UNITED STATESBRITISH EMPIREGERMANYFRANCEForm of Government:Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by the Constitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or implied therein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The general government is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial.Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional and limited.TheBritish Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire of India, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and other Dependencies, the whole forming one Empire.Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a Confederate League, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor, and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republic governed by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.Ratificationof the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in the following order:Delaware,Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.Pennsylvania,Dec. 12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.New Jersey,Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.Georgia,Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.Connecticut,Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.Massachusetts,Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.Maryland,April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12.SouthCarolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.NewHampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 to 46.Virginia,June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.NewYork, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.NorthCarolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.RhodeIsland, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but its development is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act, 1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person; the third provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled the Commons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.I. Constitution.Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867, and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.I. Constitution.Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February 25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republican institutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universal suffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, propose amendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof.Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of the legislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of the Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, and also agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. The National Assembly also elects the President of the republic.II. The President.HowElected.—The several steps in the election of the President are:StateElectors are chosen at a General Election held on theTuesday following the first Monday of Novemberof every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.TheElectors meet in their respective States on thesecond Monday in Januaryfollowing their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President; and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.TheSenate and House of Representatives meet together on thesecond Wednesday of Februarynext ensuing, and count the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President and Vice-President.Incase there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House of Representatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken by States, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.Termof Office.—Four years.Eligibility.—A natural born citizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years.II. The Sovereign.HowDesignated.—The King’s legal title rests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in the English house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters, but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.Termof Office.—Holds office for life, by hereditary title, and cannot be removed.II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.HowDesignated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions of Prussian law.Termof Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.Termof Office.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.TheNational Assembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitution and the election of President are its only functions.Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, not a member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other members of the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his Civil List receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.Salary.—$140,000.Responsibilities.—May be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates with Congress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints Public Officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States.TheVice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same as the President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibility same as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.ThePresidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes the President’s place.Incase of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President and Vice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are named below; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice and with the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor are ineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of the forty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession.Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.Parliamentcannot be assembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.Atthe commencement of a new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of the summons.Billspassed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to become law.Haslegally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passed into the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.Haspower to appoint all officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grants all degrees of nobility.Maymake treaties of any kind.Maygrant pardon to any particular offender.ThePrivy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executive authority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony, possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and the archbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principal colonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.Theimportant functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of the provisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as it may deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.Summons,opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.Allmeasures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.Billspassed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.Incases where he regards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in the Bundesrath.Allofficial acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.Appointsand may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature of the Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.Maydeclare war if defensive, and make treaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.Haspower to grant pardons.Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.Mayconvene the Chambers on extraordinary occasions.Mayadjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding one month. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases. Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to the session of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.Atthe commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read by one of the Ministers.Billspassed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned by one of his Ministers.Hasno veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers.Haspower to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to the counter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.Maymake treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.Haspower to grant pardons.Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministers act until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.The Executive DepartmentsThe Executive DepartmentsThe Executive DepartmentsThe Executive DepartmentsActs of Congressbecome laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to make objection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevents its return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.The CabinetThe MinistryImperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He is the Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.Appointmentand Tenure of Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term is dependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liability to be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.Powersand Duties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and source of all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of the Empire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no place in the Bundesrath.Thearmy and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the General Field-Marshal.Thefollowing are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:Chancellorof the Empire.Secretaryfor Foreign Affairs.ImperialHome OfficeandRepresentative of the Chancellor.ImperialAdmiralty.ImperialSecretary of Justice.ImperialTreasury.ImperialPost-Office.Secretaryfor the Colonies.And,in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:Railways.ImperialExchequer.ImperialBank.ImperialDebt Commission.Administrationof Imperial Railways.ImperialCourt Martial.Actingunder the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for the standing orders; and for railway tariffs.Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in the Chambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction to the affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.Cabinetand Council of Ministers.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, an administrative body.Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the members of the Chambers.Membersof the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:Premierand Foreign Minister.Ministersof State.Ministerof Justice and Vice-President of the Council.Ministerof War.Ministerof Marine.Ministerof the Interior.Ministerof Finance.Ministerof Agriculture.Ministerof Public Works.Ministerof Commerce.Ministerof Colonies.Ministerof Instruction and Minister of Inventions affecting National Defense.Councilof State.—Gives advice on all projects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision is final in all disputes arising in matters of administration.Ispresided over by the Minister of Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.Relationsto the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.Whethermembers of the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part in the debate.Composedof the heads of the executive departments.Appointedby the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; all other cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn from the ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.Heads of DepartmentsMembers(As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury$25,000Lord High Chancellor(and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords)50,000Minister without PortfoliounpaidLord President of the Council10,000Lord Privy SealunpaidFirst Lord of the Admiralty22,500Secretaries of State:Home Affairs25,000Foreign Affairs25,000Colonies25,000War25,000India25,000Chancellor of the Exchequer25,000Minister of Munitions25,000Secretary for Scotland10,000Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland21,125Presidents of Committees of the Council:Board of Trade25,000Local Government Board25,000Board of Education10,000First Commissioner of Works10,000Attorney-General35,000Board of Agriculture10,000Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.TreasuryDepartment.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.Departmentof War.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.Departmentof Justice.—Has charge of the legal affairs of the Government.Post-officeDepartment.—Has charge of postal affairs.NavyDepartment.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.Departmentof the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents, Bureau of Education, etc.Departmentof Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs, including Weather Bureau, etc.Departmentof Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic and foreign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.Relationsto Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is called the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business of the Houses.Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they must all resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. There is no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the two Houses.Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, they must all resign.Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet.OtherMinisters.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whose occupants have no seat in the Cabinet.III.Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives as co-ordinate bodies.Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years, commencing March 4th of the odd years.RegularSessions.—Annual, beginning the first Monday in December.SpecialSessions.—At the call of the President.Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.Congresshas General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. To borrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstate commerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws. To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. To provide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, public buildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States.III.Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on which it was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of the two Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, if it be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.AllBritish dominions are subject (except as regards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is specially mentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent to which it is repugnant absolutely void.III.The Government.Thelegislative functions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority.Theconsent of the Federal Council and Reichstag is necessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. The Federal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the Federal Council.III.The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.THESENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in 1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.THEHOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes of the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven Irish Representative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtue of office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).BUNDESRATH,or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representing the individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e.the Executives) of the States for each session.Theapportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.THESENATEis composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departments and Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.Until1884 the Senate contained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, and vacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll have been filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age.Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.Remuneration.—Receive no pay.Remuneration.—Receive no pay.Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected by the Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.Quorum.—A majority of members.Organization—Quorum.—Three, including the Lord Chancellor; thirty for final vote on a bill. The Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by mere delivery of the Great Seal to him by the Sovereign and is principal legal adviser of the Crown. His patronage is very extensive. He nominates the puisne judges and county court judges; the holder of the office may not be a Roman Catholic.Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). The Imperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President and Vice-Presidents.Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act in the preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the whole House.Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed by the Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of membersex-officio.Eachcommission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also has power to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute a high court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails.Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising power over all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or reject without amendment.Itis the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases try members of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable to the validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor, it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or more States of the Empire.Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-making the same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice for trying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and the Ministers.HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected every second year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State, however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population.HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county, borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and elected for five years by universal suffrage.THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIESis composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed among the Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a term of four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one of the German States.Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the President.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President and other officers.Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers. Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills for raising revenue.Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in the House of Commons.Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enact the laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whose validity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many other ways not susceptible of enumeration.Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and Ministers.Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointed by the Speaker.Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however, commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the House.Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed by election from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.IV.The Judicial Department.IV.Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.IV.Judicial Department.IV.Judicial Department.Judges of the United States CourtsPrivy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals from Colonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicial office.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.TheEnglish courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution of the Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.Auniform system of law courts exists throughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by the President of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as theConseil Supérieurof the magistracy.Appointedby the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.Tenureof Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary after reaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.The Supreme Court of the United StatesHouse of LordsImperial Supreme Court.The Court of Cassation.Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundred dollars.Termsof Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday in October.OriginalJurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases in which a State is a party.AppellateJurisdiction.—In cases of law and equity where the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.TheChief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of the President.Lord High Chancellorand such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This is the ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.Reichsgericht(Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sits at Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury, so far as regards matters of law.Courtsof Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-six Courts of Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury.Inferior CourtsThere are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:Lordsof Appeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.Courtof Appeal.—Ex-Officio Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.TheHigh Courtcomprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.HighCourt of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration of trusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.HighCourt of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.HighCourt of Justice, Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.Courtof Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.Courtof Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of thejus canonicumwith new powers conceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The Judicial Committee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.BankruptcyCourt.—Consisting of one Justice.The Oberlandesgerichte(Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, have original jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.TheLandgericht(County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in the criminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside at intervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.Notthe least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowest courts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminal cases.TheAmtsgerichte(Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judge competent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.Court of Assizes.—In all cases of adélitor a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, who decide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.Justicesof the Peace(juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belonging to the civil tribunals of first instance.Forcommercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-six towns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is a party. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be by jury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.Appealsto the Supreme Courtmay be had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.Kinds of Inferior CourtsUnitedStates Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve the United States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the District Courts.Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.UnitedStates Circuit Courts.—Numberof Circuits.—Nine.Numberof Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Court is assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.Salaryof Circuit Judges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.UnitedStates District Courts.—Numberof Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there are seventy-three Judicial Districts.Salaryof District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.UnitedStates Court of Claims.—Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it by Congress.Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousand dollars.Inaddition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction in the District of Columbia and in the Territories.