The natives do, occasionally, make a weak, greenish, and blistered glass intocaraboys, or great bottles for rose-water, and into lesser ones, such as thegundies, or itinerant perfumers, use; but this is on a very small scale, and chiefly supplied from broken tumblers, shades, &c., ofEuropean manufacture. There are persons at Patna, who have men constantly employed in purchasing broken glass, of every description, from the servants of Europeans, and in collecting such fragments as may be thrown out among the ordinary rubbish.
It must occasionally happen, that neither glass, nortalc, can be readily obtained; in which case, the best mode is to make light frames, and to pannel, or fill them up with wax-cloth, neatly nailed on. This is an admirable substitute, not only keeping out wind, rain, and dust, but, in the cold season, preserving the warmth of rooms, yet admitting sufficient light for ordinary purposes: I have very frequently resorted to this expedient, and even to frames of oiled paper; all I had to regret was, that they debarred my seeing what passed abroad. To a person just arrived from Europe, such would appear a most distressing privation; but, after experiencing a few seasons behindtatties, without being able to enjoy the light during the whole day, and that for months together, such recluseness would scarcely be considered worthy of notice: so true it is, that we gradually become habituated to the loss of ordinary enjoyments, of faculties, and even of civil and religious liberty!!!
Althoughbungalowshave not any ceilings of plaster, they are rendered inconceivably neatwithin, by means of a double sheet, made of very coarse cotton cloth, calledguzzy; of which tents are usually constructed. These sheets are fitted to the several apartments respectively, are bound with strong tape around, and have, besides, various tapes forming an union cross of eight limbs, or rays, all meeting in the centre. As the cornices commonly project near a foot, abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet (called thechandny,) to battens, nailed to pegs built in the wall: these battens being firmly secured all the way round, about an inch above the cornice, admit the sheet to be strained very tight, so as to bag very little, if at all, in the centre. Some white-wash theirchandnies, and take so much pains in establishing a firm appearance, as to render them very similar to well made ceilings. Without this last mode of preparation, music has no effect in abungalow; indeed, at the best, the most powerful instrument is heard under very great disadvantages, owing to the number of apertures, thesatringes, mats, couch and table covers, &c., all which deaden the tones considerably.
Those who are very particular in whatever relates to their furniture, &c., have theirverandaslined in the same manner as their apartments, giving them a finished appearance; but, in such exposed situations the cloths are apt tocollect considerable quantities of dust, which is perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the cloths when acted upon by the wind: on this accountseerkyappears to me far preferable as a lining forverandas.
The usual expedient, when doors of any description are not made, is to providepurdahs, made ofkarwah, (orguzzy,) or both mixed in perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide each: some, especially those who are stationary, make theirpurdahsof shalloon, perpet, or very coarse broad-cloth, in the following manner. The cloth is made into two sheets of equal dimensions, say nine feet by six, and having strong tapes, perhaps five or seven in number, inserted cross-wise between them: these tapes are double. The whole circumference of thepurdahis then sewed very neatly, and bound with tape, corresponding with the color of the cloth, and the ends of the tapes are also bound by means of leather, covered with the same materials. Between every pair of tapes, a bamboo, of a small kind, but very tough, is introduced; or, perhaps, a stout lath made from a bamboo of the large sort. These sticks, or laths, serve to keep the cloth stretched out, and when thepurdahis suspended, much in the same manner as has been explained for the mounting of acheek, lie horizontally; thus preventing the wind from blowing in thepurdah.
It is observed as a general rule, always to make apurdahfull a foot wider on each side than the door way it is to conceal; also to carry it a foot above the door plate, and to have a portion, about a foot in depth, without any lath, at the bottom, so as to trail a little on the ground. Thosepurdahswhich are made ofkarwah, or other cotton stuff, are generally quilted with cotton, or are composed of many folds, or have coarse blankets inlaid between their outer coatings. The last is by far the most effectual, most neat, and most durable mode of construction; but, at the best,purdahsare a very indifferent make-shift; and, though often, from necessity, applied to windows, are by no means answerable to their intention. Their best use is certainly to deaden sounds; hence, they are advantageously suspended outside the doors of sleeping, or other retired apartments; when, by closing the doors, privacy and quiet may usually be effected. The presence of apurdahusually indicates the exclusion of males; and that the apartments, within that entrance, are devoted to the accommodation of ladies; except when rolled up, and tied, as has been explained in regard tocheeks.
The best timber for building, in whatever branch, is thesygwam, orteak; but its dearness prevents its general use, especially since naval architecture has been so much an object of speculationat Calcutta. However, it can generally be purchased at about a rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, per foot: making its utmost price about three shillings and three-pence. Those who build houses of the first class, rarely fail to lay all their tarrases uponteakjoists; both because they possess superior strength, and that they are far less likely to be attacked by the white-ants. This has been attributed to the quantity of tannin contained inteak-wood, which some have asserted to be a perfect preventive, or antidote; but, after having seen those noxious insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale, I can never bring myself to accord with such an opinion. There is, inteak-wood, evidently some property, hitherto occult, that repels the white-ant, at least for some years, but which is doubtless diminished by exposure to the air; as we find that very oldteak-timbers become rather more subject to depredation, than new ones. The greater part of theteakused in Bengal, and at Madras, is imported from the Pegu coast, in immense beams, and in spars, planks, &c., of all sizes. It is by no means unusual to see the squared timbers measuring from forty, to fifty, feet in length, and averaging from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. Here is food for our dock-yards!
It would certainly be attended with considerablebenefit to the public, if that occult principle, or matter, which apparently exists in theteak-wood, enabling it to resist both the white-ant, and the river-worm, could be ascertained; it might be possible to impregnate, or to saturate, other timber in a similar manner. This is the more essential, because we have abundant proofs that mere hardness does not deter those voracious insects, which are found at times even upon the lignum vitæ! But the principal object, so far as relates to naval purposes, is, that theteak-wood certainly is, in a great measure, devoid of the gallic, or any other, acid; or, if such is present, it assuredly must be in a very limitted portion; since the nails driven intoteak-wood are never corroded so as to decay the surrounding wood, and to liberate it from confinement. To this decay, called ‘iron-sickness,’ are attributed many losses of ships, supposed to have foundered at sea, in consequence of planks starting; which must often happen when the wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid, or by the action of salt water upon the iron. In repairing ships built of oak, many nails are found perfectly insulated, by the wood having been rotted, and fallen away; which has never been the case with vessels built ofteak.
The generality of apartments being large, the halls measuring perhaps from thirty to fortyfeet in length, and from sixteen to twenty-four in width, and other rooms in proportion, it is evident that very substantial, as well as long, timbers must be requisite to support their flat roofs; for, with a few exceptions, truss-roofs are not in use. The mode introduced by Mr. Lyon, the Company’s architect, at Berhampore, certainly contributed greatly to reduce the quantity of timber in a roof, but it rendered it absolutely necessary that every timber should be perfectly sound. That gentleman, whose professional skill, and excellent social qualities, demand an ample tribute, explodedburgahs, (or smaller battens,) from the roofs he constructed; and, in their stead, threw arches from the centre of one to the centre of the other timber; so that the intervals between the timbers were to appearance grooved, or fluted, longitudinally. This, however, was barely distinguishable, the arches being very elliptic; rarely, indeed, including more than an angle of six degrees, on a circle having full ten feet of radius.
Hence, it will be seen, that the joists were tolerably close, but their diameters admitted of considerable reduction, on account of the continuity of such a series of arches, which gave great solidity; and, by their mutual pressure, admitted that a joist should be freely removed, without in the least affecting the roof.
The houses built and inhabited by the natives, invariably have flat roofs. In these the apartments are, for the most part, extremely narrow, and dark. Theverandas, where any are made, consist of arcaded fronts, invariably indented gothic; and have pillars, either of an hexagonal, or of an octagonal, form, resting on short pedestals, while the arch may be seen to break off rather too suddenly from the shaft, which continues up tobaisez-mur, (orbassimere, as our architects vulgarly call it,) and divides the upper part into various compartments, all of which are ornamented with a profusion of carved work. In almost every Hindostanee building, of this description, there will be seen an odd number of arches, to which others in the main part of the edifice generally correspond. The chambers, if so we may call them, are taken off from the ends of the halls, by similar arcades; each of which, as well as those of the exterior, is furnished with apurdah. These narrow slips have no windows, or, at the best, only small loop holes. The intention of such oven-like recesses would perplex an European unacquainted with Asiatic customs, but he would soon find that, in the cold season, such are peculiarly warm, and that, during those months in which the glare is obnoxious, they remain cooler than such as admit more light. Almost every house is furnished with some means of ascending to thechut, (or flat tarras-roof,) whereon the natives often pass the evening, causing the heat to be first abated, by means of several pots of water, which throw up a steam fully indicating the temperature at which the tarras had arrived. The natives are not partial to upper-roomed houses in general; though they affect to pride themselves greatly in the possession ofdoomaulahs, that is, of houses having a second floor: it seems that ostentation is the reason of this predilection in favor of ground floors, whereon all their attendants, &c., may be seen from the level of theircompounds(or enclosed areas). The stairs, where any exist, (for sometimes a very mean boarded ladder is made to answer that intention,) are narrow, steep, and unsafe: these are almost always built of solid masonry, as far up as the first turn, (or landing place,) after which they commonly consist of small bricks laid edgeways in lime mortar, supported by stout timbers, placed at a proper angle, and resting on the proximate joist of the upper floor. In every Hindostanee house, the doors are very low, and often are made to open into a long arcadedveranda, running the whole length of the interior, much the same as in our inns; while, in the front, or towards the road, a hanging balcony is sometimes made, supported on continuations of the joists, of which the extremities are carvedinto grotesque forms; such as the heads of alligators, or of tigers, or of serpents, and not infrequently of little human figures, whose size and squat position strongly put us in mind of afœtus in utero.
Saul-woodis used to an immense extent, both in buildings, and in the construction of ships, but is not to be compared, either for toughness, strength, resistance against insects, or durability, withteak. Its price is much in favor of general service, to which its great size, and admirable straightness, are considerable, and valuable recommendations; but it is extremely apt to crack, though not to snap; especially when exposed to the weather. There is something very peculiar insaul-wood; since it is seen to warp, even after having been employed in bulk for many years, riving into large fissures longitudinally: the white-ants also devour it with avidity. Mr. Lyon, already noticed, when he was building the General Hospital at Berhampore, caused an immense copper trough to be made, in which he boiled the beams intended for that edifice: some were boiled in pure water, others with tannin, and some with arsenic; under the hope both of seasoning the timber, and of giving it a repellant, or preservative quality. This ingenious, and highly praise-worthy experiment, was by no means successful; for, although, in the first instance, the timbers seemed to defy thewhite-ant, especially those boiled in the solution of arsenic, still they were not completely secured from depredation; while, on the other hand, nine in ten rived so dangerously as to demand immediate props, and ultimate removal.
Many authors have recommended the boiling of timber, planks, &c., with a view to extract the sap, and thus to season them out of hand; but they have invariably neglected to furnish us with the results. Now, I have ever held it necessary, that medical practitioners should keep a register of the obituary, as well as of the convalescent department, in order that we may know how toavoidcertain systems; which, doubtless, for want of such a guide, or caution, have been repeatedly resorted to by various medical characters, who, insensible of those fatal effects that had attended former experiments, thus consign many patients to their graves! So should all experiments, such as that above recorded, be fully laid before the public, and their results be candidly detailed. It is evident, that where we see only the suggestion, without the proofs of its failure, we must frequently be induced to adopt hints of a most pernicious tendency.
Saultimber, when used in buildings, ought always to have its ends completely open to inspection; both to prevent the white-ant from preying upon it under cover, and to insure its being duly aerated; without which, howevercharred and tarred it may be, rottenness will speedily take place. This arises from being bedded in masonry, which, during the rainy season, even under the best roofs, will absord a large portion of moisture, that will, infallibly, in time, penetrate into the timber. It must be recollected, that not one in hundreds of the houses in Calcutta, or that are built on their plan, contains a fire-place: hence, during some months in the year, the walls will exhibit various indications of moisture, even to their very cornices; though this will often depend upon the proper selection of sand for mixing in the plaster. It is now well known, though not long since discovered, that all sand, taken up within the flowing of the tides, is strongly impregnated with salt, which will keep the mortar wherein it is mixed eternally subject to damps; notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued, or be founded upon pots. I have known several, otherwise highly eligible, houses rendered untenable, merely by this incautious use of river sand; which occasioned whatever mats, or carpets, were laid down, to be speedily rotted. The fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of the river, whence it was suspected the damps were received; but it was ascertained, that such tarrases, and mortar, as were compounded of pit-sand, remained dry, and free from so obnoxious a defect. Nevertheless, the greater partof the buildings, in and about Calcutta, receive a certain portion of river-sand, taken up within the reach of brackish water: while this practice is allowed, the walls and tarrases will remain subject to occasional moisture; and, as we daily see in that city, the plastering will blister, or, indeed, become mottled, and obviously unsound.
Saul-timbersare found in all the forests, ranging under the hills, branching our possessions from Assam up to Hurdwar; they are more abundant in some parts than in others, but no where scarce. Many of these forests present thousands upon thousands of acres, whereon thesaul,sissoo, and other useful timbers grow spontaneously; offering to us an inexhaustible depôt! The only consideration is, that water-carriage should be at hand. The Indian wood-feller, who pays not more than sixpence, or a shilling, for each tree he may choose, and which may, perhaps, contain from sixty to a hundred feet of timber, considers it a bad speculation, if some river be not within a stone’s throw of the selected wood: his object is to lop and bark as fast as he can, and then to launch the tree into the river, there to be fastened to others, intended to form a raft, or float, which, being secured to a boat, may glide down with the current to some established market. His expences are very trifling; for, with the exception of some duties, most injudiciouslyimposed, his adventure will not cost more than two-pence per foot, when arrived at the place of destination; where it may commonly be sold, without risk or delay, for full three times that sum. Fewsaul-timbersmeasuring a ton, or even a load, (i.e.forty, or fifty, cubic feet,) stand the owner in more than three rupees when landed at Patna; where such always meet with a very ready sale, in whole rafts, at nine, ten, and sometimes up to fifteen, rupees per stick, (or timber;) and this, notwithstanding the number of competitors in the trade. Those competitors rarely prove injurious to each other, while they render great service to the public, by preventing the whole trade from falling into a few hands. Thus, the prices ofsaul-timberare not only kept down, but, in general, owing to occasional gluts, seasoned timbers may be, to any amount, purchased at the severalghauts, or wharfs.
The mode of floating timber being so very different from that in use with us, I offer a description of it, under the hope of its affording at least some variety, if not some useful information. A commonpulwar, (orpaunchway,) of perhaps thirty feet in length, and six or seven in width, is equipped with two sticks ofsaul, say forty feet long, and two feet in girth: these are placed across her gunwales, at right angles with her length, and about six feet from hercentre, and very firmly lashed down. The boat, being in about three feet water, has a tree brought up to each of her sides, where they are respectively lashed to the cross timbers, and thus, in succession, until she is judged incapable of receiving more burthen. In the centre of the boat, a small cabin is generally made, either of thatch, or of arched bamboo laths, covered withdurmahmats: in this the crew are sheltered at night. It is highly expedient to avoid launching such rafts when the river is at the fullest, or the current any way prone to deviate from the deepest channels, as it must do in great floods, on account of the waters finding, for a while, passages along hollows among the inland parts; that is, beyond their limits in ordinary seasons. When a float of timber once gets over the river’s bank, it must be the result of great good fortune, if the channel is ever regained. Hence, when the waters are falling, it is common to see very large pinnaces,budjrows, and boats of burthen, left upon some sand, on which they had struck, but which the rapid ebbing of the floods prevented them from quitting! In such cases, some are allowed to remain until the ensuing year, when the floods lift them; others are unladen, and, by means of the joint efforts of hundreds of villagers, are pushed along the sands to the deep water; while those which appearunequal to such a severe operation, are generally broken up, and sold for various purposes.
When a float of timber becomes thus situated, the best way is to cut the ropes of at least half the exterior sticks on each side, and so to lighten the boat, that she may be carried into a depth suited to receiving them again: but this operation, which, on paper, appears very simple, requires great exertion, and no less despatch; as the strength of the current, which often runs six or seven miles within the hour, renders it extremely difficult to manage such immense logs; especially as they are very apt to sink into the sands. We commonly see several floats in company, proceeding, when the reaches are straight, and the waters deep, with great regularity; the boatmen, in such situations, having little to do, sit smoking theirnereauls, with great composure: sometimes a sail is hoisted, but, for the most part, it is deemed expedient to check, rather than to accelerate, the progress. Almost every float, or, at least, every company of floats, has a canoe attached to it; which, in doubtful waters, precedes, and directs the men in charge of the respective vessels, who, by means ofluggies, (or bamboo-poles, from twenty even to fifty feet in length,) fend off the floats from banks, or guide them along the deep water: without such pilotage, they wouldbe in perpetual danger of grounding, the inconveniences of which are, as above shewn, by no means inconsiderable.
Floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor, except in very still water; hence, they are usually brought-to under steep banks, where there is great depth; and where, in case the river should fall during the night, they would not be left high and dry.
The greatest danger to which a timber float can be exposed, is that of running upon a sunken tree, which, having been washed away, by the bank whereon it stood being undermined by the strong currents, is hurled away into deep water, where it probably lies exposed to view for the first year. During the hot season, when the waters are low, the boughs are often cut away by persons in want of fuel; or, perhaps, they are torn off by the succeeding rains, so far as to cause their being concealed a foot or two under the surface. When thus situated, they throw up a deal of water, so that their locality may be ascertained at some distance; but, owing to heavy mists, and especially to clouds of sand, they frequently are not discovered by the boatmen, until it becomes impossible to avoid them.
If thepulwar,i.e.the supporting boat, strikes upon one of the branches, her bottom will infallibly be staved in; and, in all probability, the immense body of water bearing upon thetimbers, will either tear them away from thepulwar, or carry off her upper works, leaving her bottom entangled. In either case, the situation of the boatmen becomes highly critical; but, as they generally are expert swimmers, (though, strange to say, somedandies, have, like Falstaff, ‘a wonderful alacrity at sinking,’) few are drowned on such occasions. The timbers, however, rarely fail to find the bottom, so soon as their buoyant companion is wrecked.
The great number of trees thus immersed, some of which equal our largest oaks, render it extremely dangerous to go down with the stream during the night: in some strong waters, such impediments are numerous, and render the navigation very hazardous, even during the day time; especially should agoon, or track rope, give way just after getting a boat above them; when this misfortune happens, the chances of escape are comparatively small indeed.
When boats, heavily laden, strike upon a tree, they sometimes go to pieces, in consequence of the water’s rapidity; but, when so entangled as to be pierced in several parts, they very generally remain entire, presenting, as the waters subside, the very curious spectacle of a vessel, perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred maunds, sitting, as it were, among the boughs, often ten or twelve feet above thesurface of the stream. It is by no means unusual, in the course of a week’s travelling, to see one, or more, of these disastrous elevations; more especially about the month of October. The misfortune is, that, though the cargo may, perhaps, be saved, if not of a perishable nature, such as sugar, salt-petre, &c.; yet, that the vessel, however expeditiously emptied, can never be got off; consequently, she must be broken up.
With respect to the prices ofsaultimbers, we generally find them to be nearly the same, year after year, at the same places; provided a sufficient number, but not a great glut, should arrive within the proper season. On an average, near Patna, the cubic foot will cost about sixpence, at Moorshadabad, about a shilling, and, at Calcutta, about two shillings, or even half-a-crown. An extra price is, of course, put on timbers of superior dimensions, while the smaller kinds, calledbautties, which rarely contain more than eight or ten feet, are, in an opposite degree, depreciated. Thesaulis a very solid wood, at least equally so as elm, but has not its pliancy, nor is it quite so apt to split: its grain usually runs tolerably even; it is likewise heavy, yet by no means so ponderous asteak: both, like many of our firmer woods, sink in fresh water.
In the upper provinces, some very fine oaktimbers are occasionally to be seen: these are chiefly of a peculiar kind, nearly approaching to chocolate color, extremely difficult to cut up, and, consequently, very heavy: this last characteristic gives them the name ofseesah, or, lead-wood. The prices of these trees, which generally measure about the same as thesaul, from the same forests, (namely, from the neighbourhood ofPeelabeet,) rather exceed those of the latter description; and would probably be greatly enhanced, if the natives stood in need of such very substantial wood for any of their buildings, or manufactures. The fact is, that the carpenters generally endeavor to dissuade their employers from purchasing oak, by representing it as subject to many defects; though the true reason is, that its hardness infallibly causes more grinding of, than working with, their tools; which are almost always either too much, or too little tempered. At Futty-Ghur,saultimbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence the foot, and oaks for about two shillings. I recollect buying some of the former, that measured thirty feet in length, with an average squaring of fourteen inches, for twenty-eight rupees each; and oaks of the same dimensions, or nearly so, at thirty-five: but wood was then extremely scarce, and at full twenty per cent. above the ordinary rates.
The great aptness ofsaul-wood to warp, weshould suppose, might have favored the importation of oak, notwithstanding the outcry against its flinty hardness: and such would doubtless have been the case, had not another kind of wood, possessing a very fine grain, and rather handsomely veined, been abundant. This, which is called thesissoo, grows in most of the great forests, intermixed with thesaul; but, in lieu of towering up with a straight stem, seems partial to crooked forms, such as suit it admirably for the knees of ships, and for such parts as require the grain to follow some particular curve. This wood is extremely hard, and heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple tint when polished; after being properly seasoned, it rarely cracks, or warps; nor is it so subject assaulto be destroyed by either white-ants, or river-worms. The domestic uses ofsissooare chiefly confined to the construction of furniture, especially chairs, tables, tepoys, (or tripods,) bureaus, book-cases, ecritoires, &c. &c. for all which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate, with the exception of its being very ponderous. This objection is, however, counter-balanced by its great durability, and by the extraordinary toughness of the tenons, dovetails, &c. necessarily made by the cabinet-maker, or joiner.Sissoois, of late, more employed than formerly for the frame, ribs, knees, &c. of ships, especially those of great burthen: forsuch, it is found to be fully as tough and as durable as the best oak. When timbers can be had of this wood long enough for the purpose, it is often applied for bends, and, indeed, for a portion of the planking, or casing; but it is very rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free from curve. Though admirably suited for stern and head-work, it is neither long enough for keels in general, nor sufficiently uniform in its diameter for the supply of stern-posts. Somesissoo-treesgrow to a great weight; but, unluckily, the devious directions of their boughs render it necessary to lop them away for minor purposes: if, instead of dividing into several large branches, at perhaps only ten or twelve feet from the ground, one large stem were to rise, however crooked, to double that height, there would be a great encrease of substance; as it is, however, we may account it an excellent timber indeed that measures a ton (i.e.forty cubic feet).
This inconvenience is greatly augmented by the slovenly manner in which trees are felled throughout India. There, it is common to see the axe (for no saws are used on such occasions) laid to the stem often at a yard or more from the soil; while, at the same time, full a cubit in depth is destroyed in widening the orifice, so as to penetrate into the heart: this creates considerable loss, which is frequently rendered stillgreater by the irregular manner in which the butt rends when in the act of quitting the root, or stool. If this wood were more scarce, probably greater pains would be taken to make the most of its length; as it is, we see, that, even those ship-builders who occasionally send their agents into theMorungs, or great forests to the north ofBaharandPurneah, allow the same loss to take place; thus disqualifying the timbers from more general, as well as more important, adaptation. The price ofsissoo, for the most part, runs about twenty-five, or even to forty per cent. above that ofsaul; but, in many places, up the country especially, where naval architecture is not in view, their values are generally about equal. In such situations, it is less an object of import; since its utility is greatly circumscribed, and, in a great variety of instances, superseded, by thebaubool, (a species ofmimosa, generally growing wild,) whose crooked billets are deservedly in great estimation, and whose bark is considered to be, if any thing, superior to that of oak for the tanners’ use.
I should have remarked, that, in some parts of the country, especially along the western frontier, a small kind ofsaulgrows wild: this rarely exceeds six inches in diameter, and is commonly used entire, in lieu of bamboos, for enclosures, rafters ofbungalows, &c. It is very peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for anylength of time, even under a thatch; it being subject to the depredations of a very small insect, called theg’hoon, which perforates it in a thousand places, depositing its eggs, which are very numerous, and absolutely rendering the rafter a mere honey-comb. During the day, these mischievous little devils are commonly quiet, but, after night-fall, when all else is still, may be heard in every quarter! A person unaccustomed to the sounds, would suppose that a very heavy shower of hail were falling on the thatch. In the course of two or three seasons, sometimes in much less, the rafters will be found to give way; on examination, they appear as though pierced with large awls; and, when struck forcibly with a hammer, yield a cloud of yellowish powder, resulting no doubt from the labors of the multitude of inhabitants. Theg’hoon, which rarely exceeds the sixth of an inch in length, is of a chocolate color, very hard about the head, has firm exterior coats over its wings, and terminates abruptly behind, giving the exact appearance of its rump having been burnt off. Those timbers which are used immediately after being felled, as usually happens, are certainly the first to be attacked by theg’hoon; but, so far as my own observations went, and according to the experience of two years, in a quarter where we used scarcely any other kind of wood for rafters, even a year’s seasoning did not affordsecurity against, though it obviously retarded, their attacks. Possibly, if all of this description ofsaultrees intended for rafters, were to be immersed in some of the very numerous puddles every where abounding in their vicinity, and of which a great majority are strongly impregnated with minerals, particularly iron, copper, and sulphur, theg’hoonsmight be altogether repelled: the immersion should continue for a year or two; the trees being previously allowed to season standing, by cutting away a circle of bark, about six inches wide, near the ground, that the flow of sap might be discontinued. We find no mode to answer so well as this for our climate; in India, the advantages would be still more extensive, in consequence of the regularity, and particular effects of the three great seasons, into which the year is there naturally divided. It is curious, but true, that theg’hoonacts less upon such timbers as have been squared, than on such as have only been deprived of their bark; and, that in the large species ofsaul, that is, such as is used in most parts of the country for great buildings, &c., it either is unable, or not disposed, to burrow.
Intermixed with the smaller species ofsaul, though by no means abundant, we find another tree, bearing, in common with the oak, the designation ofseesah; and that, too, owing to the great specific gravity of its wood: this,however, does not grow to any size, but appears admirably suited to many of those purposes for which lignum vitæ, and ebony, are now used.
In the same jungles with the foregoing, a most remarkable tree is sometimes found, of which the interior is of a very dark color, nearly approaching to black: hence, the natives call it the ‘cowah’ (or ‘crow-tree’); but, from the hardness of its wood, it certainly might, with propriety, be termed the ‘iron-tree.’ The carpenters seem to view it much in the same light with the black-oak ofPeelabeet; and, doubtless, tremble for their tools, whenever thecowahis to become subject to their labors.
Although suchbungalowsas are built with a view to duration, are sometimes built of the best materials, and have every part of their roofs sustained by rafters of the bestsaul, by far the majority of such buildings, and nearly all at the military stations, are constructed on a much cheaper scale, having onlymango-woodrafters, door-plates, &c. The great abundance ofmangotrees, added to their being easily worked, and their growing in general with stems sufficiently straight to furnish beams, of perhaps two feet square, and from fifteen to thirty feet long, give them a decided preference over every other kind of wood brought from any distance. Formerly, a gentleman could send out his servant, withwood-cutters, sawyers, &c., to fell whatever trees might be found suitable to his intentions, without any questions being asked; but of late, and especially since the introduction of theMocurrerysettlement, (which will be hereafter explained,) thezemindars, (or land-holders,) and theraiuts, (or peasants,) have set a value upon every twig that grows, and invariably demand from one to four rupees, for suchmangotrees as may be felled for the use of any European; especially in the military. As to a Company’s civil servant, either the hope of his favor, or the fear of his resentment, generally is found to seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor of the soil; who even is assiduous in furnishing workmen and conveyance on most occasions of this description. I must caution my readers against entertaining any sentiment unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to: the adulation in question results entirely from that servile, abject, and crafty disposition, for which thezemindarsare notorious where their interests are any way implicated. They judge of our collectors, magistrates, &c., as they would of their own; at least, so far as to suppose that courtesy will secure their good-will; but, they are, at the same time, thoroughly sensible, that in all public, as well as in all private, intercourse, the Company’s servants act with the most conscientious propriety, and withthe most undeviating attention to justice. It matters not that this character may be repugnant to some proofs existing of former rapacity, and extortion; which may now be deemed obsolete, or, at the utmost, only existing to such extent as must be expected under every form of government, and among every race of people, in spite of the utmost vigilance.
The wood of themangois much like that of theplane-tree, but rather more tough, and its fibres rather coarser: nevertheless, it is in very general use for rafters, door and wall-plates, frames for windows and doors, especially of out-offices, pannelled and plain doors, floorings of factories, and drying-rooms; likewise for wine chests, indigo boxes, roofs ofbudjrows, and a thousand other purposes, both of individual convenience, and of mercantile service. It is, however, particularly subject to thewhite-ant; and, unless carefully preserved from damp, will speedily decay: its being very light, and easy to work, are points much in its favor. Though we consider amango-plankto be at least at par, when it measures twenty inches, or two feet, in width, yet great numbers may be had, by research, of double that breadth. My carpenters once felled a tree, which proved too large for any saw I could obtain in that quarter.
Sometimes we see very old tables made ofmango-wood, which exhibit some beautiful veins,and acquire a substantial polish; but, such can only attend a very careful choice of planks, which must likewise be seasoned, and be worked to great advantage: otherwise, amango-woodtable will appear singularly coarse and mean.
As to the tree itself, much may be said in its favor, though, owing to the stiffness of the leaves, it cannot be termed graceful: its deep green, contrasted with the white spindling blossoms, (much resembling those of the horse-chesnut,) and its abundant foliage, give it a richness, and render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye; especially as it is in its greatest beauty during the early part of the hot season, when the grass begins to parch, and the surface of the soil changes from that agreeable verdure produced by the rains, and, in some degree, cherished by the succeeding cold months, to a very sombre russet! The fruit does not run much risque after the blossoms have once fairly set; though, sometimes, severe blights occur, which render the whole abortive; when about the size of a very large gooseberry, the youngmangoesmake excellent pies; not unlike those containing apples, but with a certain terebinthinic flavor, which does not always please in the first instance, but soon becomes palatable. When about half grown, that is, beyond the size of a large walnut, they are in good order for pickling. This fruit is also preserved in commonmosaul-oil; in thisinstance, they are allowed to remain about a month in the vinegar pickle, before they are immersed in the oil. Many persons are very partial to the pickle thus made; but, in my humble opinion, nothing can be more rank; especially when the rinds are not pared off.Mangoeslikewise make a very rich preserve, provided they are prepared before the stones are suffered to harden; else they will be very fibrous, and cut with peculiar harshness. With respect to the ripe fruit, it is impossible to describe the flavor; since, even on the same tree, various kinds will often be found. A stranger would conclude, on seeingmangoesof different colors, different scents, and different shapes, ripening on the same tree, that they had been grafted; but such is not the fact: there seems to be some very peculiar property, that causes it to shoot out with such different bearings, which remain on distinct boughs; as though the tree were composed of various twigs, all proceeding from the same stem. What can be said of a fruit varying in flavor, from the finest apricot, down to a very bad carrot? Such, however, is known to be common: it is true, that, for the most part, the whole crop of a tree will be pretty similar, both in shape, and flavor; but such is not always the case. As for the produce of trees resulting from the kernels of the same kind ofmango, that is quite a lottery; for, likepotatoes raised from seed, there will generally be found a great variety.
The Chinese have produced considerable amelioration inmangoes, by a very simple process. They select some healthy branches on a good tree, and, having pricked the bark through with a sharp awl, surround the part with a lump of wet clay, or loam; which they secure by means of a piece of canvas, bound lightly with hempen bands. Above each part thus treated, a large pot of water is suspended, having in its bottom a small hole; which, being partially stopped with a piece of rag, allows the water to drip, whereby the clay is kept constantly moist. In about three months, small fibres shoot out through the punctured bark; which, on the branch being cut off, and the canvas being removed, strike into the soil, and become roots. It is highly curious, that the fruit produced by branches thus treated, becomes more fleshy, while the stone diminishes considerably; it being more flat, and rarely so firm as that of the commonmango. By persevering in the operation, that is, by repeating it on the branches of a tree thus cultivated, for some generations, the kernel becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable, while the skin also loses much of that highly acrid quality, arising from the abundance of turpentine it contains.
Mangoesare peculiarly stimulant, rarely failingto cause those who eat of them freely to break out with boils of considerable size, and often very tedious in their cure. It is absolutely necessary to treat these as critical abscesses; for, were any repellent to be applied, serious consequences would inevitably follow. Persons lately arrived in the country, often devour this luscious fruit, until checked either by a dozen or two of these most distressing companions, or, perhaps, in consequence of that kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot climates, and which, though generally not very difficult to remedy when properly treated in its first stage, soon turns to dysentery, carrying off a large portion of those whose constitutions are not remarkably sound. When eaten in moderation,mangoesare gently aperient; but if, notwithstanding its acrid taste and effects, the rind should be incautiously swallowed, the stomach will be considerably disordered. Thegland, or kernel, which in shape is something like a very large, flat, Windsor-bean, is unpleasant to the palate, its flavor being very similar to that of the acorn. Swine, especially of the wild tribes, which often take shelter, during the season, intopes, or forests, of wildmangoes, eat the entire fruit, as it falls from the trees, with great avidity, and thrive amazingly.
The generality ofmango-topesowe their origin to religious institutions, or to bequests, or tocharitable donations. To plant one, it is necessary that the land should be purchased in fee-simple; when, the trees being set out, perhaps thirty feet, or more, asunder, in rows, so as to form regular square intervals, the whole are fenced by means of a deep ditch; from which the excavated soil is thrown inwards, and either planted withbaubool, (mimosa,) or sown with that tall kind of grass which bears a very large tassel, and is known by the name ofsurput: of this grass notice has already been taken in describing theseerkyused in thatchingbungalows. Sometopesare endowed with small sums for the purpose of maintaining a priest, for whom acomfortableresidence, and a substantialdurgaw, (or temple,) are erected. The sale of the fruit, (which generally proves a full crop in four or five years, the trees being then as large as a well-grown walnut-tree,) furnishes the means of sinking a well, cased with masonry. But it is more common for the person who causes thetopeto be planted, to sink the well also; and to celebrate the marriage of the former with the latter, in a manner suitable to his rank or property. On such occasions, the well, being supposed to possess the fecundatory powers, is considered the husband; thetopebeing typified as feminine, by the fruit it produces. However much we may be disposed to smile at a custom generally attended with much ceremony, and expence,we cannot but admire its effects; which, in a tropical climate, are highly beneficial, both to the weary traveller, and to the thirsty soil. Hence, the sight of amango-topeis generally attended with the most pleasing anticipations!
Althoughmango-topesabound in every part of the lower provinces, their wood, except inbungalows, is rarely employed in European architecture; nor do the natives make much use of it as a timber: large quantities are every year cut up for planks, intended chiefly for very ordinary purposes, where great strength and durability are not essentials. The immense quantities of fine bamboos, which ordinarily grow very straight to the height of sixty feet, or more, though rarely measuring more than five inches diameter near the root, and gradually tapering off as they ascend, supply the contented native with rafters, joists, posts, pillars, laths, and a great variety of et ceteras, all tending either to his shelter, or to his convenience. The ordinary price of these invaluable reeds (for they are of thearundotribe) may be from three-pence to five-pence each; that is, generally from seven to twelve for a rupee, according to size and demand. Millions of them are annually brought to Calcutta, both by water, and onhackeries; in the former instance, they, being remarkably buoyant, are floated in clumps, or, perhaps,are made into rafts, on whichboossah, (or chaff,) and even corn, are laden; or they are tied to the sides of very large boats, which also carry from five hundred, to as many thousands, as a cargo. The buoyancy of the bamboo is occasioned as much by its various cells, as by the lightness of its wood. These cells, in a common sized bamboo, may be about three quarters of an inch in diameter in those joints that are near the roots; where the wood is far more solid and compact than in the upper parts, towards which the cells become gradually wider, and the joints longer; thus reducing the substance of the bamboo very considerably, as we find to be the case with reeds in general. This variety in the several parts affords considerable convenience, their allotment being made according as the work may require more or less substance; and, as the whole bamboo may be split, like whale-bone, from top to bottom, without much exertion, scope is afforded for applying it, with great promptness, to an infinite variety of purposes.
In their whole state, bamboos are used, not only for rafters in the construction ofbungalows, but as yards for the sails of the common country craft; sometimes those of extraordinary size are selected for top-gallant studding-sail booms, in vessels not exceeding four or five hundred tons: their immense strength qualifying themadmirably for that situation. The smaller open boats, throughout the East, are generally fitted with bamboo masts, selected from the lower part of the reed, the upper being more suited, by its lightness, to be employed as yards: thus, for three-pence, a boat of about four or five tons may be furnished, from the same bamboo, with both mast and yard. In vessels of greater burthen, two or more, even up to a dozen, of bamboos, are lashed together around a stout piece of wood, which, passing through the thatch, fits into a step on the vessel’s bottom, and is well secured by chocks and lashings in various places. This stick, which serves as the base of the mast, may be about fifteen feet long, and nine or ten inches diameter: it is commonly left in a very rough state, that the bamboos which are to surround it may be more firmly held in their places. In this manner the mast is run up, probably to the height of forty or fifty feet, according to the vessel’s burthen, and at every two or three feet is bound by cords made of white hemp. The position of this awkward-looking pile is maintained by stays innumerable; many of which, being allowed to point forward, before the line of the mast’s perpendicular, obstruct the bracing of the yard very considerably. The strength of that yard must be proportioned to the sail; sometimes one well-selected bamboo may suffice, but in vessels of great bulk, say from sixty toninety tons, two, or even three, stout bamboos are found requisite.
The sail is usually made of a very coarse kind of canvas, constructed of a very indifferent kind of hemp, generally used for rice bags, &c., and known by the name ofgunny: each piece may measure six or seven feet by thirty inches; consequently, the innumerable joinings made in a large sail, offer a very ready means for the wind’s escape.Blackyis not very particular in this respect; with him, a sail is a sail, so long as a bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way through still waters.
It will naturally be asked, ‘Why is such miserable tackling in use?’ The reasons are,firstly, because the native owner of a vessel will not go to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably necessary, however clumsy, or subject to mishap, to set his vessel afloat, and to have her, as he thinks, ready for departure.Secondly, the materials are probably of his own growth, or he deals in them, or, which is often the sole motive, he finds them, in the first instance, by far cheaper than more substantial materials; and,thirdly, even if other materials of a better quality, and in every instance more appropriate, were to be had for the same money, he would not very readily deviate from the customs of his ancestors. Were a vessel fitted up on European principles to be wrecked, the whole familywould impute the accident to the sin engendered by such adoption of the customs of a race held in abomination by even the lowestcasts, (or sects,) throughout the country. Nevertheless, we sometimes see themanjyanddandiesgrievously put out of their way, by some shrewd native, who resolutely breaks through the general prejudice, and imitates that which his faculties convince him is founded upon science. Not that he will understand the how, and the wherefore: no; he sees the practice is good, and he adopts it: whereas, if any regulation were to be framed to enforce his compliance with our system, in that, or in any other particular, we should assuredly witness his receding, if possible, from every idea of improvement; or, if under the necessity of conforming, that his whole deportment would betray the reluctance, and antipathy, he felt on the occasion.
May not this trait in the character of Asiatics in general, serve as a hint to those who talk of coercing them to the adoption of Christianity? May it not shew that much may be done bysuaviter in modo, provided we temper thefortiter in re?—Certainly!
Exclusive of the bamboo, the natives have an ample resource for rafters, as well as for posts and pillars, in the cocoa-nut tree, which grows, it may be said wild, throughout those parts within reach either of the sea-water, or of the sea-air.Not that it is absolutely confined to such situations; but, in proportion as those are removed, so does the natural growth of this tree gradually diminish; giving way to thetaul, (or fan-leafed palm,) which, though less umbrageous, and, in many instances, less useful, attains a great height, and furnishes a much larger quantity of wood. In general, fewBengalleeswill cut down anereaul, (or cocoa-nut tree,) which supplies them with so many requisites. Thus, the outer coating, which often weighs from one to two pounds, when stripped off longitudinally, furnishes those fibres calledcoir, whereof both small rigging and cables are made. This kind of rope is particularly elastic, and buoyant; floating on the surface of the sea, to any extent; therefore, when, owing to the strength of the current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer out a quantity ofcoir; having previously fastened an oar, or a small cask, &c. to its end: by this device, the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the ship’s stern.
I should think, that, were acoirhawser kept on board every ship in the British marine, a great number of lives would be saved. It is, however, peculiar, that fresh water rotscoirin a very short time; corroding it in a most unaccountable manner; whereas salt water absolutely invigorates; seeming to afford additional elasticity. This shews thatcoiris by no means fitto be used in running rigging, nor as shroud-hawsers, &c., especially for vessels subject to approach low latitudes; it being easily snapped in frosty weather.
Nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor when her cables are ofcoir: as the surges approach the bows, the vessel gradually recedes, in consequence of the cable yielding to their force; but, so soon as they have passed, it contracts again, drawing the vessel gently back to her first position. The lightness of the material doubtless adds to this pleasing effect; for the cable would float, were not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly down. It is to be remarked, that a hempen-cable always makes a curvedownwards, between the vessel and the anchor, but acoircable makes a curveupwards: therefore, if a right line were drawn from the hawse-hole, to the ring of the anchor, it would be something like the axis of a parabolic spindle; of which the cables would form the two elliptic segments, or nearly so.
A very considerable trade is carried on, from all parts of India, with the Maldivies, and Sechelles, (very numerous clusters of islands near the west coast of the peninsula,) forcoirandcowries; the latter being used for inferior currency, while the former is greatly appreciated, on account of the fibres being much larger, andfirmer, than those grown upon the continent. Not only the islands above named, but all within the Indian seas, abound with the cocoa-nut tree; which, in many of them, stand absolutely in the water. These owe their origin to the growth of such nuts as, having been blown down, or dropped, when ripe, are buried in the sands; above which their acrospires soon appear, when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than its inland competitors. It is said, that, about a hundred and fifty years back, theSechellesandMaldivieswere known only as concealed sands, highly dangerous to the navigator; and that, after they had, by the action of the sea, accumulated so as to become superficial, a vessel laden with cocoa-nuts was wrecked upon one of these banks, which speedily threw up whole forests of that tree, in consequence of the seed thus furnished: others attribute the first supply to the adventitious floating of nuts from the Malabar coast. Nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts; but the former appears by far the most probable. Be it one way or the other, we now find that the islands in question not only produce immense forests of cocoas, but, that they are inhabited by a people, governed much in the same way as the other Arabian islands, (for such we may call these, as well as Johanna, Comora, Succotra, &c.;) and whose commercial relations may be said to consist ofcoirandcowries, barteredwith their neighbours of the peninsula, and the Arabs of Museat, &c., for cotton-cloths, rice, sugar, &c. To whatever chance it may have been owing, the navigator now feels less anxiety when near these isles; for, notwithstanding they are so little elevated as to remain nearly in their former state of immersion, yet their cocoa forests, which generally tower to the height of thirty or forty feet, being visible at the distance of many miles, enable him to ascertain his locality with correctness, and to avoid the numerous shoals, by a due attention to the bearings and soundings. The natives are said to be extremely well acquainted with their archipelago, and to pilot vessels of great burthen with perfect security and precision.
The next consideration with the native, respecting the cocoa-nut, is its water, by us called cocoa-nut milk. This pleasant beverage is contained within the shell, and, in general, may amount to three quarters of a pint. It is purest when the nut is so young and tender as to allow the husk and shell to be cut with about as much facility as a stringy turnip; at which time, very little coagulum adheres to the interior of the shell, and that little is soft, like milk barely turned by rennet. Gradually, the water becomes rather turbid, and acquires a stronger taste; while the coagulum encreases to about the third, or even the half, of an inch in thickness;hardening, and becoming tough, but easily snapped into pieces. When arrived at this state, it abounds in oil, which, at first is remarkably sweet, though of a peculiar flavor, and is much used by the native Portugueze, in lieu ofghee, in their culinary operations.
The mode of extracting the oil is very simple: a piece of wood, say two feet in length, six inches broad, and two or three thick, bears at one of its extremities a stem of iron, driven in by means of a spike: this stem must be stout, and should measure about ten inches; but, towards its summit, spreading into the form of an inverted crescent, somewhat concave, and deeply jagged at its circumference. Sitting, as usual, on the ground, the operator keeps the baton from tilting, by placing one of his feet firmly upon it: in that position he takes the nuts, commonly broken into two or more pieces, by a forcible stroke of some heavy implement, or by dashing them on the floor, and, by rasping the interior of each piece against the jagged edges of the iron, causes the coagulum to fall, in form of a coarse powder, into a vessel placed below to receive it. To effect this with more facility, the stem slants obliquely from the baton; allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately under the crescent. The raspings are now put into hot water, in which they are well stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon;by this means the oil is separated; it is drawn off by opening a little hole near its surface, as it floats upon the water. It is inconceivable how much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes; but, both from its own nature, and the mode of extraction, it soon becomes offensively rancid; a state in which it is by no means objectionable to the swarthySignors, who, as well as the Hindus in general, are partial to it as an unguent for the hair. To a fresh European, the scent of this powerful finish to the charms of an Indian Venus is highly objectionable: of all the stinks of which India can boast, it certainly is the worst. But, as before observed, if used immediately after extraction, nothing can be sweeter: it also burns remarkably well; therefore is in general use for lamps among all the European inhabitants. The residuum, after separating the oil, fattens poultry better than grain: the pork of swine fed upon cocoa-nuts is delicious; as must be confessed by all who have visited the Andamans and Nicobars. Considering the coagulum as a food for mankind, I should by no means feel disposed to recommend it; though it is certain that the natives eat of it freely: experience satisfies me, that it is extremely difficult of digestion; and that, when ate as a meal, much inconvenience, if not indisposition, will generally follow. Nor can I recommend the water of the young nut to persons whose bowels are not of the strongest;it being aperient, and, when used beyond a certain quantity, extremely apt to induce dysentery: the amount of a nut-ful may, perhaps, be drank with perfect safety. During very hot weather, if the nuts are fresh gathered, or suffered to remain for a while in cold water, it is not very easy to withstand the temptation.
The shell of the cocoa-nut is always most valuable when suffered to ripen upon the tree; it then acquires great hardness, and a fine dark chocolate color, interveined by fine lines of a rich dun, or clay, or perhaps striated with those tints: they then take a good polish, and may, when tastefully mounted, be considered as ornamental to the sideboard. But, it is to be observed, that they are rather a brittle ware, compared with their solid appearance; and, that it requires a great length of time to divest them wholly of a certain strong scent, reminding those who have been accustomed to the oil, of that peculiar and powerful rancidity it invariably acquires by long keeping, and especially by exposure to the air.
Previous to the introduction of lamps in the halls, passages, &c., in the houses of Europeans, cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about three-pence, or four-pence, perseer(i.e.the measurement of aseer, which comes very nearly to the English quart; in some places exceeding it, but in others falling short). Since that practicehas obtained, in consequence of candles having been doubled in price, the oil has likewise been enhanced; so that it now sells at about three and a half, or fourseersper rupee; which accords with seven-pence halfpenny of our currency per quart. No kind of animal oil is in use among the natives of India, either as food, or in manufactories; if, indeed, we except that most curious production, themeemii-ke-tale, or oil extracted from the bodies of malefactors; who, being well fed for a month, or more, previous to execution, for the purpose of encreasing their fat, have large fires lighted under them while on the gibbet, and metal vessels placed to receive the drippings. That this practice has heretofore obtained, under the government of the native princes, does not, I believe, admit of a doubt; but, that it is now obsolete, is equally certain. Stillmeemii-ke-tale(i.e.human oil) may be had at many places; though not genuine, but composed of whatever materials may form a mass resembling that originally in use. I have seen several of these masses, which were of a dark, opaque brown, appearing something like coagulated blood mixed with dirty jelly, and become hard by exposure to the sun, or by inspissation: its smell was intolerably offensive. On the whole, this celebrated extract, which is supposed to cure all contractions, and stiffness of the joints, is a subject of astonishment, whenwe consider it to be in use among a people so very peculiar in their tenets, and professing so much humanity, not only towards their brethren, but towards all animated nature. Had Shakespeare been acquainted with the existence of themeemii, he certainly would have given it a place in Hecate’s stir-about!
If the natives were intent upon obtaining animal oils, the greatest abundance could be commanded; porpoises, turtles, alligators, dog-fishes, and sharks, all of which contain large quantities, exist in every part where the water is brackish; some of them, indeed, become even more numerous as their distance from the sea encreases. Whales, likewise, are occasionally seen in the Indian Sea, and in the Mozambique Channel are extremely common. But, to persons habituated from their infancy to the use of high-savored viands, any sweet oil would be insipid: such people want ahaut-goûtin their sauces; yet it must be confessed, they certainly manage to render even their strongest preparations extremely palatable; but, to relish them properly, the culinary operations must not always be witnessed.Babachees, or cooks, in the employ of Europeans, are sometimes extremely filthy; far more so than when dressing their own victuals. Few of the natives are sparing in the use of water on such occasions, even though it should be brought from some distance;yet, it is equally true, that whole villages are sometimes content to use water from a pool, comparable only with that into which Ariel ushered the surly Caliban.
The trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers, when the central pith is scooped out, for canoes, but, when split, as it may easily be into slips of any width, forms excellent rafters: if applied to that purpose, all the soft part is taken entirely away, leaving only the exterior case, which is very hard, tough, and elastic, about three inches in thickness. A trunk of about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into five staves, each about seven inches wide: such should be placed edgeways on the walls, that their scantlings may be in a proper direction. Rafters thus made, provided they be not more than twenty feet, or thereabouts, in length, and not too heavily laden, will stand for generations, without shewing the smallest symptom of decay. In saying this, I am to be understood as alluding to their being under cover; otherwise, they will not exhibit such durability, although they may fully claim to be on a par with most of the indigenous timbers.
The reader is to understand, that, excepting where merely temporary, that is to say, intended for a few weeks, or months,bungalowsare always built with pavilion thatches; by which construction they resist the weather far better, whilethe quantity of brick-work is considerably less than where gables are run up. The proximity of the thatches in theverandaparts, renders them far less cool, in the hot months, than the interior, in which the thatch is so much further removed: the latter would be rendered much cooler were flues, or ventilators, to be made for the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air, as already suggested. Cocoa-nuts are often sawed into two equal parts, for the purpose of being made into ladles: to effect this, a hole is made on each side, about half an inch from the edge, and a stick is passed through, serving as a handle; much the same as we see in thejetsused by brewers for taking liquor out of their vats. When sawed into two equal parts, across the grain of thecoircoating, cocoa-nuts make excellent table brushes, causing the planks to assume a very high polish from their friction. As this operation requires some strength, it is proper to be careful that the edges of the shell, if left in, (as is sometimes, though improperly, done,) should be perfectly smooth; being once rendered so, they will never scratch, however forcibly the brush may be applied. A very good mode is, to strip off thecoir, and, after soaking it well in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the pieces become a little pliant, when they should be firmly bound together with an iron ring: their ends being then levelled, theimplement is fit for use. A little bees’-wax rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly to the lustre of the furniture, without being clammy.
The stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to that of the cocoa, but grows to a much greater height, and is put to the same purposes. On first seeing a grove of toddy-palms, one would suppose that a strong wind must inevitably tear up the whole by their roots; which consist of innumerable small fibres, that penetrate but a very little way, comparatively, into the soil. When one of these trees is laid prostrate by the wind, a very small cavity is made, rarely so much as a cubic yard. The leaves differ very widely from those of the cocoa: the former being rather spear-shaped, about a foot, or more, in length, by perhaps two inches at their broadest part, and attached to each side of the rib, which may be from ten to fourteen feet in length, and hang gracefully on every side of the trunk; covering the nuts, which grow on very short, stiff stems, close under the place where the leaves start from it in all directions; a tuft of similar, but smaller, branches, grow with rather a vertical tendency.
Thetoddy-palmhas, on the contrary, about ten or a dozen large leaves, radiated from their stems, arranged in folds very similar to a lady’s fan half spread; but the outer edges are indented considerably: the leaves form each about three-fourthsof a circle, but not very regularly so; some more, some less. These are made intopunkahs, or fans, of various sizes; or, when torn into strips of about two inches wide, which may be about the medium breadth of each fold, serve the natives in lieu of paper. The greater part of the accounts kept by Bengallees are written on these leaves, by means of any sharp-pointed instrument, which, marking through the glossy rind, or coating, on either side of the leaf, remains, ever after, perfectly distinct and legible. Those who wish to have the letters still more so, rub the leaves, after filled with writings, withkaujool, or lamp-black; which sinks into the porous parts laid open by the instrument, but easily wipes off from that portion of the surface which has not been pierced. Some hundreds of these leaves may be seen, secured together at one end by a twine passed through each, like waste paper in a grocer’s shop; thus forming a voluminous collection. The fruit of thetaulconsists of two, or sometimes three,lobes, or pods, somewhat similar to those in a horse-chesnut, and, like them, concealed in a pithy, spherical coating, but with a smooth exterior. Eachlobeis hollow, and contains a small quantity of very clear liquor, partaking, in a very slight degree, of the flavor of rose-water; thelobesthemselves are about the size of a Chelsea-bun, are rather of a crisp, but gelatinous substance,and pleasant to the palate: their exterior is covered with a very thin, brown rind, like that of an almond; rather astringent, but by no means acrid.
The liquor, calledtoddy, is obtained by making an incision under the head of the tree, when, a thin wedge being introduced, thetoddywill gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive it. This liquor is very pleasing when fresh drawn, but, in a few hours, acquires a harsh flavor, ferments, and becomes highly intoxicating. It answers admirably as leaven, making very light dough; but if kept, as is too commonly done, until rather sub-acid, it communicates a most unpleasant tartness to the bread. Groves oftoddy-trees, in some parts of the country, yield a very handsome revenue, and great profit to the renters. Like the cocoa-nut tree, they have within their summits a substance very like a cabbage in flavor: this occasions mariners sometimes to fell them, with the view of carrying that part to sea; where it will, if left within its rind, keep for many months. I have tasted of this vegetable, but did not feel much gratified, though it assuredly was not disagreeable: it seemed to require much boiling.
The stem of thetoddy-palmis annulated, but not very deeply: of this thetoddy-men take advantage, ascending to the summit, and descending again to the plain, with wondrousagility. This is effected by a piece of strong twine, about a yard or more in length, but doubled into a loop of half that extent. The great toes are respectively put into the ends of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended. The man first embraces the tree, as high as he can reach, for the purpose of raising himself from the ground; his feet being instantly carried, on opposite sides of the trunk, as far asunder as the loop may admit. Then, sustaining himself by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards to take a second spring; following, in due time, by the removal of his feet, as much higher as he has been able to reach. In this manner, successively stretching up his arms, and swarming with his feet, he reaches the summit; where, while he either suspends the pot, or releases it, his weight generally rests on the loop. The great art, both in ascending, and descending, is to keep the loop always stretched: should it be allowed to slacken, in all probability it would fall off. Few persons, following this profession, require more than half a minute to mount the highestpalmira; by which name thetoddy-palmis most generally known to Europeans. The natives designate it thetaul(ortaul-gautch).
I believe very few kinds of wood, except those I have mentioned, ever come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture; though,in some few situations, thesoondryandjarroolare employed for the minor purposes; but, with some reserve on the part of the natives, who hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft, and to the formation of carriages of various descriptions. Thesoondryis a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic wood; while thejarrool, though rather harder, more resembles the beech, than any other of our indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building, it ranks next to theteak, hence, many of thedonies, (or coasting vessels,) measuring from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are principally built therewith. Whenteakis scarce, we occasionally see the ship-wrights applyjarroolin their repairs of the upper works of large vessels.