Chapter 25

CROSS-SECTION OF LIVING SPONGETHE SPONGE IN ACTIONThe arrows show how the water enters by the small pores, to pass out by the large openings. Food is thus brought to the cells which line the channels. At the right the currents of water are seen passing from the outer openings, as seen under a powerful microscope.

CROSS-SECTION OF LIVING SPONGE

THE SPONGE IN ACTION

The arrows show how the water enters by the small pores, to pass out by the large openings. Food is thus brought to the cells which line the channels. At the right the currents of water are seen passing from the outer openings, as seen under a powerful microscope.

THE BORDER-LINE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFEOn the left are represented highly magnified animal skeletons of a class of Protozoa called Radiolarians. Most of them are under one-twenty-fifth of an inch in size. Millions upon millions of these little shells are found upon the floors of the ocean, and upon its shores. They are marvels of form and color—so wonderful, indeed, that man with all his skill cannot imitate them. When alive they consist of but a single cell, and live in colonies with the plant forms, called algæ, pictured on the right. The algæ are also single-celled, and of rare beauty of form, and the strange association of the simplest of animal forms with the simplest ofplantforms has up to the present time proved the supreme enigma of science.

THE BORDER-LINE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE

On the left are represented highly magnified animal skeletons of a class of Protozoa called Radiolarians. Most of them are under one-twenty-fifth of an inch in size. Millions upon millions of these little shells are found upon the floors of the ocean, and upon its shores. They are marvels of form and color—so wonderful, indeed, that man with all his skill cannot imitate them. When alive they consist of but a single cell, and live in colonies with the plant forms, called algæ, pictured on the right. The algæ are also single-celled, and of rare beauty of form, and the strange association of the simplest of animal forms with the simplest ofplantforms has up to the present time proved the supreme enigma of science.

In botany we find that the lowest plants are mostly of a microscopic size, and unicellular—that is, consisting of a single cell or structural unit, essentially a fragment of living matter (protoplasm), part of which is specialized into a nucleus. The lowest animals are also unicellular, and the popular term “animalcule”—a little animal—has reference to their diminutive size. One of the simplest known cases is afforded by the

Amœba(Gr.“change”), a name given to a number of the simplest animals or protozoa. The simplest form which the observer will meet is a naked lump of jelly-like protoplasm constantly flowing into new shapes.

Ray Animalcules(Radiolaria) are forms which resemble the members of the last group in some respects, but are more complex in structure, with shells composed of a latticework of flinty matter. These shells cover large tracts of the floor of the deeper parts of the ocean (limy shells dissolve before getting so far), and make up “radiolarian oozes,” such as Barbadoes earth.

Flagellatesare immensely numerous animalcules with a body of definite shape covered by a membrane. Swimming is effected by a slender thread of flagellum (Latin for whiplash) of living substance, which executes whip-like movements. They are common in ponds and ditches, where it often makes up a green scum. A mouth is situated at the base of the flagellum, and at this end there is also a red eye-spot. Some flagellates bear more than one flagellum, many are fixed, and the colonial condition is common. The exceedingly minute animalcules which swarm in putrid fluids and are vaguely known as “monads” belong to this group.

Ciliateslike flagellates, are invested in a firm membrane, and therefore of definite form. Instead of flagella, they possess cilia, short threads of living substance which are associated in large numbers, and alternately bend and straighten in a rhythmic fashion, bringing about locomotion in free species, or setting up currents in the water in fixed ones.

Despite their apparent insignificance, certain animalcules, by virtue of their almost imperishable skeletons, are among the most important agencies which have built up the crust of the earth. The surface of the sea is largely inhabited by Radiolarians and Foraminifera, the former preponderating in cold, the latter in temperate and tropical waters. As they die, their skeletons sink to the bottom and form mud or ooze, which through time and pressure becomes consolidated into rock.

It is generally believed that sheep were the very first of all domesticated animals. Doubtless because they supplied him with food and clothing and by reason of their gentleness, they were selected by man as his first animal associate.

DOMESTICATED MAMMALS:Alpaca,Ass,Camel,Cat,Cattle,Dog,Elephant,Gayal,Goat,Guinea Pig,Horse,Llama,Rabbit,Reindeer,Sheep,Swine,Yak,Zebu.DOMESTICATED FISH:Carp,Goldfish.DOMESTICATED BIRDS:Canary,Chickens or Fowls,Duck,Guinea,Goose,Ostrich,Parrot,Peacock,Pigeon,Swan,Turkey.DOMESTICATED INSECTS:Bee, Cochineal,Silkworm Moth.

Domestic animals are those kept for the use or companionship of man. When studied in their relation to the animal kingdom as a whole it is readily seen that they belong to the highest groups of animals; but the actual process of original domestication is unknown to us. It is also very evident that the origin of some of the domesticated groups themselves is very obscure. In general it may be said that only when a distinct breed has been produced by human interference may we call the result domestication.

Among the highest class of animals—the Mammals—familiar illustrations are dogs and cats, horses and asses, cattle, elephants, camels, and the like. Birds include the domesticated pigeons, fowls, ducks, ostrich, peacock, canary, and others. Among fishes, goldfish and carp belong to the domestic class; while the honey bee and the silkworm moth belong to the lowest domestic group—the insects.

The original home of fully three-fourths of our domestic animals was the continent of Asia, where, also, the first home of man himself is placed. It seems quite probable that nearly all of these animals were first held as captives by the early peoples for food supply, and that their other uses developed later. As the races spread to the continent of Europe and thence over the habitable world, their animal servants spread with them, and others were added, adapted to varying climatic and other conditions. Our own continent—North America—has added only the turkey and the cochineal insect, while South America has contributed the alpaca, llama, and guinea-pig. No new domestic animals have been developed during the last two thousand years; and the natural conclusion is that all must have come into use at various stages from the very earliest period of man down to the time of the Christian Era.

Many animals have been greatly changed in form, size and habits by domestication, especially the dog, sheep, pig, donkey, pigeon and chicken, so that a great variety of breeds and strains have been developed. Many kinds of dogs are incapable of existence apart from human care. The donkey does not run wild, and chickens are never found at a great distance from human habitations. Others, though much varied in form and size, are still capable of independent existence, such as the horse, goat, ox, cat, and goose, but a group like the cheetah, water buffalo, and swan are only partially domesticated, and little changed by association with man.

Alpaca(Auchenia Paco), an animal of the same genus with the llama, belongs to the Camel family, is the half-domesticated form of the wild vicuna. It is remarkable for the length and fineness of the wool, which is of a silken texture, and of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic appearance. The alpaca is smaller than the llama, and, in form, somewhat resembles the sheep, but has a longer neck and more elegant head. It carries its long neck erect; its motions are free and active, its ordinary pace a rapid, bounding canter. The eyes are very large and beautiful. The wool, if regularly shorn, is supposed to grow about six or eight inches in a year; but if allowed to remain upon the animal for several years, attains a much greater length, sometimes even thirty inches, and not unfrequently twenty. Its color varies; it is often yellowish brown; sometimes gray, or approaching to white; sometimes almost black.

The alpaca is a native of the Andes, from the equator to Tierra del Fuego, but is most frequent on the highest mountains of Peru and Chile, almost on the borders of perpetual snow, congregating in flocks of one or two hundred. The Peruvians keep vast flocks of them for the sake of the silky luster and fineness of their wool, which furnishes material for the best of fabrics.

The alpaca does not acclimatize in other regions of the world, and all attempts to introduce and establish it as a wool-bearing animal in Europe and the United States have failed.

Ass(Equus asinus), a species of the horse genus, supposed to have sprung from the wild variety (Asinus tæniopus) found in Abyssinia. It differs from the horse in having short hair at the root of the tail and a long tuft at the end, in the absence of warts on the hind-legs, and in the persistence of stripes, except in albinos. The upright mane, the long ears, the cross stripe on the shoulders, and the dark bands on the back are also characteristic. The domestication took place at an early date, probably before that of the horse. It was brought to Mexico and South America by the Spaniards.

In Arabia, Syria, Egypt, Spain, Kentucky, and elsewhere asses are well cared for, and the breed has been considerably varied and improved. The stupidity for which the animal has for long been proverbially reproached seems largely the result of human influence.

TheMuleis a hybrid bred between mare and male ass; while the hinny is the rarer result of hybridism between horse and female ass. The mule is much nearer in temper and appearance to the ass than to the horse; the hinny in some points resembles the horse more, as it neighs, while the mule brays like the ass. The ass is admirably adapted for a beast of burden, being remarkable for endurance, hardiness, and docility under kind treatment. It varies greatly in size, from dwarf forms only twenty to thirty inches high in the West Indies to fine Spanish and American breeds sixteen hands high.

TheBurro, used almost exclusively as a pack animal by miners and prospectors in the mountain regions of the western states, is a small form.

Banteng(Bos sondaicus), a species of ox, a native of Java and Borneo, which, in color, shape, horns, and absence of dewlap, bears some resemblance in appearance and ferocity to the gaur (Bos gaurus) of India. It is black, with white legs; the hair is short and sleek; the limbs slender; the muzzle sharp; the back rises into a high arch immediately behind the neck.

Camel(camelus), called by the Arabs the “ship of the desert” is a misshapen animal of the even-toed group. In this family, the upper lip is hairy and deeply cleft; the neck is very long; the feet (with two toes) are not enhoofed, but provided with callous soles; and the stomach has three compartments. The family includes the camels proper and the various forms of alpaca.

The camels are well known for their large size, for their dorsal humps, for their callosities on knees, breast, etc., for the common sole uniting the two toes. The ears are small and rounded; the short tail bears a terminal switch; the hair is tangled and felted; a single young one is born; and the diet is wholly vegetarian.

One species is usually spoken of as theDromedary. It has a single hump and a generally reddish-gray color. There are many breeds, and the dromedary is the most agile of these. Apart from its use in transit and transport, the flesh is eaten, the milk made into butter and cheese, the hair woven into fabrics of various degrees of fineness, and the skin tanned.

The other camel is known as the Bactrian, and is distinguished by its slightly larger size, two dorsal humps, and somewhat finer brown or reddish hair. This camel is bred in central Asia, and in its adaptability to domestication, as well as in its natural adaptation to desert life, is a most useful animal. Its frugal diet, its powers of storing water and of going long without a fresh supply, and its great strength are very familiar facts. A camel will eat almost any herbage or green thing it comes across, even dried, leafless twigs. The hair of[247]the camel forms the woof and cotton the warp of the famous Persian camel’s-hair cloth. Coarser camel’s wool or hair is imported for various purposes.

The Bactrian camel can carry one thousand pounds weight or more, and the dromedary proper can cover one hundred miles in a day. The ordinary jog of a camel is about two and one-half miles an hour, but this can be kept up for many days with little food and less drink. A swift dromedary may go ten miles an hour. A thousand or more may journey in a caravan, and the amount of food carried is surprisingly small. The hump must be in good condition before starting. In the stomach-reservoirs a gallon and a half of water can be stowed away. Like some other frugal animals, the camel enjoys a long life of thirty or forty years.

In disposition the camel is peculiarly stolid, not to say stupid. Whether domestication has been too much for it, there can be no doubt that its “docility” is more the result of habitual nonchalance than any outcome of intelligent subservience. It is usually very submissive, except when habitually thwarted or ill-treated.

The camel is the most useful and important of all African domestic animals; without it commerce would be impossible across some districts which are nearly devoid of water and plants. In Australia, also, it has become valuable for interior expeditions, and camel corps have been formed by European troops in the Sudan, and are a permanent branch of the Egyptian army.

BLUE RUSSIANABYSSINIAN

BLUE RUSSIAN

ABYSSINIAN

PERSIAN, OR ANGORA(above)MALTESE KITTENS(below)

Cat(Felis domestica) is known to everybody. Its nearest relation is theWild Cat(Felis catus), but it is not a tamed descendant of this wild cat but seems, like other domestic animals, to have come from the East. It is usually, though not with absolute certainty, regarded as the descendant of the Egyptian cat which was domesticated in Egypt thirteen centuries B. C. From Egypt the domestic cat spread through Europe, and was confined to those who could afford a high price for the pet.

THE VARIETIES OF CATS AREDUE TO COLOR AND FUR

The varieties of domestic cat concern color and quality of fur, not differences of form, as in the case of dogs. Thus we have (1) black cats with clear yellow eyes, usually with a few white hairs, and with hints of markings in the kittens; (2) white cats, sometimes with blue eyes, and then generally deaf; (3) tabby cats, like the wild species, and perhaps the result of crossing with the same; (4) gray cats, which are rare, and differ from the tabby forms in having no black stripes, except the common ones over the forelegs; (5) tortoise-shell, fawn-colored, and mottled with black, usually females; and (6) sandy-colored, usually males. The royal Siamese cat is fawn-colored, with blue eyes and small head; the Carthusian or blue cat has long, dark, grayish-blue fur, with black[248]lips and soles; the Angora, or Persian cat is large, fine furred, generally white, tending to yellow or gray, and possibly derived from an Asiatic species. The Malay cat, in Pegu, Siam, and Burma, has a tail only half the normal length; the Manx cat of the Isle of Man is tailless and has longer hind-legs. A fine all-blue cat comes from Russia and Iceland, and there are characteristic breeds from India, Abyssinia, and other parts of the world.

CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITSOF CATS

The domestic cat is too well known to require description. It has been known to attain a weight of twenty-three pounds and an age of eighteen years. Though thoroughly domesticated, it retains many characteristics of wildness, especially in its private hunting expeditions, nocturnal wanderings, unsocial habits, and generally self-centered, not entirely confident disposition. When turned out in the woods it usually adapts itself readily. Domestication has had a different influence on cat and on dog, and the former may be fairly said to have surrendered itself less. Its sense of smell has probably degenerated, but is still very sensitive to certain favorite odors. The great dilatability of the pupil enables it to make the most of feeble light. The dry fur, freed from any oily matter and readily injured by water, becomes highly electric by friction, especially in dry or frosty weather.

CATS POSSESS UNUSUALINTELLIGENCE

In cats the senses of sight, hearing, and touch are very highly developed, and the intelligence is proportionately great. That they exhibit great adroitness in catching their prey is well known, but the climax is reached in certain recorded cases where a young bird was used as a decoy for its parents, and where crumbs were scattered or scraped from beneath the snow to attract sparrows. A remarkable case is recorded of a cat which, being accidentally ignited by paraffin, ran one hundred yards and plunged into a trough of water.

SUPERSTITIONS REGARDINGCATS

Cats have been objects of superstition from the earliest ages. In Egypt they were held in the highest reverence; temples were erected in their honor; sacrifices and devotions were offered to them; and it was customary for the family in whose house a cat died to shave their eyebrows. The favorite shape of Satan was said to be that of a black cat, and the animal was an object of dread instead of veneration. Many people still prophesy rainy weather from a cat washing over its ears or simply its face; and a cat-call on the housetop was formerly held to signify death.

Cattle, or Ox.—All farm animals were once called cattle, belonging to the bovine genus; nowadays this term applies only to beef and dairy animals—meat cattle. Our improved breeds are descended from the wild ox (bos) of Europe and Asia, and have attained their size and usefulness by care, food, and selection. The uses of cattle are familiar. Their flesh is part of the daily food of man—butter, cheese, and milk are on every table; their hides go to make leather; their hair forms part of plaster; their hoofs are used for glue; their bones for fertilizer, ornaments and buttons, and many other purposes. Cattle are primarily used, however, for meat and milk. This being the case, breeders have quite naturally chosen their animals with one or another of these purposes in mind. There have been developed consequently two classes of breeders, those that excel as milk producers or butter cows, and those that on being slaughtered dress out large quantities of the most marketable meat.

TWO GENERAL TYPESOF CATTLE

The differences between these two leading classes is one of form, type and quality, as the breeders say. A good dairy cow has a very soft, mellow skin, and fine, silky hair. Her head is narrow and long, and the distance between the eyes is noticed to be great. This indicates much nerve force, an important quality of the heavy milkers. The neck of a good dairy cow is long and thin. The shoulders are thin and lithe, and narrow at the top. The back is open, angular, and tapering toward the tail. The hips are wide apart and covered with little meat. The good cow is also thin in the region of the thigh and flank, but very deep through the stomach girth, as a result of the long, open ribs. The udder is large, attached well forward on the abdomen, and high up behind. It should be full but not fleshy. The lacteal or milk veins ought also to be large, and extend considerably toward the front legs.

REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OFMILK PRODUCERS

The Holstein-Friesians from Holland, Jerseys, Guernseys and Alderneys from the English Channel islands, the Ayrshires from Scotland, Dutch Belted, French Canadians, and Kerry cattle, the latter from Ireland, and Brown Swiss from Switzerland, are all especially dairy cattle. The Holstein-Friesians are large and noted for their heavy production of milk and at the same time large carcasses, while, on the other hand, the Jerseys, Guernseys and Alderneys are less in size and noted for the richness of their milk rather than its great quantity. The Jersey shares popular honors in the dairy world with the Holstein-Friesian.

Ayrshire.—Medium size, standard weight for cows 1000 pounds, bulls 1500 pounds or more. A little smoother than Jersey or Holstein but from behind wedge shape is evident. Tips of ears notched, horns white with black tips and curve outward and upward. Body large and deep, ribs well sprung, hindquarters often heavy. Udder shows high development of form and setting. Color variable though red, white and brown in patches. Mild but active disposition. Dairy breed.

Brown-Swiss.—Weight for cows 1200 pounds and bulls 1800 pounds. Colors shade from light to dark chestnut brown. Light tuft of hair between horns, on inside of ears, and a narrow line along back. Nose black, mouth surrounded with meal-colored band. Horns with black tips, medium size. Face dishing, large, full eye; ribs well sprung. Hoofs and tongue black, udder large, extending well up in front and rear. Teats large, well placed. Short legs. Dairy breed.

Guernsey.—Clean-cut, lean face, long, thin neck, backbone rising well between shoulder blades, pelvis arching and wide, rump long, abdomen large and deep, udder full in front, of large size and capacity. Teats well apart, and of good even size. Hair a shade of fawn with white markings, cream colored nose, horns amber, small, curved and not coarse. Mature cows about 1050 pounds. Bulls 1200 to 1500 pounds. Dairy breed.

SPLENDID HERDS AND FLOCKS ON AMERICAN FARMS

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS ON A MODERN DAIRY FARM IN IOWAThis fine breed of dairy cattle probably excels all others for the general purposes of the dairy-farm. As milk producers they outrank all other breeds as they do also in size.A FINE FLOCK RESTING BENEATH THE TREES OF MONTANA

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS ON A MODERN DAIRY FARM IN IOWA

This fine breed of dairy cattle probably excels all others for the general purposes of the dairy-farm. As milk producers they outrank all other breeds as they do also in size.

A FINE FLOCK RESTING BENEATH THE TREES OF MONTANA

Holstein-Friesian.—Color black and white piebald. Head broad between eyes, eyes large and bright, horns small, tapering toward tips, neck long, chest moderately deep and low, barrel long and wedge shaped, large abdomen, legs rather short and nearly straight and wide apart. Hair fine, soft and furry. Udder very capacious, extending well forward in front; teats well formed and wide apart. Dairy breed.

Jersey.—Small head, muzzle black or dark in color surrounded by light or mealy strip of light skin and hair. Eyes prominent, bright and wide apart. Horns crumpled, small, often black tipped. Neck fine, clean and small. Legs short, fine boned and small. Body well rounded, large and deep. Skin mellow, loose, yellow, with short fine silky hair. Udder large, not pendulous. Teats medium size, placed far apart. Back straight from shoulder to tail. Movement light and graceful. Cows 800 to 1000 pounds, bulls 1200 to 1500 pounds. Dairy breeds.

REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OFMEAT CATTLE

The beef cow presents a totally different appearance. She is square in shape, full and broad over the back and loins, possessing depth and quality particularly in these regions. The hips are evenly fleshed, the legs full and thick, the under line parallel with the straight back. The neck is full and short. The eye should be bright, the face short, the bones of fine texture the skin soft and pliable, and the flesh mellow, elastic to the touch, and rich in quality.

For meat the Short-horns (formerly called Durhams) and Herefords and their grades predominate. They are both English breeds with horns. In color the Short-horns are red and white or a mixture of these, while the Herefords are red with white faces, briskets, bellies and feet. The Aberdeen-Angus and Galloways are famous for their high qualities as beef makers, and are both of Scotch origin, black and hornless.

Aberdeen-Angus.—Black color, polled heads, rotund compact type, smoothness of conformation, short legs, evenness of flesh when fat, deep, full hindquarters. Beef breed.

Galloway.—Low, blocky animal, with long, soft, shaggy coat of black hair, hornless, well sprung in the ribs, resembling barrel in shape, which is evenly covered with juicy, lean flesh. Head short and wide, forehead broad, face clean, nostrils large. Eye large and prominent. Neck short, clean. Shoulders broad, joining body smoothly. Hindquarters long, wide, well filled. Rump straight, wide, carrying width of body out uniformly, well filled with flesh. Thighs broad and thick. Legs short and clean. Beef breed.

Hereford.—Color red and white. Head, including jaws and throat, white, white under neck, down the breast, under belly, and on legs. Bush of tail white, white strip on top of neck to top of shoulders, remainder of body red. Head short, forehead broad, eyes full, horns rather strong and of whitish yellow color, free from black tips, more or less drooping, neck short and thick. Hide heavy and loose and covered with dense soft coat of hair. Breast broad and full, free from loose dewlap. Shoulders broad on top. Ribs well sprung and extending well backward. Rump bones wide apart. Legs short, straight and set well apart. Line of back straight and level. Quarters full and well rounded. Beef breed.

Shorthorn.—Head wide between eyes, short from eyes to nostril. Horns short, curved forward waxy white with dark tips. Neck short and fine. Back straight, level and broad and deeply covered with flesh. Thighs wide, deep and long, well filled down in the twist. Body deep, squarely built. Flanks well let down, underline nearly straight. Legs medium length. Colors pure red, pure white, a mixture of these colors, or roan. Beef breed.

The breeds considered as chiefly serving the dual-purposes of milk and beef-making are Red Polls and Devons, both English breeds, and some of the Short-horn families having the milking characteristic best developed.

Red Polled.—Weight for bulls 1800 to 2000 pounds, cows 1300 to 1500 pounds. Color red. Nose flesh color. Switch of tail and udder white. Head medium length, wide between eyes. Poll well defined and prominent, neck of medium length, clean cut, straight from head to top of shoulder. Chest broad and deep, back long, straight and level, hips wide and well covered, legs short and straight. Udder full and flexible. Teats well placed and wide apart. Hide loose, mellow, with full coat of soft hair. Dual purpose breed.

CATTLE AS A FORMOF INDUSTRY

Cattle are the chief source of wealth in many regions. Just as the horse is pre-eminent as a labor animal, the ox stands first as the food producing animal in modern civilization. The aggregate value of cattle products,—beef, milk, butter, cheese, hides, etc., far exceeds that of any other animal.

The relative economy of milk and beef production is now more and more commanding attention. The experiment stations have demonstrated that good dairy cows produce human food in the form of milk much more economically than food products can be obtained in the form of beef, pork or mutton.

A REMARKABLE EXPERIMENTIN CATTLE VALUES

At one of the Stations, for example, the entire carcass of a steer and the milk of an Holstein cow were analyzed.

The steer when killed weighed twelve hundred and fifty pounds. The cow during the year gave eighteen thousand four hundred and five pounds of milk. From the milk of the cow, and from the carcass of the steer, the following number of pounds of human food substances were obtained. Of protein five hundred and fifty-two pounds from the milk, and one hundred and seventy-two pounds from the steer; of fat six hundred and eighteen pounds from the milk and three hundred and thirty-three pounds from the steer; of sugar nine hundred and twenty pounds from the milk and none from the steer; of mineral matter one hundred and twenty-eight pounds from the milk and forty-three pounds from the steer.

The steer’s body contained about fifty-six per cent of water, leaving five hundred and forty-eight pounds of dry matter, which included not only the edible, dry, lean meat and fat, but also every part of the body—horns, hide, bones, internal organs, etc. In one year the cow produced two thousand two hundred and eighteen pounds of dry matter, every part of which was wholly digestible and suitable for human food. In that time she produced enough protein to build the bodies of three steers, fat[251]enough for nearly two steers, and mineral matter enough for the skeletons of three, besides nine hundred and twenty pounds of milk sugar, as nutritious and useful for humans as the same weight of cane-sugar like that bought at the store.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THEDAIRY COW

These figures explain why dairy cows and not steers are kept on the valuable lands. When the cheap lands disappear, and rough food commands higher values, the beef cow will be raised as a luxury, and cattle will make their contribution to the human race largely in the form of milk, butter, and cheese. In the future more and more will the farmers of all countries turn to the dairy cows.

CHINESE POUCHONGARABIAN GAZELLE HOUNDSCOTCH COLLIE(above)BIRD DOG OR POINTER(middle)ENGLISH SETTER(lower)

CHINESE POUCHONG

ARABIAN GAZELLE HOUND

SCOTCH COLLIE(above)BIRD DOG OR POINTER(middle)ENGLISH SETTER(lower)

Dog(Canis familiaris) is the most intelligent, affectionate, and devoted of domestic animals; in use by all peoples, and accompanying man throughout a wider range than any other animal, greatly exceeding the cat, donkey, or horse in this respect. It is very docile; its memory and its sense of localities and time are admirable. It is the constant companion of man, the protector of his house and of his herds, his helpmate in battle, a useful companion of the hunter, a draft animal, a guide, a buffoon, a postman, a comedian, and a brother of charity at St. Bernard. What creature can do more? Among its characteristic qualities, its faithfulness and gratitude are most prominent. No animal is attached to man in the same degree.

The domestication of the dog dates to primitive man, and far precedes the dawn of history, many important varieties being portrayed in the earliest sculptures. Most varieties have become so modified by domestication that they are unable to sustain themselves apart from man.

DIFFERENT BREEDSOF DOGS

Dogs vary widely in color, form and size; in adaptation to climate from the hairless forms of the tropics to the heavily fur-coated Eskimo breeds; and in size from tiny lapdogs no larger than kittens to great Danes standing three feet high at the shoulder. There are some two hundred varieties which have resulted from the intercrossing of about six leading types, namely: wolf-like dogs, greyhounds, spaniels, hounds, mastiffs, and terriers.

Among sporting dogs, the bloodhound stands pre-eminent for its majesty of appearance and beauty of color, and is distinguished for the keenness of its scenting powers. The head of the bloodhound is long and narrow, and “peaked” on the top of the skull. There is much loose skin about the head, and the eye is sunken, showing the red skin beneath it.

The greyhound is remarkable for its fleetness of foot. In addition to its beauty and elegance, it is of a very affectionate disposition. Pointers and setters are much used by sportsmen in the field, and are possessed of keen scent and cunning. The retriever, which is useful for domestic as well as sporting purposes, is sagacious, good-tempered, and intelligent. An English retriever, whether smooth or curly coated, should be black or black and tan, or black with tabby or brindled legs. Among the terriers, or vermin killers, the best-known varieties are the fox terrier, the Skye terrier, and the Irish and Airedale terriers.

Spaniels are the oldest and the most useful generally of all breeds of sporting dogs; earnest, untiring workmen in the fields, and faithful, loving, and gentle companions when the day’s work is done. They are also very beautiful, and universal favorites. The leading varieties are the black spaniel, the lurcher, the Clumber, the Sussex, and the Norfolk spaniels, and the Irish and English water spaniels.

Among other sporting dogs are the dachshund, which is crooked-legged, jealous, and affectionate; the basset-hound, the beagle, the otter-hound, the harrier, and the foxhound.

Among the large house dogs which are treasured as companions the most notable are the St. Bernard, the Newfoundland, and the mastiff. The St. Bernard is an extremely large and powerful fellow, a perfect giant among dogs, with a beautiful head and speaking countenance, in which sagacity is blended with nobility; and a body of great symmetry.

The Newfoundland, which is a capital swimmer, is a very large, jet-black dog, with a large and massive head, with a long, straight coat and bushy tail, and a face extremely expressive, and eyes that beam with intelligence.

The mastiff is a large dog, with a majestic-looking head, and is either fawn or brindle. The collie is a good companion, and a valuable sheep dog. The Dalmatian, which is white with black spots, is well known as a coach dog.

Among pet dogs, we have the fondled King Charles spaniel; the poodle, which is a good performer of tricks; the active little pug; and the watchful Pomeranian.

DOGS IN FOLKLORE ANDMYTHOLOGY

Dogs still play an important part in folklore everywhere, whether as revenants whose intention is merely to warn or foretell, or as hell hounds of purely malignant nature. They are represented as quick to detect the presence of invisible spirits, and, in connection with this aptitude for seeing into the spirit world, they are often the outward objects through which devils and demons make their appearance, and they have often been associated with such masters of unhallowed arts as the great Cornelius Agrippa.

The Wild Huntsman with his train of hounds is one of the most widespread superstitions in Europe, and in the dim mythological histories of the early world we find many dogs of supernatural strength and courage who give material aid to the heroes in their exploits.

The American Indian, as is well known, believed in the immortality of the dog, and always looked forward to being reunited with this faithful companion in the Happy Hunting-ground beyond the grave.

Elephant.—Though the Indian Elephant has been, and still is, used as a beast of burden, it has never reached a completely domesticated state. See further underPachiderms.

Gayal.—Frequently domesticated, though more often found wild.

Goat(Capra hircus), “the peasant’s cow,” is found in all parts of the globe as a domestic animal. It has a beard on its chin, and carries sharp-edged horns, which incline towards its back. The common domestic goat is a variety of the wild goat (C. hircus) which inhabits the Taurus and other mountains of southwestern Asia. Compared with its ancestor, the domesticated form is somewhat reduced both in general size and as regards its horns. The domestication must have taken place at a very remote period, and spread from the East, probably through Egypt, westwards.

A great number of breeds now exist. A most important variety, formed into a breed by artificial selection, is the Angora goat, where almost the whole body is enveloped in that long, silky, white hair which is so valuable. The Angora goat has been introduced into the United States, Cape Colony, and Australia. The Cashmere goat, from Tibet and Bokhara, is almost equally valuable, furnishing the white to brown hair used in making Cashmere textiles, especially the famous Cashmere shawls. It has been successfully acclimatized in France. The Rocky mountain goat is about the size of an ordinary sheep, and its general appearance is not unlike that of a sheep of the merino breed, its long, straight hair hanging down in an abundant white fleece.

Frequently goats are found wild in mountainous countries, scrambling among rocks and bushes; are extremely sure-footed, and display great strength and agility in leaping. These include the Markhor, the Alpine ibex, or Steinbock, and the Izard.

Goats are very valuable for flesh, milk, wool, and skins, particularly in warm, dry regions. The greater part of the world’s goats are grown in southern Europe, northern Africa, and Syria. Goat’s leather is employed for innumerable uses, some of the chief of which are glove making, shoemaking, and bookbinding. In the United States goats have never attained much importance as farm animals. They have been established in the Pacific States, however, notably in Oregon, and in Iowa and Missouri.

Guinea-pig.—Frequently domesticated as pets, but more often a game animal in the forest regions of South America.

Horse(Equus) is one of the noblest and most useful of animals. The horse proper is characterized by the tail with long hairs from its base; the long and flowing mane; a bare callosity on the inner surface of the hind as well as of the fore legs; and by the head and ears being smaller and the limbs longer than in the ass and other related species.

ORIGINAL HOME AND ANCESTORSOF THE HORSE

The native country of the horse seems to have been central Asia. It became early[253]domesticated in Egypt, and is mentioned throughout the Bible. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses’ hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were only shod in time of frost. Shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. It is believed that the original breed of horses is extinct, and that the half-wild herds existing in many places have descended from animals once in captivity. Thus, when the horse was first introduced by the Spaniards in 1537, at Buenos Ayres, there were no wild horses in America. But individuals escaping ran wild, and, by 1580, their descendants had spread over the continent as far as the Straits of Magellan. More fossil horses have been found in the new than in the old world. The horse may have descended from a striped ancestor, stripes still sometimes remaining, especially in duns and mouse-duns.

THE VARIOUS BREEDSOF HORSES

Like other domestic animals the horse has run into various breeds. The most celebrated is the Arab horse. Great attention is given in America to the breeding of horses, and American horses have won races both in England and on the Continent.

While the increasing use of automobiles by farmers and others may have a more or less depressing effect upon the demand for some classes of horses, no machine can successfully supersede the horse in more than a part of his many uses in business, sport and pleasure. There is a prevailing tendency toward heavier horses for farm work, and draft work in cities as well.

Of the draft breeds the Percherons, of French origin, are regarded with high favor, while the Clydesdales, from Scotland, have a well merited if not equal popularity. The English Shire and Belgian horses are also excellent types of the drafters. Cleveland Bays, one of the oldest and most popular of the English Coach breeds, are quite appropriately termed “the general utility horse,” while the admirers of the German and French Coachers, as yet comparatively few in numbers in the United States, regard them as unexcelled for similar purposes. Hackneys are pre-eminently adapted to drawing any sort of vehicle at a rapid pace on the road, and French Coachers are in demand for large, stylish, high-stepping carriage teams and single drivers.

Thoroughbreds are probably the oldest and best established of all the breeds of Europe and America. They are distinctly of British production, and especially noted for endurance and speed on the race course. The term Thoroughbred, when applied to horses, is used to designate one particular breed, the running or race horse. Standard bred classes include the trotter and his immediate fellow, the pacer. They are American productions of modern times, the outgrowth of the commercial tendencies of Americans, coupled with their ardent love for tests of speed, and fast, level-headed roadsters for light business and pleasure driving, used single or in pairs. The chief families of trotters are Hambletonians, the Mambrinos, the Clays, the Morgans, the Bashaws and the Pilots, all, except the Morgans, more or less related, and tracing their ancestry, directly or indirectly, to an imported English Thoroughbred sire, foaled in 1780, and known as Messenger.

Other breeds of horses, but of extremely small numbers, in America are the Suffolk Punch, for draft; Orloff trotters, and Shetland, Welsh and Exmoor ponies.

Of the smaller breeds of horses, the Shetland Pony is best known. Only seven or eight hands high (a hand equals four inches), they are as docile as they are hardy. Their coats are shaggy, and in winter become so matted as to protect the animals from the severe weather experienced in their northern home. Notwithstanding their small size, they are wonderfully strong, and are capable of exertion without fatigue.

THE NOBLE CHARACTEROF THE HORSE

The horse is not only a fiery racer, but displays all the noble characteristics of fidelity, gratitude, attachment, and compassion. It also exhibits a talent for understanding, has an almost unfailing memory, and a very rare docility. With patience and kind treatment the horse can be trained to go through quite complicated feats of memory and perception. That it possesses also an accurate sense of time is clear from the facility with which it can be taught to walk, trot, and dance to music, or take part in concerted evolutions. It is very timid and cautious and suspicious of every new sight or sound; while in respect of moral qualities it is scarcely too much to say that horses are as diverse as men.

CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADINGDRAFT HORSES

Belgian Draft.—Short body set on short legs. Tendons of legs large. Head good size. Eyes small, neck short, thick and well crested. Shoulders heavily muscled. Chest deep and wide, good barrel. Back short, broad and inclined to sag. Loins wide, short and very thick. Flank low and full. Hindquarters short, very wide, muscular. Lower thighs very wide, well muscled. Hocks round and meaty. Colors, chestnut, roan, brown and bay.

Clydesdale.—Weight 1700 to 2000 pounds for stallions, 1500 to 1800 pounds for mares. Height sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands. Colors, bay, brown, black or chestnut, with white markings on face and legs. Head intelligent. Shoulders good, which gives a free, easy, long stride. High withers. Arm well muscled. Feathering on leg is fine, silky and long. Quarters and croup muscular. Springy, strong pastern. Front action free and snappy.

Hackney.—Considerable substance, very smooth, gracefully curved outlines, rather short legs, head well proportioned, full, bright eyes, well developed neck, shoulders long and sloping, well muscled. Body deep and round-ribbed. Muscular loins and quarters, strong hocks, excellent action. Colors brown, bay or chestnut, with white markings. Height fifteen and two-tenths to sixteen hands.

Percheron.—Height fifteen and one-quarter to sixteen and one-half hands. Weight 1500 to 2000 pounds. Colors, gray and black. Active temperament, intelligent head, deep body, wide, muscular croup, clean-cut legs, joints clean and hard; legs show abundance of quality. Good action.

Shire.—Conformation low, broad and stout. Heavy in build, slow in movement. Large girth, deep and strongly coupled with broad back, quarters heavily muscled, legs strong, feet large. Feathering on legs below knees and hocks. Weight2200 pounds. Height 17 hands. Colors brown, bay or black with white markings on face and legs.

Suffolk Punch.—Low-set, short legs, deep body, muscular, durable feet. Head clean cut, with full forehead and Roman nose, neck full, with strong crest, chest deep and wide. Barrel deep, round-ribbed, and well let down on hind flank. Legs and hindquarters muscular. Height sixteen and one-half hands. Weight 2000 pounds. Color chestnut.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADING SADDLEAND DRIVING HORSES

American Saddle Horse.—Head rather small and clean cut. Eyes wide apart, full, clear and prominent. Ears pointed. Long, upright neck, sloping shoulders. Deep chest, short, strong back. Barrel ribbed well back. Strong coupling, quarters level, strongly muscled. Pasterns long and sloping. Bones of leg broad and flat, strong tendons. Height about fifteen hands, two inches. Weight about 1000 pounds.

French Coach.—Height sixteen hands. Weight 1000 to 1400 pounds. Rather upstanding. Smooth and symmetrical, fine quality, clean cut, intelligent head, long, graceful neck, closely ribbed body, muscular quarters. Legs well set and fine. High, free knee action, regular uplifting hock action. Colors bay, brown or black.

German Coach.—Colors bay, brown or black. Height sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands. Weight 1350 to 1450 pounds. Deep, round body, well proportioned, close ribs, neck long and high set on shoulders, neat head, intelligent face. Back short and strong, smooth at coupling, plump rounded quarters, strongly muscled limbs, strong hock, good feet.

Shetland Pony.—Height ten hands two inches. Weight 325 to 375 pounds. Compact build, deep body, heavy muscular quarters, short legs, short broad back, deep full chest, muscular neck, small head and ears, prominent eyes, docile disposition. Colors brown, black and bay. Long shaggy coats, heavy, long mane.

Standard-bred Trotter.—Head well proportioned, clean cut, neck long and muscular, crested in stallions. Shoulders well muscled, chest low, foreleg long from elbow to knee, short from knee to fetlock. Pasterns sloping, feet moderate in size, oily in appearance. Back and loin well muscled, hind quarters and croup well muscled and smooth. No fixed colors. Height sixteen hands. Weight for mares 900 pounds, stallions 1150 pounds.

Thoroughbred.—Very deep, narrow chest, long legs. Refinement and clear definition of feature. Large nostrils, full, clear eyes, broad forehead, neck long and straight, sloping shoulder, muscular hindquarters, sharp withers, well marked superficial blood vessels, silky skin and hair. Colors bay, brown or chestnut, more or less white in face and limbs. Height fifteen to sixteen hands. Weight 900 to 1050 pounds.

Welsh Pony.—Good shoulders, strong back, neat head, best of legs and feet. Height twelve to thirteen hands. Colors bay or brown, gray or black. Great strength and endurance.

Llama(Auchenia lama), a most useful South American domesticated variety of the guanaco whose herds roam with the rheas on the plains of Patagonia, or climb on the Cordilleras. As a beast of burden the llama was in general use at the time of the Spanish conquest, and its sure-footedness and power of foraging for itself make it most valuable for transport in the rough and steep mining regions of the Andes. In many places, however, mules have to some extent replaced the llamas. The males carry a hundredweight about twelve miles in a day. The females, which are kept for breeding, are smaller and less strong than the males. The animal is larger and stouter than the allied species, the alpaca, stands about three feet high at the shoulders, and keeps its head raised.

The reader of the story of “Robinson Crusoe” will remember that a llama, with its two young ones, were his first household companions.

Rabbit.—Seepage 198, underHare.

Reindeer(Rangifer tarandus) is the only representative of the genus. It is a native of the northern parts of Europe, Asia and America, and was introduced into Iceland in 1770. It is by far the most valuable of the deer, for not only are the flesh and skin of much use, but the animal has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, especially among the Laplanders.

The wild reindeer of Lapland is almost equal in size to the stag, but there are great differences of size in different districts, the largest size being generally attained in the polar regions. The reindeer is strong, somewhat heavily built, but yet very swift. The hair is longer in winter, and is gray or brownish in color. The legs are short and thick, and the broad main hoofs spread out as the animal speeds over the snow. Besides the main hoofs, there are two accessory lateral hoofs. The head is carried horizontally, not erect as in other deer. The antlers are large and are unique in being possessed by both sexes. Moreover, they begin to appear at an early stage in life, within a few weeks after birth, and at the same time in both sexes, whereas in the other deer, in which only the males have antlers, they do not appear before nine months or more after birth.

In summer the Lapland reindeer feeds chiefly on the shoots of willow and birch, while in the winter it depends mainly on lichens such as the so-called reindeer moss.

In their natural life the reindeer are gregarious. They migrate from the mountains to the lowlands in winter, and return again in spring, a change in part dependent on the food-supply. It constitutes the chief part of the Lapp’s wealth, and some possess tame herds of two thousand or more, which feed chiefly in the mountainous regions in summer and in the lower grounds in winter. The animal can maintain a speed of nine or ten miles an hour for a long time, and can easily draw a weight of two hundred pounds besides the sledge. The reindeer also yields excellent milk. In Siberia a large domestic reindeer is used for riding.

TheCaribou, or American reindeer, is found in the northern parts of Canada, but is not domesticated.

Sheep(Ovis aries).—The common sheep was probably the first animal domesticated by man in western Asia—the first home of the human race and their propagation, care and improvement have always played a large part in the best husbandry of all lands. Domestication and selective breeding have greatly modified the sheep as to bodily size, length and quality of wool, presence and character of horns, and in the case of the so-called fat-tailed sheep, the tail has become enormously developed.

Sheep were introduced into Florida by the Spanish in 1565; into Virginia in 1609; into Massachusetts in 1624; into New York in 1625; into New Jersey and Delaware by the Swedes in 1634; into Pennsylvania in 1684; and into California by the Spanish missions from Mexico in 1773.

The flesh of sheep is both a staple and a delicacy, and from their wool has been fashioned clothing to meet a wider range of requirements for bodily comfort than any other fiber, animal or vegetable, has afforded. Their skins are a large factor in manufacture, arts and commerce.

The common classification of sheep is according to the characteristics of their fleeces, as “fine wools,” “long wools” and “medium wools.” The American Merino, the Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet belong to the first named class, or fine wools; the Leicester, Lincoln and Cotswold, to the long wools; and the Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk, Hampshire and Oxford, to the medium wools. The fine wool breeds are reared chiefly for wool, while the others are kept for both wool and mutton. Nearly all the breeds in the United States, except the Merino, were imported from Great Britain. Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico and Idaho are foremost in sheep and wool-growing, and theirs, with those of Utah and Oregon, make nearly half of the total production in the United States.

The good-nature, gentleness, and patience of sheep have become proverbial; it is therefore not to be wondered at that they are the pets of children, and that the playful gambols and antics of the lambs amuse young and old alike.

CHARACTERISTICS OF REPRESENTATIVEWOOL BREEDS

Leicester.—Hornless, large size, rectangular form of body on clean legs, bare faces or carrying a very scant topknot. Head long, tapering toward muzzle, face wedge-shaped, covered with fine white hairs, eyes large and prominent, neck strong and moderately short. Breast deep, broad and full. Back broad and well fleshed. Legs of moderate length. Fleece fine, uniform, curly, with bright luster.

Lincoln.—Large size with heavy fleece of long wavy or curly wool and moderate tuft of wool on face. Color white, head large, without horns, body deep, back wide and straight. Legs broad and set well apart. Weight for rams 250 pounds, ewes 200 pounds.

Merino.—Distinguished by its very fine wool, usually delicately crimped. Wool generally short and dense. Grows to tips of ears and hoofs of feet. Form, when shorn, angular, shoulders narrow, back not usually so straight or strong as English breeds, legs less straight and neck more slender. Ram usually has horns. Very enduring and resistant. The American merino has three to five heavy folds on neck, and folds on arm and sides and across hips. Fleece covers entire sheep except tip of nose and hoofs. Eyes hidden by wool. Outside of fleece a dirty brown, but inside white. Ewes 80 to 100 pounds, rams 100 to 175 pounds. Delaine merinos have smoother bodies than the American, and fewer folds and wrinkles. Mature ewes 100 to 150 pounds, rams 140 to 200 pounds. Rambouillet merinos have large bodies, usually smooth and free from wrinkles, except perhaps on neck. Fleece fine and white. Rams usually have large spirally curved horns, ewes hornless. Legs long. Rams 175 to 185 pounds, ewes 140 to 160 pounds.

REPRESENTATIVE MUTTONPRODUCING BREEDS

Cheviot.—Medium size, hornless, face and legs white, body closely covered with wool of soft fiber and pure white. Head bold and broad. Fleece forms almost a ruff about face. Deep and large in breast, back wide and straight. Short legs set well apart, hoofs black. Mature rams 200 pounds, ewes 150 pounds.

Cotswold.—Large, high-standing breed with heavy fleece of long white, lustrous wool. Ample topknot often covering eyes. Bold, upright carriage. Head moderately small, face white or mixed with gray, eyes prominent, neck short, thick and strong, shoulders broad and full, back broad, breast broad and well forward, quarters long and full, mutton quite down to hock. Weight of ram 250 pounds, ewe 200 pounds.

Dorset-Horn.—Face and legs pure white, flesh-colored nose. Both sexes have horns. Eyes prominent, neck short and symmetrical, shoulders broad and full. Chest full and deep, quarters wide and full with mutton extending down to hock. Fleece medium grade, of even quality, extending over belly and well down on legs. Short, stout legs. Weight for rams 200 pounds, ewes 160 pounds.

Hampshire Down.—Black face, head large, well covered with wool on forehead and cheeks, nostrils wide. Ears large and drooping, eyes prominent and lustrous, legs well under outside of body, straight, almost black. Chest deep and full with breast prominent and full, back straight, quarters long and deep in thigh. Ewes prolific and heavy milkers. Weight for rams 250 pounds, ewes 185 to 195 pounds.

Oxford Down.—Largest of down breeds. Nearly straight on underline. Long and coarse fleece. Very stately appearance. Color of face and legs brown, which is often flecked with gray. Ewes very prolific and heavy milkers. Not hardy under American climatic conditions. Rams 250 to 350 pounds, ewes 180 to 275 pounds.

Shropshire Down.—Dark brown face and legs. Broad head, short face, thick muscular neck, body somewhat barrel shaped, except that it is straight on back. Body, head and legs to knees covered with fleece of even length and quality. Weight for rams 225 pounds, ewes 175 pounds.

South Down.—Smallest of down breeds, but the model in form. Short, straight legs, wide apart; broad level back, thickly fleshed; long, broad hips; neck short, thick at shoulder; head small, forehead full, face short, eyes prominent, ears small. Face and legs uniform reddish brown. Hindquarters carry down very heavy; breast broad and prominent. Fleece compact, long and close wool, white and carrying some yolk. Best weight for rams 200 pounds, ewes 150 pounds.

Suffolk Down.—Large, rangy sheep, black-faced, hornless, with long, clean, black legs. Wool is of good quality and mutton is excellent. A good feeder and very prolific.

Swine, Pig or Hog(Sus).—There are numerous varieties of the domestic pig. Some have erect and some pendent ears, and those are most esteemed which exhibit the greatest departure from the wild type, notably in shorter and less powerful limbs, less muscular and more rounded forms, wider ribs, and greater wealth of flesh.

The domestication of the pig is remotely ancient, having been established among the Chinese for some thousands of years. It was brought to America by the early colonists. However, it is only during the last two hundred years that the pig has reached its present highly modified state of domestication,[256]and only during the last century has selective breeding been carried on to secure rapid growth and much fat.

The Chinese breed is renowned for its fertility. Its head is short and thick, ears erect, legs very short, chine high and broad, and jowl wide, belly hanging very near to the ground. As a rule it carries a small quantity of hair. The skin is usually dark, but the flesh is delicate and white. The Neapolitan breed is entirely black, with little hair, remarkably easy to fatten, but scarcely so robust in constitution or so prolific as the Chinese pig.

Swine are most profitably reared where corn and grass most abound; hence, they are found in America in largest numbers and highest development, the United States not infrequently having upwards of fifty per cent of the world’s supply. In America the industry centers in the Mississippi valley, where Indian corn is grown in greatest abundance and at least expense, particularly in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Texas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio and Kansas. These swine are mostly of the four breeds of the large or “lard” type, viz.: Poland-Chinas, and Berkshires, Duroc-Jerseys and Chester Whites, the Poland-Chinas predominating.

DESCRIPTIONS OF REPRESENTATIVEBREEDS

Berkshire.—Rather more than medium size. Snout of medium length, face dished. Ears nearly erect, well carried. Jowl heavy. Neck short with considerable crest. Shoulder, back and rump of good width. Body deep. Ham thickly meated, strong constitution. Color black with a white mark on face. White on each foot and on tip of tail.

Cheshire.—Medium size. Body has good length. Shoulders and hams well developed. Face slightly dished. Ear small and erect. Bone fine and of fair quality. Color white. Black spots often occur on skin.

Chester-White.—Medium size, face straight or very slightly dished. Ear droops and is somewhat loosely attached to head. Color white, hair in many specimens wavy or curly. Neck wide, deep and short. Jowl smooth, neat and firm. Shoulders broad, deep and full. Chest large, deep, full in girth. Sides full, smooth, deep; ham broad, full, long, wide and deep. Back broad on top, straight or slightly arched, legs short and straight. Coat fine. Weight of boars two years old 500 pounds, sows 450 pounds.

Duroc-Jersey.—Medium size, fine bone. Snout medium length, face slightly dished, ear drooped, jowl heavy, body wide and deep set on short legs. Ham heavily fleshed. Cherry red the popular color, but yellowish red and chestnut are often seen. Weight of boars two years old 600 pounds, sows 500 pounds.

HampshireorThin-rind Swine.—Medium size, face straight, ear inclined forward, but does not droop. Jowl light, as is also shoulder and ham. Back of medium width. Legs of medium length and bone of good quality. Color black extremities with a white belt four to twelve inches wide encircling body and including fore-legs, which should also be white. Weight, boars two years old 450 pounds, sows 400 pounds.

Large Yorkshire.—One of the largest breeds. Snout of medium length, with little or no dish. Moderate dish in face. Jowl of good width and muscular. Ears rather large, firmly attached, fringed with fine hair. Shoulders and back of medium width. Side long. Ham lighter than that of lard type with flesh carried well round inside of thigh. Legs medium length. Bone fairly heavy, clean and flinty. Color, white.

Poland-China.—Medium size. Face slightly dished. Jowl full and heavy. Ears fine, firmly attached; about one-third of ear droops. Neck short, thick and heavily arched on top. Shoulder heavy. Side short. Back wide. Ham very wide and deep. Legs short, bone fine. Black with six white points on face, feet and tip of tail. Weight of boars two years old 600 pounds, sows 500 pounds.

Tamworth.—Should have golden-red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black. Snout long and straight. Ear large. Jowl narrow and light. Neck and shoulder are light; back and loin of medium width, side of good length, moderately deep. Rather deficient in ham. Legs long and strong.

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