the little bird called the ziczac, which picks the food from between the crocodile’s teeth.
Crocodiles are cruel, but in one way they serve us, by eating the dead bodies of animals which float down the rivers. But for the crocodiles these bodies might poison the water. Here we see the crocodile and the little bird called the ziczac, which picks the food from between the crocodile’s teeth.
These inhabitants of the rivers and estuaries of tropical regions are somewhat lizard-like in appearance, but in structure they are in many ways much more specialized. They have a scaly, tough skin on the back, four powerful feet, and a long tail. They live chiefly in the water, and only go to the banks to bask in the sun. The jaws are armed with powerful interlocking teeth, which constitute a deadly trap. The valvular nostrils are so situated that the animal can drift along with most of its body submerged, and at the same time breathe quite easily.
Alligator(Alligator mississippiensis) is found in the southern states of North America. It is as voracious as it is bloodthirsty. Should it perceive an unfortunate mammal drinking or browsing on the edge of the bank, it sinks below the surface, and rapidly swims toward the victim by strokes of its powerful, flattened tail. Then comes a sudden snap, aided, perhaps, by a lash of the tail; should the attempt prove successful, the prey is held under water till it is drowned, if too large to be forthwith swallowed. No bullet will pierce the hide on its back. It deposits its eggs in a kind of nest, which it builds with grass and mud on the banks, and defends with great fierceness. It deposits about one hundred eggs in this nest. The alligator is captured in various ways, but there is danger in hunting it.
Crocodile(Procœlia) is found in both hemispheres, but especially in Africa; they swarm on the Upper Nile. The crocodile of the Nile is a well-known species, not now found farther north than Thebes, but occurring abundantly farther south and east. Some two or three score of eggs, with delicate, rough, limy shells, about the size of those of geese, are laid in sandy cavities in the bank. The crocodile is now hunted for the perfume of its musk-glands, and also for its skin and fat.
The alligators have a covering of horny plates, and terrible jaws and teeth. These teeth are frequently renewed, new ones forming in place of those worn out. Alligators are, in this respect, more fortunate than human beings. In America alligators are protected part of the year, because they kill things which damage the crops.
The alligators have a covering of horny plates, and terrible jaws and teeth. These teeth are frequently renewed, new ones forming in place of those worn out. Alligators are, in this respect, more fortunate than human beings. In America alligators are protected part of the year, because they kill things which damage the crops.
These may perhaps be described as the most average of existing reptiles, and have a very wide distribution. Examination of a lizard or its skeleton enables us to grasp very clearly some of the average characters of reptiles, such as the sprawling limbs and long tail. Some of the tropical lizards are of very considerable size, attaining a length of as much as six feet, as in[222]the iguanas of America, some of which are esteemed as food. These are among the climbing members of the order, other examples being the geckoes and chameleons, both of which are animals of small size.
Chameleonsare proverbial for the way in which they rapidly change color if placed among fresh surroundings, so as to harmonize with them. This variable general coloration is protective, because it makes the chameleon invisible to its foes, and also aggressive, as the insect prey of the little lizard are thereby lulled into a sense of false security. The digits are bound together into two groups, and a tongs-like grasping organ of great efficiency is thus constituted. The chameleon is also notable for the relatively enormous distance to which it can suddenly shoot out its sticky club-shaped tongue, for the purpose of seizing insects or other small creatures.
Flying Dragon(Draco volans) is found on trees in the island of Java. It generally frequents the trees along the banks of great rivers, in the leaves of which are numerous insects, upon which the flying dragon feeds. As it is as green as the leaves of the trees, it can only be recognized by an experienced eye. It is hunted for its delicate flesh, and also for the eggs, which are found deposited, often fifteen to twenty at a time, in a hollow in the ground.
Gecko(Hemidadylus maculatus) is a native of the East Indies and China. At dawn these reptiles creep out of their holes, and with dilated eyes look around for prey. As soon as they catch sight of it, the clumsy creatures spring upon it from a distance of four to six inches, with all the violence and rapidity of an animal of prey. Sucking pads on the feet of the gecko enable it to cling firmly to the most slippery surface, and to crawl about without slipping; its claws, which are sharp and retractile, are also useful to this reptile.
Iguana(Iguana tuberculata) is found in the East Indies and in South America. It lives in trees along the banks of rivers, feeding upon the insects. Its usual color is dark olive green. Its flesh is considered a delicacy, being tender and very much like that of a chicken. The eggs, of which the female deposits from four to six dozen at a time, are also eaten.
have elongated bodies, covered with plates or scales, and no feet. Many kinds have no poisonous fangs in the upper jaw. Serpents reproduce their species from eggs, and feed upon living animals; those found in colder regions sleep through the winter.
The vertebrae are very numerous. With the exception of the most anterior (atlas), all bear ribs, which are very freely movable and are the snake’s main organs of locomotion. Snakes are capable of moving with great swiftness. The body undulates from side to side—not up and down—in a wriggling or writhing fashion. The extremely flexible backbone permits of this, but to guard against dislocation the vertebrae are connected by extra locking-joints, which only permit a certain amount of play. It is, however, comparatively easy to break the back of a snake by a sharp blow with a stick or whip.
Snakes are typically carnivorous, and many of them are furnished with powerful poison fangs. The tongue is forked, can be rapidly protruded and retracted, and is an efficient sense organ. Upon it and the well-developed nostrils the snakes largely depend, for neither sight nor hearing is very acute. There are no eyelids, the eyes being covered over by a transparent convex scale. The whole skin is covered with scales, which are folds of the epidermis, continuous with one another. In consequence, when the snake casts its coat—which occurs several times in the year—it casts it in one piece, this being a complete replica of the snake.
The heart is four-chambered, as in mammals and birds, and not three-chambered, as in other reptiles and amphibia. The pure and impure blood do not, therefore, mix inside the heart; but as such blending takes place outside, owing to imperfect separation of the great vessels, the net result is much the same as in the lizards.
In venomous serpents some of the glands opening into the mouth secrete a poisonous fluid, which is introduced into the blood of a bitten victim. The largest amount of specialization is found among the vipers, where the teeth are reduced to a pair of hollow “fangs” in the front of the upper jaw, and there are two large poison-glands, one on either side of the head, giving it a characteristic resemblance to the ace of spades. In a state of rest, when the mouth is shut, the poison-fangs are pressed against the roof of the mouth, with their tips directed backwards. But when the snake opens its mouth and “strikes,” the fangs are rotated forward so that their sharp tips can be brought into action. The poison flows into the upper end of the tooth-canal and, in vipers, enters the wound by a small hole on the side of the tip. Were it at the end a blockage might result. We have, in fact, an anticipation of the device used in the construction of the needles employed with hypodermic syringe.
Snakes, like lizards, are very commonly colored in such a way that they may harmonize with their surroundings. A good many poisonous forms, on the other hand, advertise their dangerous properties by brilliant hues and striking patterns. Such “warning coloration” is seen, for example, in the coral snakes of tropical America, which are marked with broad red rings, alternating with others of whitish tint, shading into black at the front and back of each ring. These coral snakes serve as models which certain harmless forms unconsciously mimic, thus securing a certain amount of immunity from attack by sailing under false colors.
In the American rattlesnakes, at each periodical casting of the skin or slough, a little knob remains at the end of the tail. A series of these loosely united together make up the “rattle,” used for the production of warning sounds. The “hissing” of a snake has the same purpose. Venomous snakes also commonly assume a warning attitude, raising the front part of the body from the ground and, in some cases, as illustrated by the cobra, inflating a kind of hood—in this particular instance bringing a black, spectacle-shaped mark into prominence.
But in these and other animals it must not be supposed that the “warning” is for the benefit of the prey, but may be taken as a hint to aggressive birds and mammals that discretion is the better part of valor. The success of this device is shown by the terror with which all monkeys regard serpents.
This art has been practised from very ancient times in Africa and the East, and often remains from generation to generation the profession of a family. It is sometimes practised for alleged useful purposes, since the “charmers” are often employed to clear a house of its unwelcome snake visitors. For the most part, however, it is, like conjuring, a form of popular amusement. In India it is practised by several distinct classes of men, who vary in the methods and success of their art. The charmers usually take good care to play with snakes whose fangs or even poison-glands have been carefully removed, or even to use those which are not venomous at all. The frequent use of a musical pipe, and the way in which the snakes seem to respond to the sounds, are facts interesting to naturalists, who believe that at least many snakes are very deaf. The charmers sometimes manifest a fearlessly confident dexterity in handling intact venomous snakes.
In correlation with the presence of a well-developed brain, snakes may be regarded as the most intelligent of reptiles, though the idea of their “wisdom” probably took origin in their stealthy ways, and the curious “fascinating” powers already mentioned. They are among the numerous animals that have been the objects of superstitious worship.
The group of North American snakes include a large number of Colubrine snakes and about a score of pit-vipers or rattlesnakes. Among the Colubrine forms are the water-snakes, the black snakes and coachwhip snakes of the genus Coluber, the pine-snakes, the king-snakes, the ring-necked snakes and so on. Besides the rattlesnakes proper, there are the related copperheads and mocassins. Outside these two families there are the boa-like and venomous coral-snakes, and the harlequin snake.
There are no snakes in Ireland, nor are they represented in most oceanic islands such as New Zealand and Iceland. The pythons and boas are distinctly tropical snakes: the pythons in Africa, India, Malaya, Australia; the boas in tropical America. Among the most important venomous snakes of India are the following: the cobra, the Hamadryas, the Krait, the Sankni, and the sea-snakes.
The amphibians hold a middle position between the reptiles and fishes. The name, Amphibia, means “double-lifed” or living on both land and water. The larvæ, after leaving the eggs, live in the water like fishes; they gradually accustom themselves to live in the air, and when their metamorphosis is complete they breathe by means of lungs.
They have red, cold blood, and are enveloped in a smooth, often slippery, skin. Some have tails, like the newt and salamander, and others are tailless, like the frog and toad.
Frog(Rana temporaria) is familiar all over America, and is found in the early spring in all our ponds, ditches, and lakes, in which also large quantities of frog’s eggs can be seen. When fully developed, frogs have a short, tailless body, a large head, and four legs, the toes being frequently joined together by a membrane.
They deposit their eggs (a) in the water, either in masses or in strings. The larvæ (called tadpoles) have a long, flattened tail (c); they have no legs, and breathe through gills (b), and are therefore very different from the fully developed frog. The gills gradually disappear, and lungs are developed; the fore legs make their appearance, the hind pair developing first (dande); the tail gradually diminishes, and finally disappears (f). The change, is then complete, and the young frog leaves the water to begin its life upon land. The common frog leaves the water immediately after spawning, and makes itself very useful by destroying numerous injurious insects and snails.
In this country the commoner species of frogs embrace theBull Frog(R. catesbiana), which is the largest, sometimes being eight inches long. Its sonorous bass notes are familiar to the ear, and to the eye it presents a greenish appearance, brightest on the head; with faint spots on the back and blotches on the legs. It occurs from Kansas eastwards, and its hind-legs fried are considered a delicacy.
TheSpring Frog(R. clamatans) is widespread, about three inches in length, green and black spotted above and white below.
The commonGreen Frog(R. virescens) has irregular black blotches, and is paler beneath. Both average about three inches in length.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG—FROM THE EGG TO THE FULL-GROWN ANIMAL(SeePage 223).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG—FROM THE EGG TO THE FULL-GROWN ANIMAL(SeePage 223).
ThePickerel Frog(R. palustris) is light brown in color, with two rows of large oblong blotches of dark brown on the back and spots elsewhere. It is smaller in size and less aquatic than most other kinds.
TheWood-FrogorTree-Frog(R. sylvatica) is more closely related in structure to the toads than to the frogs proper. The tree-frogs show various interesting adaptations to their arboreal life. The last joint of each toe bears a claw, on which is supported a disc or sucker by means of which the animals can cling to a perfectly perpendicular surface. Most of them also exhibit in a greater or less degree the power of color-change, where the color varies from a dark brown to a lichen-like gray or a brilliant green.
Newtsare separated from the lizards on account of their changes while young. Like the frogs, they are first tadpoles, and do not assume their perfect shape until six weeks after their exclusion from the eggs. The common Newt is a beautiful inhabitant of the ponds, ditches, and still waters.
The male newt is distinguished by a beautiful crimson tipped wavy crest of loose skin, that extends along the whole course of the back and tail, and which, together with the rich orange-colored belly, makes it a most beautiful creature. The female has a singular habit of laying her eggs upon long leaves of water-plants, and actually tying them in the leaf by a regular knot.
Salamander(Salamandra maculata) is a nocturnal animal, and found in woods and hedges under decayed leaves and similar matter. Their bodies are longer and similar to the lizard. Most of the species lay eggs, usually in the water. From these the gilled young hatch out. They are carnivorous or insectivorous. In the adult stage, some are aquatic, but more live on the earth burrowing beneath the soil or under stones, seeking their prey at night. None are poisonous, except that they have glands in the skin which secrete an acrid juice. Our largest species is the mud puppy (Necturus) of the Mississippi basin; the largest living species is the giant salamander of Japan, three feet in length.
Toad(Bufo).—Toads are distinguished from frogs by the absence of teeth, by the roughness of the skin, by peculiarities in the breastbone, and by the shorter hind-legs.
The common toad is a shy, nocturnal animal, hiding during the day in dark, damp places, crawling about at night in search of insects, grubs, slugs, worms, and the like. Its appearance is familiar—a dirty brownish-gray color, a warty skin, a flat head, swollen parotid glands above the ears, bright jewel-like eyes with a transverse pupil, slightly webbed toes. They are heavier and clumsier than frogs, and cannot leap nearly so far. During the winter they live in the mud or in holes. In spring they pair, and the females lay in the water-pools their numerous eggs in strings about three or four feet in length. The tadpoles are smaller and darker than those of frogs, and do not accomplish their transformation into toads until autumn.
Toads are widely distributed over most parts of the continents, but are most abundant in tropical regions. The common toad of North America ranges everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. In the Southern States another very similar species is numerous, and other species are found in the West. The largest toad of tropical America measures eight inches in length.
TheLaughing Toad(Bombinator igneus) is the smallest of the toads, with a yellow spotted belly.
THE ARCHER FISHis one of the strangest of all fishes in its habits. It shoots down flies and other small creatures from the bank by means of a series of well-aimed “bullets” of water, which it ejects in rapid succession.
THE ARCHER FISH
is one of the strangest of all fishes in its habits. It shoots down flies and other small creatures from the bank by means of a series of well-aimed “bullets” of water, which it ejects in rapid succession.
The fishes are the last class of the vertebrated animals, and have cold, red blood. The elongated body generally tapers off to the tail; the head and neck are large; the limbs are called fins, and are such as to make efficient paddles. They are usually one or more fins in the middle line of the back and one or two in a corresponding position beneath the tail (anal fins); while the tip of the tail is terminated by a caudal fin, the chief organ of swimming. All of the fins are supported by a skeleton of rays, either horny or spinous in character.
There are but two chambers to the heart, and the occurrence of a swim bladder, an organ for regulating or recognition of the depth of the water in which the fish is, is very frequent. Externally fish have a defensive armor of scales or bony plates embedded in the skin. They breathe throughout life by means of gills, which are delicate folds or filaments connected with openings (gill slits) in the sides of the throat. The fishes live in water, and reproduce their species by eggs.
There are several great groups of fishes, distinguished by the presence of a cartilage or bony skeleton, by having the gill slits free or under a gill cover, by characteristics of the skull, presence or absence of air bladder, and by peculiarities of the digestive tract and nervous system.
(1) The bony, or true fishes (Teleostei), which include all the most familiar freshwater and marine forms; (2) the Cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchii), including sharks, dog-fish, bays and skates; (3) the heavily-armored fishes (Ganoidei), like the sturgeons and bony pike; and (4) the double-breathers (Dipnoi), of rare occurrence.
These have a bony skeleton, and a well-defined vertebra, or backbone; their bodies are mostly covered with scales.
Alewife(Alosa tyrannus), a fish of the same genus with the Shad, which, at the beginning of summer, appears in great numbers on the east coast of North America, and enters the rivers to spawn. It appears in Chesapeake Bay in March, on the coasts of New York and New England in April, and on those of the British provinces about May 1. It abounds in the bay of Fundy, but is more rare in the gulf of St. Lawrence; and the bay of Miramichi appears to be its northern limit. Its length is not more than twelve inches. The alewife is called spring herring in some places, and gaspereau by the French Canadians.
Bass(Labrax) is a member of the perch family. The shape is salmon-like. The color is without the zebra-like bars of the perch, and shades off from dusky blue above to silvery white beneath.
The Striped Bass or Rock-fish of the United States (L. lineatus) very nearly resembles the common bass, but attains a larger size. It is one of the most important of American food fishes, and sometimes weighs fifty pounds. It is caught from July to September. The name Stone Bass is given to various forms. A Yellow Bass is found in the Lower Mississippi valley, and the Fresh-water Bass is an imported fish found in the streams of eastern New York and the other middle states.
Bluefish(Temnodon or Pomatomus saltator).—A fish common on the eastern coasts of America, allied to the mackerel. The only known species is abundant on the east coast of North America. The upper parts are of a bluish color, the lower parts whitish, a large black spot at the base of the pectoral fins. The mouth is crowded with teeth, the jaws are furnished with large ones. The bluefish preys on other fishes, such as the menhaden and mackerel, the shoals of which it pursues. It sometimes attains a length of three, or even five feet, and a weight of fourteen pounds. It is often caught by trolling, as it bites readily at an object drawn swiftly through the water. It is much esteemed for the table.
Bullhead.—In the United States the name is given to some species of catfish or horned pout; in England to a smaller fish, allied to our miller’s thumb, but belonging to a different group from the catfish.
Carp.Seepage 256.
Cod(Gadus), a genus of bony fishes in the soft-rayed order. This is probably the most important food fish and is taken in enormous numbers on the coasts of Europe and of eastern North America. It occurs in the northern Pacific as well. It feeds upon other fishes as well as on shellfish, and large specimens weigh over one hundred pounds. Allied to the cod are the haddock, pollack, hake and cusk.
Eel(Anguilla vulgaris) has elongated form, and has become proverbial on account of its slipperiness and tenacity of life. In the rivers and lakes only female fish are found; the males keep to the open sea. The former go down to the sea in the autumn; but in the following spring the young female fish swim up the rivers in immense numbers, while the young males remain in the sea. During the day the eel conceals itself in the mud, but at night it exhibits its voracious qualities by swallowing numerous fish, water insects, crabs, mussels, and worms. Its firm, delicate flesh is much esteemed.
Flounder(Pleuronectes flesus), a common species of flat-fish, of wide distribution in shallow waters in north temperate countries. It is the Scotch “fluke,” and the Swedish “flundra,” and differs but a little from the plaice and dab, two of the commonest neighbor-species. Like other flat-fishes, the flounder is asymmetrical, and swims or rests on one side, almost always the left, the eye of which is in early youth, brought round to the upturned surface. It measures about one foot in length, and about a third as much between the dorsal and the ventral edge, without including the fringing fins.
Of the two dozen related species, the plaice, the dab, the smear-dab, and the craig-fluke are the commonest.
Flying-fish.—Various fishes which have the power of sustaining themselves for a time in the air by means of their large pectoral fins. Generally, however, the name is limited to the species of the genusExocoetus, which belongs to the family of mackerel-pikes. These can pass through the air to a considerable distance, sometimes as much as two hundred yards, to escape from the attacks of other fishes, especially the dolphin. They are most common between the tropics.
Goldfish.Seepage 256.
Haddock(Gadus æglefinus) is a fish of the same genus as the cod, and much resembling it in general appearance; but distinguished by a notched tail and a white line along the side. In habits the two are much alike, being voracious, eating anything edible, but largely clams and the like.
Halibut(Hippoglossus vulgaris), the largest of all the flat-fish and in form more elongated than the flounder or the turbot. The halibut, though esteemed for the table, is not to be compared in quality with the turbot; its flesh is white and firm, dry and of little flavor. It attains a great size; specimens have been caught weighing at least five hundred pounds, and one caught in Iceland was little short of twenty feet long.
Herring(Clupea harengus) belongs to the order of bony fishes and is spread over the whole North Atlantic. It is of great economic importance, and occurs in large schools, swimming through the sea with open mouths, scooping up the minute life for food. Immense numbers are taken both here and abroad, the annual catch for Europe and America being estimated at a billion and a half pounds. The young are also taken in vast quantities and are preserved as American sardines. With us most of the adults are smoked and dried.
Mackerel(Scomber), a genus of fishes which also includes the tunny, bonito, and sucking fishes. It is an important food fish occurring in the North Atlantic and characterized by its slender shape, the series of little finlets on the tail and the deeply notched caudal or tail fin. It is taken both by hooks and by seines. Some are eaten in the fresh condition and some are salted. It goes in large schools. Allied is the Spanish mackerel of our southern waters and the large horse mackerel which is more common in the Mediterranean, where it is called the tunny.
Perch(Perca).—Spiny-finned fishes, well represented by the Fresh-water Perch (P. fluviatilis), which is widely distributed in lakes, ponds, and rivers in Europe, Northern Asia, North America and Britain. It is of a greenish-brown color above and golden yellow on the under parts, with six or seven indistinct dark bands on the back. In length it measures about eighteen inches, and its height is about a third of this. It sometimes weighs from three to five pounds, and a prize of nine pounds has been recorded.
Porgy.—A food fish on the eastern coast from Cape Cod south, known also as scup. It should not be confounded with the pogy or[227]menhaden, one of the herrings, which is taken extensively for oil.
Pollack(Gadus pollachius), a fish, belonging to the cod genus. It is about the size of the coal-fish, is active in habit, and is frequently caught. The lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and there is no barbel. It has commercial value in the English Channel and off the coasts of Newfoundland. Allied species, which promise a valuable future, abound from Puget Sound to Alaska on the Pacific coast.
Salmon(Salmo), a genus of well-known fish which inhabits both salt and fresh waters, and ranks among the food-fishes. It generally attains a length of from three to four feet, and an average weight of from twelve to thirty pounds, but these limits are frequently exceeded. The adult fish is a steel-blue on the back and head, becoming lighter on the sides and belly.
It usually continues in the shallows of its native stream for two years after hatching, and during this period it attains a length of eight inches. When the season of its migration arrives, the fins have become darker and the fish has assumed a silvery hue. It is now known as asmoltorsalmon fry. The smolts now congregate into shoals and proceed seaward. On reaching the estuary they remain in its brakish water for a short time and then make for the open sea. Leaving its native river as a fish weighing, it may be, not more than two ounces, the smolt, after three months’ absence, may return to fresh water as agrilse, weighing four or five pounds. In the grilse stage, the fish is capable of depositing eggs. After spawning in the fresh water the grilse again seeks the sea in the autumn, and when its second stay in the ocean is over it returns after a few months’ absence as the adult salmon, weighing from eight to ten pounds. The salmon returns as a rule to the river in which it passed its earlier existence. The fertility of the fish is enormous.
Salmon are caught by the rod, and by means of nets, the fishings being regulated by law. There are important fisheries in some European and North American rivers. In Europe the fish is found between the latitudes of forty-five and seventy-five degrees, in North America in corresponding latitudes. The flesh when fresh is of a bright orange color, and is of highest flavor when taken from the sea-feeding fish. In the waters of northwestern America are several salmon belonging to a distinct genus, including the quinnat or king-salmon, blue-back salmon or redfish, silver salmon, dog salmon, and humpback salmon. The quinnat has an average weight of twenty-two pounds, but sometimes reaches one hundred pounds. Both it and the blue-back salmon are caught in immense numbers in the Columbia, Sacramento, and Frazer rivers (especially in spring), and are preserved by canning.
Sardine, or Pilchard(Clupea pilchardus) is an important fish closely related to the herring and sprat. In size it grows from ten to fourteen inches; in color it is bluish-green above, whitish underneath and on its sides. It is entirely marine in habit, and its eggs float on the surface of the sea, unlike those of the herring, which are attached to objects at the bottom. The young, before it has attained maturity, is known as the sardine, and as such forms a valuable fishery; the full-grown pilchard is used as an article of diet as well as for bait. The method of capture is usually by drift-net. It is most abundant off the coasts of Portugal, and in the English Channel and the Mediterranean.
Shadis a migratory fish of great food value. It ascends all of the rivers of the eastern coast of the United States every spring to lay its eggs. It is closely related to the herring, but is much larger, and were it not so full of bones it would stand very near the head of food fishes.
Smelt(Osmerus) is a genus of the Salmon family, characterized by strong fang-like teeth, and by rather large scales, which readily fall off. The form is very trout-like, but rather more slender; the tail is larger in proportion, and more forked. The back is whitish, tinged with green; the upper part of the sides shows bluish tints, the lower part of the sides and the belly are of a bright silvery color. The smelt has a peculiar, cucumber-like smell, and a delicious flavor, on account of which it is highly esteemed for the table.
Sole(Solea) is a fish oval in shape, the outline of the snout being semi-circular, and projecting somewhat beyond the mouth. The Common Sole (S. vulgaris) is a fish of high value in European markets. It lives in European seas from the Mediterranean to the north of Denmark, and is rarely caught on the American side of the Atlantic Ocean, although numerous closely allied kinds abound.
Sword-fish(Xiphiidae) are abundantly represented in tropical and subtropical seas. They are among the largest bony fishes, sometimes measuring twelve to fifteen feet in length. The sword, which may be over three feet long, is formed from a compressed prolongation of the upper jaw, and is often strong enough to stab whales fatally, or less advantageously to pierce the bottom of a ship or the planks of a boat. Sword-fish are said to attack whales and other cetacea, and also boats and canoes, and even large vessels.
Trout, a name applied to various members of the Salmon family. The Common or Brown Trout (Salmo fario) varies greatly in appearance, not only with individuals but at different seasons, and this variability has led some authorities to distinguish a number of subspecies.
At midsummer an adult trout is usually brownish or olive in color, with pure white on the belly and gold on the flanks, while the back varies from olive or pale brown to nearly black. The dorsal fin and sides are spotted with black and often also with scarlet. The scales are circular, thin and minute. When the spawning season begins in autumn all the color disappears and the body becomes slimy to the touch. The head of the male is larger than that of the female, and the lower jaw bears a cartilaginous knob. It feeds on a large variety of food, different kinds appealing in turn. It is by cunning imitations of some prevailing fly that the fisherman makes his most cherished captures.
The artificial hatching of trout is now carried on extensively, and lakes and streams can be stocked or replenished with fish if they are not too polluted.
The Bull Trout or Sea Trout (S. eriox) most resembles the salmon in appearance and habits, though thicker in proportion to its length, and with larger and more numerous dark spots on the gill-covers and scales.
The Salmon or White Trout (S. trutta) is a more elegant fish, and its flesh is much more delicate in flavor. The habits of both are similar.
The Rainbow Trout (Salmo irideus) of America has been introduced into many parts of the world; in New Zealand, especially in Lake Taupo, it attains the greatest size, many tons being caught yearly.
Whitefish(Coregonus clupeiformis), the common whitefish, is the largest of all the American lake whitefish. It is very highly esteemed for food, ranking, indeed, as one of the finest table fishes. Its range extends from Lake Champlain to the Arctic Circle.
These fishes have a cartilaginous, pliant, undeveloped skeleton, and are not covered with true scales. They include rays, sawfish, sharks, skates and others.
Ray,a popular name applied to many of the flat cartilaginous fishes: Thornbacks, Electric Rays, Sting-rays, Eagle-rays are representative. They lead a somewhat sedentary life at the bottom of the sea, moving sluggishly by undulations of the pectoral fins which form a large part of the flat body. Many attain a large size, sometimes measuring six feet across.
Sawfish(Pristis) are distinguished by the prolongation of the snout into a formidable weapon bordered on each side by sharp teeth. Some species are found off the southern coasts of North America and in the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Mediterranean and many other seas. With its saw, which is sometimes six feet in length, the sawfish slashes or rips up its prey, and its assault is often fatal to large whales.
Sharksare a group of very simple fishes, which have only a cartilage skeleton, no bone being developed anywhere in them. They have the gill openings on the side of the neck separate, and in all of the common species the mouth is on the lower side of the head instead of at the tip, as in ordinary fishes. The tail has unequal lobes, the upper lobe being much the larger. There are always four paired fins and one or more on the back. The size of the sharks varies from the smaller dogfish, about two feet long, to the great basking shark, some forty feet in length. Most of these species are very voracious, but the tales of man-eating are often exaggerated, although occasionally they may occur. Some of the largest species feed exclusively on shellfish. The flesh of several species is good to eat, but they are mostly neglected in America. The livers are very rich in oil, which commands a good price for use in dressing leather. In some species the skin has small spines and was formerly used (it was called shagreen) instead of sandpaper. Skin with larger plates is sometimes used in the manufacture of pocketbooks, etc.
Skates(Raia batis).—A group of fishes, closely related to the sharks, but having the body flattened from above downward, and with the anterior fins so united to the side of the head and the body that it has a rhomboid appearance and the tail seems like an inconsiderable appendage. The mouth and the gill openings are on the under surface. The animals are bottom feeders, living on clams and mussels, buried in the mud. In Europe some of the smaller species are used for food. Another has a large electric battery on either side of the head, capable of giving very strong shocks. This is called the torpedo.
These include, among others, the Bony Pike and the Sturgeons.
Bony Pike or Garfish.—A remarkable genus of fishes inhabiting North American lakes and rivers, and one of the few living forms that now represent the order of ganoid fishes so largely developed in previous geological epochs. The body is covered with smooth, enameled scales, so hard that it is impossible to pierce them with a spear. The common garfish attains a length of five feet, and is easily distinguished by the great length of its jaws.
Sturgeon(Acipenser).—These large, sluggish fishes, some reach a length of over ten feet, and live on worms, crustacea, and mollusks. The body is long and narrow with five rows of bony shields. There are many species of sturgeon, all confined to the northern hemisphere. They live in the sea and great lakes, and ascend the great rivers. All supply valuable commodities, for which they are regularly captured on a large scale. These commodities are their flesh, which is palatable and wholesome, their roe (caviare), and their air-bladders, from which isinglass is made.
The most important sturgeon-fishery in Europe is that of the Volga and the Caspian Sea. The flesh of the fish is salted, and caviare and isinglass made on a large scale from the roes and air-bladder.
The Sterlet(A. ruthenus) is a much smaller species, which is common in the Black and Caspian Seas, and ascends the Danube as far as Vienna. It is one of the principal objects of the sturgeon fishery on the Volga.
In America sturgeon flesh is eaten fresh, and caviare is made both in Georgia and in San Francisco; but there is no great fishery in any particular district, and the manufacture of isinglass does not receive much attention. The sturgeon of the great lakes (A. rubicundus) and the Shovel-nose of the Mississippi valley are the chief American species.
are at present represented by three fresh-water types, the insignificant remnant of a group that was once dominant in the sea, and would have become entirely extinct if some of its members had not taken to live in the waters of the land. These types are the eel-shaped mud-fishes of West Africa (Protopterus) and South America (Lepidosiren), and a Queensland form (Ceratodus). In all these the swim-bladder has been converted into a regular lung, which returns purified blood to the heart. The African form lives in streams which are liable to dry up, and[229]were it not for the possession of a kind of lung capable of breathing air, it would perish during the dry season, whereas it remains embedded in the mud in a torpid state till the rains return.
The Queensland lung-fish lives under somewhat different conditions, for its native rivers do not entirely dry up, but are reduced to a series of deep holes connected by mere trickles of water. These holes become so foul from decaying vegetation and dead fish that the possession of a lung is a vital matter, and if theceratoduswere not able to come to the surface and breathe air it would probably succumb.
The Molluscs have no limbs. The body is surrounded by a membraneous sac, from the secretions of which in many species a chalky shell is formed. The organs of circulation, digestion, and respiration are well developed. The under side of the body is thickened into a fleshy “foot,” by which locomotion is effected, and there is a well-marked head.
The Molluscs are divided into five classes: (1) Snails and Slugs (Gastropoda). (2) Cuttlefishes (Cephalopoda); (3) Tusk Shells (Scaphopoda); (4) Bivalves (Lamellibranchia); (5) Mail Shells (Protomollusca).
Argonaut(Argonauta) belongs to the two-gilled cuttle-fishes, and are distinguished by the females possessing a single-chambered external shell not organically connected with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the eggs of the female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or “funnel” turned toward the carina or “keel.” This famed mollusk swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. The argonaut, orpaper-nautilus, must be carefully distinguished from thepearly-nautilusor nautilus proper.
Cuttlefish.—One of the mollusks in which there are ten arms around the mouth. The internal shell is calcified and is used as a supply of lime for cage birds. They have also an ink bag, the secretion of which furnishes the pigment sepia. Cuttle-fish are an important article of food in southern Europe.
Octopus.—A mollusk with a rounded body, and a small head bearing a pair of well-developed eyes, the mouth surrounded by eight long arms, each arm bearing numbers of suckers by which the animals hold their prey. Inside the mouth is a pair of jaws, shaped much like those of a parrot. Most of the species are small, possibly averaging a weight of five pounds, but some on the Pacific coast spread nearly twenty-eight feet. The octopus is eaten extensively in the Mediterranean countries.
Oyster.—Possibly the most valuable of all of the mollusks. There are various species in all parts of the world, but the best is the American species, which now occurs from Cape Cod to the Gulf of Mexico. Formerly it extended to the coast of Maine, and even now there are scattered beds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The oyster grows in shallow water, fastening its shell to some rock or shell, and in this way large beds are formed. They are also planted; that is, the young are taken and placed in favorable situations for rapid growth.
The oyster contains but comparatively little nourishment, though eaten extensively. The European oyster is smaller than ours and has a coppery taste.
Allied to the true oysters are thePearl Oysters, especially abundant around Ceylon. These have the interior of the shell lined with mother-of-pearl, and when foreign particles get between body and shell they are covered with the same substance, thus forming the pearls used for adornment. These oysters are obtained by diving; the animal matter is allowed to rot, leaving the pearls behind. The shell is also of value, furnishing material for knife handles, buttons, etc., though most of our pearl buttons are now made from the shells of fresh-water mussels from the Mississippi valley.
Scallop(Pecten), a well-known bivalve, one of those with a single muscle closing the shell. The valves are fan-shaped, the left often more or less flat, the right more markedly arched; both are marked with sinuous radiating ridges, to which the name pecten (Lat.“a comb”) refers. The hinge-line is without teeth, and is extended laterally in two ears. The small finger-shaped foot is usually marked with bright orange or red color. The scallops are widely distributed in all seas, at depths of three to forty fathoms.
Snails.—A common name used for any mollusk with a coiled shell. In the narrower meaning it includes only those forms which occur on land. These land-dwelling forms have a slight shell, into which the whole body can be retracted. They feed exclusively on vegetation, which they rasp by means of a long ribbon, just inside the mouth, the surface of which is covered with thousands of minute teeth, so that the whole is a flexible file. The animal creeps about on a broad sole, and has four tentacles on the head, one pair of them bearing the simple eyes at the tip. Snails do considerable damage where they are numerous. One species is eaten by many in Europe, especially in France and Italy. Over ten thousand species are known.
The shells of sea snails are often of great beauty, and large sums have been given by[230]collectors for specimens of unusual elegance or rarity, fifty pounds having been paid for a single example of a species of cone shell (Conus). The helmet shells (Cassis) are made up of differently colored layers, and on account of their beauty have been largely employed for the carving of cameos.
Squid.—A mollusk nearly related to the cuttlefish. It has a barrel-shaped body, with a head in front bearing ten pairs of tapering tentacles, each with numerous suckers. On the side of the head is a well-developed eye. Squid live largely on small fishes which they catch with the tentacles, biting them with a pair of parrot-like jaws. They are largely used as bait in fishing, and to a limited extent as food. The average length is a foot or two, but in the seas around Newfoundland and Japan giants are occasionally found with bodies a dozen feet in length and tentacles adding thirty feet to this.
Tusk Shellsare a small group of burrowing marine forms, in which the body is covered by a long, curved shell resembling a tusk in shape. There is a small hole at its tip, through which the water which has been used in breathing makes its exit. An imperfectly developed head and a rasping organ are present, and burrowing is effected by a long foot with a three-lobed end. The food consists of small organisms, which are apparently secured by the agency of a bunch of filaments with thickened sticky tips that can be protruded from the mouth of the shell. In some respects these animals are intermediate in structure between typical sea snails and bivalve molluscs.
This great division of the animal kingdom includes far more numerous species than any other, and is abundantly represented in both salt and fresh water, on the land and in the air. It consequently includes bothair-breathersandgill-breathers: the former, typical land insects; and the latter, chiefly crustaceous.
The Crustaceans breathe by means of gills, and their bodies consist of rings. They have two pairs of feelers and two pairs of jaws, to which are mostly joined one or more pairs of jaw feet. All the remaining rings of the body may have a pair of limbs each. The head bears two pairs of feelers. Crustaceans commonly hatch out as free-swimming larvæ, like the adult in form.
This large class of jointed-limbed animals includes lobsters, prawns, shrimps, crabs, and other familiar forms, the great bulk of which are aquatic, though the wood-lice have become adapted to a life on land.