Fig. 95.—Cruche.
Fig. 95, a cruche of fine fayence, painted witha landscape in greycamaïeu, is signed “Joh. Schaper”; it has a white ground with flowers and fruit in natural colours; date about 1640; height 8½ in.
Scherzheim, in Würtemberg. The Wintergursts, father and son, were celebrated potters here, and made fayence from the beginning of the 17th century; it is from their manufactory that the table services, of which each piece represents an animal or a vegetable, were made.
Lauenstein, near Coblenz. A manufactory was established in 1760; thegrèsor stoneware made here was of grey and blue, ornamented with incuse patterns; it was made in large quantities, and carried by the Rhine boats to the markets in Holland, where it met with a ready sale.
Höchst, near Mainz. Enamelled fayence was made here in the beginning of the 18th century, at a factory founded by Gelz of Frankfort. The manufactory ceased in 1794, but a potter named Dahl established one in the vicinity. He made statuettes and other ornaments.
Dresden.A manufactory was established at Meissen, on the Elbe, about 12 miles from Dresden, by Augustus II., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of hard paste, or trueporcelain. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706; to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt produced a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary and gilt by the goldsmith. It was made from a kind of brown clay found at Meissen. This red ware, made by Böttcher, was a fine stoneware, having opacity, grain, and toughness.
Fig. 96.—Böttcher Coffee-Pot.
Another kind of pottery was made at the beginning of the 18th century, in imitation of the Japanese; it was called the red pottery of Dresden.
Teinitz(Bohemia). A manufactory was carried on in this small town in the 18th century by a potter named Welby.
Fig 97.—Plate.
Fig. 97. A plate painted in bistrecamaïeuwith the Discovery of Calisto by Diana. It has an elegant border in grey, with richly gilt designs, resembling the gilding of Vienna. Date about 1800.
Frankenthal.Paul Hannong, driven from Strassburg in 1753, in consequence of the Vincennes monopoly, founded a manufactory here in the following year for hard paste porcelain; he also made great quantities of fayence, usually decorated with flowers, as at Strassburg. It was called “Poterie du Rhin.”
Arnstadt(Gotha). A factory was established here about the middle of the 18th century. A fayence jug, painted in bluecamaïeu, with St. Georgeand the Dragon, coloured flowers on the sides, and a purple and green check border, is in the British Museum.
Kielwas noted for its fayence about 1770; the factory was under the direction of J. Buchwald, who had been master potter at Marieberg, 1761 to 1765; a few years after, probably in 1767 or 1768, he became director of the Kiel manufactory. The paintings of landscapes and flowers in colours are well finished.
Fig. 98.—Bishop’s Mitre Bowl.
Delft,a town between the Hague and Rotterdam, was celebrated for its earthenware at a very early period. The exact date of its commencement is not known, but there is a record of a certain Herman Pietersz, a fayence maker, being married in 1584, consequently pottery was being made in the town towards the end of the 16th century. At this period the decorated Dutch pottery showed Italian influence in its design, and it is recorded that a painter on pottery named Vroom studied his art in Italy.
After the middle of the 17th century the industry increased rapidly, and reached its greatest prosperity about 1680, when there were about thirty different factories, and the ware was decorated by highly skilled artists. No one was allowed to establish a factory unless he had obtained a licence from the Guild of St. Luc.
To this period belong famous potters, such as P. J. Van Kessel of “The Metal Pot”; Abram de Kooge of “The Old Moor’s Head,” who decorated landscapes in bluecamaïeu; and Albrecht de Keizer, with his two sons-in-law, Jacob and Adrian Pynaker,of “The Three Porcelain Bottles,” who were the first to imitate oriental porcelain. Other potters of note at this time were the Eenhorns, father and two sons, the Kleftyns, and the five Kams.
Fig. 99.—Cruche.
By the middle of the 18th century, owing to the competition of English pottery, the Delft industry was already on the wane. In 1780 the factories were reduced to one half their former number, and by 1808 only seven existed. All these gradually succumbed, and now only one factory, “The Old Porcelain Bottle,” remains.
Fig. 100.—Teapot.
The forms of the Delft ware are very varied; among other curious efforts the potters produced musical instruments. There are four fayence violins extant, all painted in bluecamaïeu, with figures in Dutch costume of the 17th century, dancing and singing, musicians and kermess scenes, in the manner of Gerard Lairesse, with cupids and Renaissance ornaments as borders.
The decorated pieces of Ter Himpelen, although rarely signed, are much prized; he painted fairs and marine subjects on square plaques, about the year 1650. So also are those of Piet Viseer, a celebrated colourist, who flourished about 1750; and of Van Domelaar, who painted Chinese landscapes, &c., about 1580.
Fig. 101.—Vase.
Fig. 99, a cruche, is painted in bluecamaïeu, with a musical party, in the costume of about 1670.
Fig. 102.—Plate.
Fig. 100, a teapot, is painted in polychrome with Chinese landscapes and flowers on a black ground. It has the mark of Louwys Fictoor. Late 17th or early 18th century.
Fig. 101, a vase, is painted in blue with flowers, inimitation of a Chinese type. The mark of Ghisbrecht Lambrechtse Kruyk. Later half of 17th century.
Fig. 102, a plate painted with figures in blue, is one of a set of twelve representing the tobacco industry.
Utrecht.There was a manufactory of tiles here, founded in 1760; they were decorated in blue or violet,en camaïeu, in imitation of Delft; the manufactory was closed in 1855.
Amsterdam.A German Jew of Breslau, named Hartog, known as Hartog Van Laun, and another, named Brandeis, established a manufactory of fayence near the gate of Weesp, at Amsterdam. The ware is heavy, not very artistic, and usually in bluecamaïeu. Fig. 103, a fruit dish, is painted in blue, with a man and woman seated.
Fig. 103.—Dish.
Overtoom.A manufactory of fine fayence was established in 1754, in the parish of Amstelveen, near Amsterdam; it lasted ten years. The Barons Van Haeren and Van Palland were the proprietors, and Ariel Blankers was the director. The fayence, though heavy, was of a fine white enamel and of good forms; besides table and tea services, groups of birds, modelled from nature, statuettes, &c., were made.
An importantfabriquewas established at Luxemburg by the brothers Boch, in 1767, who had removed from Audun le Riche in France. They made various descriptions of earthenware, as well as fine fayence, and largely imitated the English Queen’s ware.
St. Petersburg.About the year 1700, Peter the Great, during his stay at Saardam, induced some potters of Delft to emigrate to St. Petersburg, where he established a manufactory. We have no information on the subject, except a notice of it in the “Connaissances Politiques,” of Beausobre, published at Riga in 1773: “There is also among the porcelain manufactories at St. Petersburg afabriqueof fayence, on the other side of the Neva, where they make every description of vessels of correct design and in good taste. A private gentleman of Revel has also established at his own cost, near this city, afabriqueof fayence, and has obtained painters and potters from Germany.”
Rörstrand, a suburb of Stockholm, where a factory for earthenware was established in 1726. The works were at first under the direction of Jean Wolf. He was succeeded by C. C. Hünger. In 1772 they were managed by Nordenstople, and later by Geyer.
Fig. 104.—Butterboat.
Marieberg
Fig. 105.—Vase and Cover.
Fig. 104, a butterboat, leaf-shaped, is painted with flowers; dated 1771.
Stockholmis the same manufactory as Rörstrand, but the mark was altered when the latter town was united to the capital.
Marieberg, near Stockholm. The second Swedish pottery was established in 1750, on the expiration of the monopoly of Rörstrand, by M. Ehrenreich, under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State. The fayence was something like Delft ware, and it was also ornamented with transfer printing.
Fig. 106.—Plate.
Fig. 105, a vase and cover, is coloured in relief; date about 1770.
Fig. 106, a plate with pierced border, has a shield of arms and flowers; dated 1768.
Porcelainhas this distinguishing characteristic, that when held up to a strong light it appears translucent, unlike fayence, which is perfectly opaque. Its fracture is hard and white internally, like a broken piece of alabaster.
Porcelain of soft paste has the appearance of an unctuous white enamel like cream; it is also to the touch of a soft, warm, and soapy nature, something like the surface of fine fayence. Thepâte tendreis also soft in another sense, being unable to bear so great a degree of heat in the furnace as hard porcelain. The soft paste may, therefore, be easily cut or scratched with a steel point or a file, which would have no effect upon the hard paste; it is consequently liable to become much scratched by frequent use. The hard paste or true porcelain is of the whiteness of milk; it feels to the touch of a hard and cold nature, and is somewhat heavier than the soft; underneath the plates and other pieces the rim or edge is left unpolished, or without glaze.
The painting upon porcelain is executed after the ware has been baked. Whilst in a biscuit state, the piece to be painted is dipped into a diluted glaze; it readily absorbs the water, leaving on the surface a thin coating of components which quickly driesinto a solid shell, uniformly thick over all its parts, and sufficiently firm to bear handling without being rubbed off during removal into the seggar or case which protects it in the kiln.
The amateur must be upon his guard in collecting porcelain, and not place too much reliance on the marks which he may find upon the ware. When the mark is not indented on the paste, or baked with the porcelain when at its greatest heat (au grand feu), it gives no guarantee of its genuineness. The mark was nearly always affixed before glazing. It is necessary in forming a correct judgment of the authenticity of a piece of valuable china, such as Sèvres, that many things be taken into consideration: First, above all it is most important to be satisfied whether the porcelain be of hard or soft paste, and whether such description of paste was made at the particular epoch represented by the mark; then, if the decoration be in keeping with the style adopted at the time indicated, the colours, the finish, and various otherindiciamust also be taken into consideration.
Florence.The first successful attempt in Europe to imitate porcelain was made at Florence as early as 1580, under the auspices of Francesco I. de’ Medici, but it was not so hard as that of China; that is to say, it was not composed ofkaolinandpetuntse, but was a soft paste andtranslucent, which is one of the principal tests of porcelain. For some reason, the manufacture of this porcelain was abandoned after the death of the inventor.
Fig. 107.—Cruet.
Fig. 107, a cruet for oil and vinegar, has scroll ornament in blue; on either spout A and O (Aceto and Olio). About 1600.
Fig. 108, a bowl, is painted inside and out with blue flowers. About 1600.
Fig. 108.—Bowl.
Doccia.The manufactory was founded in 1735 by the Marquis Carlo Ginori, contemporaneously with the manufactory at Sèvres. About 1760 it rose to great importance, and large groups were executed from the models of the most celebrated sculptors. In 1821 the moulds of the Capo di Monte porcelain were transferred to Doccia.
Fig. 109.—Teapot.
About 1860 the fabrication of the imitative Capo di Monte ware of the 18th century, in colouredmezzo-rilievo, was brought to great perfection, as well as the successful imitation of the maiolica of Xanto and Maestro Giorgio of the 16th century, by the invention and introduction of metallic lustres in the colouring.
Fig. 110.—Basin.
Fig. 109, a teapot, is painted with flowers and purple border.
Fig. 110, a basin, has a band of flowers in relief. Diameter 5½ in.
Naples—Capo di Monte.This manufactory was founded by Charles III. in 1736. It is considered of native origin, as the art, which was kept so profound a secret in Dresden, could, at that early period, have scarcely had time to be introduced here, and the character of its productions are also essentially different. The king himself took great interest in it, and is said to have worked occasionally in the manufactory. The beautiful Capo di Monte services and groups in coloured relief are of the second period,circa1760.
Fig. 111.—Vase.
Fig. 112.—Saucer.
Fig. 113.—Cup and Saucer.
Fig. 114.—Coffee-pot.
Fig. 111, a vase, has green ornaments, on gold ground, and medallions of figures.
Fig. 112, a saucer, bears a portrait of Ferdinand IV. and legend.
Fig. 113, a cup and saucer, is painted with landscape and figures.
Fig. 114, a coffee-pot, has classical subjects.
Treviso.There was a manufactory of soft porcelain probably established towards the end of the 18th century, carried on by the brothers Giuseppe and Andrea Fontebasso.
Fig. 115.—Écuelle.
Fig. 115, an écuelle, with blue ground, has gold fretborders and oval medallions of Italian buildings, landscapes, and figures.
Fig. 116.—Cup and Saucer.
Fig. 116, the cup is painted with a garden scene, with a man and woman holding flowers, the former also holding a bird, the latter a cage.
Turin—Vinovo.Vittorio Amedeo Gioanetti established a manufactory of porcelain at Vinovo or Vineuf in 1770. Attempts in this direction had been previously made, but they were unsuccessful, and it was not until Gioanetti applied himself to the manufacture that it succeeded. The ware was noted for its fine grain and the whiteness of its glaze, as well as for the colours employed in its decoration.
Fig. 117.—Écuelle.
Fig. 117, an écuelle, is ornamented in gold, with initials and the Royal Arms.
Venice.Porcelain of soft paste was made here probably about 1720.
The “Casa eccellentissima Vezzi” was founded by Francesco Vezzi, a goldsmith of Venice. He invested the sum of 30,000 ducats in a porcelain company, amongst whose shareholders were Luca Mantovani and others. The site of the Vezzi manufactory of porcelain was at S. Nicolo in Venice. How long after Vezzi’s death it was carried on does not appear, but judging from the statements made to the Senate in 1765, it did not long survive him, and the secret of his process for making porcelain had evidently not been disclosed.
Materials for making porcelain were to be obtained in the Venetian dominions, but not such as to produce thehardor Oriental porcelain; they were therefore procured from Saxony, as were probably also some of the workmen, which will account for the fact that the “Casa eccellentissima Vezzi” produced bothhardandsoftpaste.
The pieces made at the Vezzi manufactory are painted with masquerades, grotesque Chinese figures and decorations in relief, flowers, birds, arabesques, and geometrical patterns and colours, statuettes, &c., especially in the Venetian red which pervades all the decorations, the handles, borders, and mouldings being sometimes covered with silver or platinum, producing the effect of oxidised metal mountings. Another striking peculiarity in the decoration of porcelain of this period is a border of black or coloured diaper work formed by crossed lines, having in the interstices small gilt points or crosses bordered by scrolls. These specimens are mostly of hard paste in the form of bowls, plates, tureens, &c.
Fig. 118.—Vase and Cover.
Fig. 119.—Vase.Cozzi period.Height 17 in.
A beautiful example of this porcelain is represented in Fig. 118, a vase and cover of hard paste painted in lakecamaïeu, heightened by gold, with a continuous landscape; the peculiar border, noticed above, with marks and interlaced bands, is shown on the cover; the edges, knob, and flutings are raised and plated with silver or platinum.
After the Vezzi manufactory had ceased to exist we have no documents to prove that any efforts were made to introduce the manufacture of porcelain into Venice until December 1757, when a petition was presented to the Venetian College by Frederick Hewelcke & Co., who stated that the sale introduced and directed by them in Dresdenof Saxon porcelain had been carried on in a very flourishing manner, but that in consequence of the then existing war (the Seven Years’ War, which commenced in 1756), they had been obliged to abandon Saxony and to seek refuge in a foreign country.
On the 18th of March 1758, a decree granted to the Hewelckes the privileges they had requested. It seems that the undertaking proved eventually to be unfortunate, and at the termination of that war, which had brought them to Venice, they returned to their native country.
In 1765, the Senate granted to Giminiano Cozzi, in the Contrada di San Giobbe, Venice, protection and pecuniary assistance in carrying out a manufacture of porcelain. Cozzi’s first efforts were directed towards the imitation of the Oriental ware; and a very large trade was carried on by him for nearly fifty years. He produced statuettes in biscuit, in glazed white porcelain, and coloured groups, vases, &c. The gilding on Cozzi’s porcelain is especially fine, the pure gold of the sequin having been used in its decoration.
The manufactory ceased to exist in 1812.
Nove.The manufacture of porcelain at Nove may be traced back as far as the 12th January 1752, when Pasqual Antonibon brought from Dresden a certain Sigismund Fischer to construct a furnace for making porcelain in the Saxon style.
From this time forward he continued his experiments, and must have made great progress in the art, for in February 1761 he had three furnaces, of which one was for Saxon (ad uso di Sassonia),the other two for French porcelain (ad uso di Francia).
In 1762, Antonibon submitted specimens of his porcelain to the Board of Trade, and petitioned that the patent rights which had been conceded to Hewelcke should be extended to him. At that time, the report states, Antonibon had at Nove a manufactory, rich in buildings, machinery, and tools. The capital embarked in it was estimated at 80,000 ducats, and so great was the sale of his products that he gave employment to 150 men and their families, in addition to 100 people employed in his retail business, carried on at his three shops in Venice. This extensive manufactory was, however, principally for maiolica.
Fig. 120.—Jardinière.ByAntonibon.
On the 7th April 1763, a decree was made in his favour; and he appears to have set earnestly to work in his manufacture of porcelain. His competitor,Hewelcke, shortly after deserted Venice; but he had a more formidable rival in Giminiano Cozzi, who obtained a decree for making porcelain in 1765, in which Pasqual Antonibon’s manufacture is noticed, the Senate declaring it to be the duty of the magistrate to make such arrangements as would lead to an amicable understanding between the rival manufacturers and their workmen.
Fig. 121.—Vase.
Pasqual Antonibon and his son Giovanni Battistacontinued the fabrication of porcelain until the 6th February 1781, when they entered into partnership with Signor Parolini. The same manufacture,con sommo onore dell’arte, was continued by them until the 6th February 1802, when it was leased to Giovanni Baroni, who produced some very charming pieces both in form and decoration; but in a few years, from being badly conducted, it began to fall off, and by degrees it went to decay and was abandoned. The “Fabbrica Baroni,” however, lingered on for more than twenty years.
Fig. 122.—Vase.
Fig. 123.—Milk-pot.
An example of the Baronifabrique, in porcelain, with female figure handles, and painted with classical subjects, is given. (See Fig. 121.)
On 21st May 1825, the old firm of “Pasqual Antonibon and Sons” resumed the works, the actual proprietors being Gio. Batt. Antonibon and his son Francesco; they continued the manufacture ofporcelain until 1835, but all their efforts to sustain it were ineffectual; they could not compete with the porcelain manufactories of France and Germany, so they were compelled to abandon the factory.
Madrid—Buen Retiro.This manufactory (Soft Paste), called “La China,” was founded by Charles III. in 1759, in the gardens attached to his palace,El Buen Retiro, at Madrid. It was organised by workmen whom he brought with him from Naples. The early ware produced here consequently resembles that of Capo di Monte.
Fig. 124.—Group.
The royal manufactory was taken possession of by the French, and the place converted into a fortification, which surrendered in 1812 to the Duke of Wellington. It was subsequently blown up by Lord Hill when the misconduct or perfidy of Ballasteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid.
Fig. 125.—Vase.Height 22 in.
Fig. 126.—Vase.With scenes from“Don Quixote.”Height 17 in.
Ferdinand VII., on his restoration, recreatedLa China, at La Mancha, once a villa of the Alva familyon the Manzanares; but this factory also has ceased to exist, at least as regards artistic merit.
Alcora.The Comte de Laborde, in hisView of Spain, in 1808, says, “On ne fait de Porcelaine (en Espagne) qu’à Alcora et à Madrid: celle d’Alcora est très commune, on en fait très peu.” In confirmation of this assertion M. Chas. Davillier, on a visit to Spain, saw an engraving of a furnace for baking porcelain with this inscription: “Modele de four pour la porselene naturele, fait par Haly pour M. le Comte d’Aranda Alcora, 29 Juin 1756.” The works are also noticed by Don Antonio Ponz,Viaje de España, in 1793.
Fig. 127.—Plaque.
Dresden.The celebrated porcelain manufactory at Dresden, or rather at Meissen (in its vicinity), was established by Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of true porcelain, that is, hard paste. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706, and to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt was a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary, and ornamented by gilding; it was a fine stoneware, having the opacity, grain, and toughness of pottery. Later, Böttcher succeeded in discovering the mode of making true porcelain by the accidental detection of the kaolin necessary for the purpose. In consequence of this important discovery, Augustus II. established the great manufactory at Meissen, of which Böttcher was appointed Director in 1710, and about 1715 he succeeded in making a fine white porcelain. The first decorations upon this ware were very imperfect, consisting of a blue colour under the glaze, in imitation of Nankin blue porcelain. It was under Horoldt’s direction, in 1720, that paintings of a superior character, accompanied by gilding, and medallions of Chinese figures were introduced, and magnificent services completed.In 1731, Kändler, a sculptor, superintended the modelling of animals, groups, vases, &c., while other artists painted birds, insects, and copies of paintings principally of the Flemish school. The bestproductionsemanated from the Dresden manufactory from 1731 to 1756.
Fig. 128.—Vase.
Fig. 129.—Sucrier, Cup and Saucer.Etched byBusch.
Fig. 130.—Cup and Saucer.Of the Marcolini period, with gros bleu ground.
Kändler modelled men and animals of the natural size, as well as peacocks, herons, pelicans, and other birds. Among the pieces produced about this time by, or under the direction of, Kändler, at Meissen was Count Bruhl’s tailor mounted upon a goat, with all the implements of his trade about him. This vain man had a great desire that his likeness should be executed in porcelain at the royal manufactory, and his request was complied with, but probably not in such a way as to gratifyhis vanity, for not only the tailor but his wife were thus immortalised,aere perennius, in porcelain. In 1754 Dietrich became Director, and he was succeeded in 1796 by Marcolini, whose beautiful productions are well known. Porcelain of his period is always distinguished by a star underneath crossed swords. In spite of the precautions taken at Meissen to prevent the secret becoming known—the penalty being death, or perpetual imprisonment in the Castle of Königstein—some workmen escaped to reveal it elsewhere.
Fig. 131.—Vase and Cover.Painted with views of public buildings in Dresden.
The white Meissen porcelain was sometimes ornamented by private persons, especially by a Baron Busch, Canon of Hildesheim, who was the only person possessed of the secret of engraving with a diamond on china.
Fig. 132.—Bust of a Girl.White porcelain.
Fig. 133.—Teapot and Saucer.Pink ground, painted with landscapes and figures.
Berlin.This manufactory forHard Pastewas established by Wilhelm Caspar Wegeli in 1751, in the Neue Friedrichsstrasse. It was carried on for about ten years, but it never remunerated the originator, and he abandoned it in 1761, when Gottskowski, a celebrated banker, became the purchaser, and removed the works to Leipziger Strasse; assisted by his capital, they were brought to great perfection.
Fig. 134.—Group.In plain white. Wegeli period.Height 9 in.
Johann Ernst Gottskowski obtained the secret of porcelain from Ernst Heinrich Richard, who had been employed by Wegeli. Gottskowski did not personally manage the manufactory, but placed it under the management of the Commissioner Grunenger, which led to his employment from the year 1763 to 1786 as the head of the royal porcelain manufactory at Berlin.
In 1763, Gottskowski gave up to the king the whole of his factory of porcelain, receiving 225,000dollars, and entering into a contract for the sale of his secrets.
Fig. 135.—Group.Wegeli period.Height 6¾ in.
With a view to encouraging the manufacture in his kingdom, the king made presents of superb services of Berlin china to several German princes in the year 1766. When Frederick the Great occupied Dresden, in the seven years’ war, he expatriated many of the best modellers and painters to form his royal manufactory; among these were Meyer, Klipsel, andBöhme. The king also transported great quantities of the clay and a portion of the collection. Independently of this, and the better to insure employment for the five hundred persons engaged in the processes, he restricted the Jews resident in any part of his dominions from entering into the marriage state, until each man had obtained a certificate from himself, which was only granted on the production of a voucher from the Director of the manufactory that porcelain to a given amount had been purchased, and that there was reasonable cause for granting the indulgence. Of course the Jews more readily disposed of their purchases than the general dealers, and the device was attended with favourable results. To insure the success of the establishment and extend its operations, Frederick embraced every opportunity that was presented; and it was so well supported that in 1776 seven hundred men were constantly employed, and it is said that three thousand pieces of porcelain were made daily.
Fig. 136.—Milk-pot, Cup and Saucer.
In 1769 an order was published permitting a lottery company to purchase annually to the amount of 90,000 dollars.
About 1872, the Berlin Royal Porcelain Manufactory was working seven kilns, and employing three hundred workmen; the annual produce amounted on an average to half a million finished articles, value 150,000 Prussian dollars. The superintendence was entrusted to Herr Kolbe (who succeeded Herr Frick in the direction), under whom were Dr. Eisner as chemist, Herr Mantel as master modeller, and Herr Looschen as head painter.