With regard to the apprehensions arising from filth, fortunately, they are not better founded than those just noticed as dependant on the narrowness of the streets. This lucky evasion of disease is not, however, to be attributed to any attention on the part of the natives individually, or to the fostering care of the nativegovernments. Few towns of any importance but are built on the borders of some navigable river, of which there are abundance throughout the country. The swarms of vultures, kites, crows, and of a large kind of butcher bird, standing at least six feet high, called theargeelah, added to the immense numbers ofpariahdogs, generally roving at liberty, and unacknowledged by any particular owner; together with the multitude of jackalls, that patrol through the cities, as well as the plains, during the night, all contribute to remove whatever carrion, or putrescent matter, may be exposed to their researches.
It would not, perhaps, be so easy to keep cities in a state of tolerable cleanliness in such a hot climate, if the inhabitants subsisted on butchers’ meat. The shambles alone would prove highly offensive: it is therefore fortunate that the natives make rice and vegetables their principal food. There being no privies attached to houses in general, is an additional benefit; though accompanied with some small inconvenience, it being requisite to walk to the outskirts of the city, or, eventually, among some ruins, on all occasions. The privies of the higher orders of natives, and of Europeans in general, are built on a plan which admits of instantly removing the filth; a practice never neglected by a servant, whose office consists onlyin that duty, and in sweeping the house at various times of the day.
Theargeelah, or butcher bird, before mentioned, is to be seen partially all the year round; but, generally speaking, comes with the first showers in June, and stays until the cold season is far advanced; when it retires into the heavy covers on the borders of the large unfrequented lakes, near the mountains, to breed. This bird has been fully described in the representation of the Ganges breaking its Banks, in my work entitled the ‘Wild Sports of India,’ published by Mr. Orme, of New Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black, Parry, and Kingsbury, of Leadenhall-street. It is by some called the bone-eater, from its peculiarity of digestion; it having the power of swallowing whole joints, such as a leg of lamb, and of returning the bone after the meat has been digested: when thus rejected, it appears as clean as though it had been boiled for a whole day. I cannot give a better idea of the fitness of this bird to eat of the most putrid substances, than by stating, that I have frequently rubbed an ounce, or more, of emetic tartar into a piece of meat, which anargeelahhas swallowed, without shewing symptoms of uneasiness on the occasion, though very closely watched for hours after. From this, it may be inferred, that ordinary stimulants do not disagree with the stomach of this unsightly, but innocent, and useful, animal.
Inland towns are usually built in the vicinity of some largejeel, or lake, or on some ravine, which, during the rains, forms a rapid water course. Such as are near to hills, are often, for many days together, impassable; owing to the torrents which, through their means, find a way either to some expanse, or to some navigable river,
Thejeel, or, for want of one, the tank nearest to the town, usually becomes the receptacle of every Hindu corpse, and, at the same time, supplies the inhabitants with water for every purpose. One would think this intolerable practice were, of itself, sufficient to deter men, who pretend to the utmost delicacy and purity in all respects, from drinking at so contaminated and corrupt a reservoir. What then shall we say, when it is known that the borders of tanks in such situations, become places of ease, where men, women, and children, perform their duties to the goddess in colloquial association; and where, having got rid of their burthens, they free themselves from its remains, by washing with those very waters whence, probably, another person is baling into his pot, or leather bag, for culinary purposes, or for beverage.
Tanks andjeelsare, in almost every part of India, full of rushes, and of the conferva, which, together with duck-weed, docks, &c., both cover the surface and fill up the deeps. Theyare, generally, replete with small fishes of various descriptions, and if of any extent, or deep, either harbour, or serve as visiting places for alligators, which infest both the running and the stagnant waters in every part of the country. These voracious animals travel at night from onejeel, or tank, to another; often announcing their presence by snapping up some poor unsuspecting Hindu, who wades up to his middle for the purpose of performing his ablutions, and of offering up the customary prayers on such occasions.
In many tanks, alligators are known to exist in numbers; nay, in some places, they are subsisted by the eleemosynary donations of travellers, who disburse a trifle in money, or present some provision to afaqueer, (or mendicant priest,) to provide food for the alligators, which come forth from the waters, on hearing the well-known voice of their holy purveyor; from whom they seldom fail to receive each a small cake of meal, or some other provision. This liberality does not, however, occasion any qualmish scruples of gratitude; it being found, that alligators thus handsomely treated are not a whit more reserved in the application of their teeth to bathers, &c., than those which have never been honored by such liberal consideration.
The respiration and effluvia proceeding from an animal, perhaps twenty, or twenty-five, feetin length, and from six to twelve in circumference, must have an effect upon even a large body of water. Allowing that such a monster should consume as much air as ten men, which, surely, is not an unfair calculation, and that twenty gallons of water contain one of air; as a man, on an average, consumes one gallon of air in a minute, the alligator must consume twelve hundred gallons, equal to near twenty hogsheads, in an hour: in twenty-four hours, the quantity of water contaminated by one alligator would amount to four hundred and eighty hogsheads!
From this, we may conceive the effect produced by the presence of, perhaps, seven or eight alligators in a tank not exceeding two acres in measurement, and no where above twelve or fourteen feet in depth: we must likewise take into the account abundance of fishes; for, if that abundance did not exist, the alligators would speedily decamp. Add to these two sufficient drawbacks, all that has been said of the impurities added by the inhabitants, and we shall form such a nauseating and unwholesome combination as must cause us to wonder how ever one should be left to tell the fate of his lost friends.
Amidst the mountains, where, of course, the inundations cannot be of any duration, and where the waters of every description are limitted as to extent; the streams being verysmall, and, excepting a few hollows between two hills, or, eventually, a valley, in which a pool may exist, alligators are to be seen. They are generally small, but of a very savage species, making up, by their rapacity and activity, for the want of that bulk which renders the alligator of the great rivers more apparently dangerous. By the term ‘small,’ we must not conclude them to be diminutive, but, that they rarely exceed twelve or fourteen feet in length. Such will, however, seize a bullock when wading in a tank, orjeel; stealing upon him with the utmost caution, so as not to disturb the fluid, and even keeping the dorsal spines depressed until the very moment of seizure; when, fastening upon the unwary animal’s leg, and throwing his whole weight backwards; at the same time swinging round, so forcibly as to raise the greater part of his disgusting frame above the surface, the alligator, by one violent effort, which appears almost instantaneous, ordinarily succeeds in dragging the poor animal into a sufficient depth. Pain, surprize, and the unrelaxing bite of his devourer, combine to disable him from making any adequate resistance; being, besides, kept completely immersed by the subtle and experienced assailant, no more is seen, except that the waters appear for about a minute violently agitated, by the efforts of both parties: the alligator is, however, compelledto raise his head above the surface when in the act of deglutition. This is seen daily, even when a fish becomes the victim. On these occasions, the stupendous animal rears in the waters, exposing sometimes so far as his shoulders, and ordinarily biting the fish in two, when, with the utmost ease, he swallows what would make a hearty meal for thirty or forty men of keen appetite. I have frequently seen an alligator thus chuck down arooee, or river carp, weighing from fifty to sixty pounds: a size by no means uncommon in the great rivers of Bengal!
The great use made of water by the natives in every part of India, occasions an immense number of tanks and wells to be dug, chiefly by persons of property, under the pretence of aiding the poorer classes, but, in fact, with the view to become popular, or of transmitting their names to posterity by affixing them as designations to the tank or well in question. This takes place equally in regard to plantations, generally ofmangotrees; and in the building ofseraies, for the accommodation of travellers, such as Europeans generally understand to be caravanseraies; but that term can only apply to those parts of Arabia, &c., that furnish caravans; which are not known in the great peninsula of India; where, on account of the extent ofsea-coast, navigation absorbs the chief part of the trade.Seraiesare usually known by the name, or title, of the founder. Thus,Maraud ka Serayimplies that the public accommodation for the reception of travellers was founded by Maraud; respecting whom the people in attendance either have some traditional account, or supply a famous history, invented for the occasion.
Seraiesare now going fast to decay; the power of the native princes has been so much abridged, and their influence is so little felt, that, generally speaking, were a rich or exalted character to found aseray, even on the most liberal footing, it is probable his expectation of immortal fame would not be realized. The rage is now more bent towardsgunges, or grain markets;hauts, or villages, holding periodical markets;maylahs, or annual fairs; and, in fact, to such establishments as afford a profit, or which, from becoming notorious in the way of trade, are more likely to perpetuate the celebrity of the institution.
Durgaws, (commonly called mosques,) appertain exclusively to those of the Mahomedan faith, andmhuts, which are, properly, places of Hindu worship, alsomadressahs, or colleges, with endowments forfaqueers, or Hindu priests, seem to hold their ground. These, like the abbeys of Monkish times, are ever to be foundin the most beautiful and most eligible situations: above all things having a command of excellent water.
The tanks in the hills, that is to say, such as have resulted from artificial means, are generally small, full of weeds, and rarely lined with masonry; their banks are soft, and the waters, being accessible to cattle on every side, foul and turbid. Sometimes these become nearly dry during the hot months, affording, if any, a most offensive and insalubrious beverage. Nevertheless, the indolent native will often drink thereof, rather than send half a mile to a purer spring. The generality of these tanks have originally a regular supply from numberless springs, fed either by a natural syphonic process from higher lands, or by percolation of the profuse dews that, throughout the immense jungles on the higher soils, fall during the hottest months; but the want of proper attention to preserve the tanks from the incursions of cattle, which, being very wild in their nature, often swim or wade over to the opposite sides, quickly choak the springs, which, in such open soils, easily find other vents, and expose the inhabitants to great suffering from drought. In many instances we see wells dug in the tanks; thereby causing a great saving of labor; as, when once a spring discharges into the tank, in such a situation, it is not necessary to dig the whole area to an equaldepth. This is a cheap expedient, adopted by such as have vanity enough to attract public notice, but not money enough to do the thing completely, or to a great extent.
From these causes, we are led to the consideration of those effects produced in hilly countries, by the waters in common use. Nor are we deceived in our expectation as to the results naturally arising from so forcible an agent. We find throughout the hilly country, that, exclusive of the diminutive features attached, all over the world, to the various classes of mountaineers, there is an additional tendency to departure from the ordinary bulk of the natives in the adjacent low lands, obviously induced by the diet, and most especially by the waters in use. It is remarkable that in Tomar, the back part of Chittrah, and Ramghur, where the immense extent of low woods almost debars population, and where the Hill people, known by the name ofDhangahs, subsist principally on rice, wild fruits, and, occasionally, a little game, and where they drink of water such as has just been described, collected either in small pools, or in artificial tanks, the inhabitants are extremely stinted in their growth, are squalid, troubled with wens, half devoured with a kind of scurvy, herpetic eruption, and appear even at a very early age to lose their vigor. They have, besides, a peculiar kind of opthalmia,partly induced by an excessive passion for liquor, there distilled in large quantities, and by their exposure to a damp, impregnated atmosphere; while in their huts, their whole happiness seems to consist of an intense fumigation, chiefly from green-wood, such as would wholly suffocate one not habituated from his birth to so admirable an imitation of the fumes of Tartarus.
The difference between these haggard objects, and the inhabitants of the plains from which the mountains take their rise, requires no comment. It most forcibly arrests the traveller’s attention, causing him to doubt whether, within the short interval of perhaps six or seven miles, he may believe his senses, which pourtray to him a change from vigorous and personable manhood, to a decrepid, hideous, and dwarfish, state: more resemblant of the Weird Sisters than our imaginations can conceive, or than our best comedians can represent.
Some tanks, dug by the more charitable persons of property, are on a very extensive scale, covering perhaps ten or twelve acres. Many of these are of great antiquity, and have been very deep, perhaps thirty feet, but, by the growth of vegetable matter, added to the heavy bodies of sand and dust that nearly darken the air in the dry season, of which much falls into the waters, their depth is considerably reduced:in some, various shoals appear, indicating the accumulation of rubbish, and in a manner reproaching those who use the element with indolence and ingratitude. In such places fish abound, and grow to an astonishing size, sometimes affording excellent angling, but their flavor does not correspond with their looks; for the most part they are intolerably muddy. The quantity of weeds, the shoals, and various posts being generally sunk in different parts of the tank, armed with tenter-hooks, for the purpose of preventing poachers from robbing the stock, are insuperable bars to the use of nets. Boats are not in use in such places, and there seems to be no attention in any respect to any thing relating to such waters, except that theshecarries, or native sportsmen, exercise much ingenuity and skill in their depredations among the wild geese, wild ducks, teal, widgeons, &c., with which all the waters of India are profusely stocked during the winter months; when every unfrequented puddle is covered with wild fowl, which often alight during the dark nights on waters situated in the very hearts of cities, in which sometimes tanks are seen of such size, as to secure the birds, when collected near the centre, from the reach of small shot. This, though not to be classed with daily occurrences, is by no means singular.
By far the greater number of tanks, especiallythose by the road-side, or contiguous to cities and populous towns, are walled in with masonry. In such case, they have at one, or more sides, either a long slope, or a flight of steps of excellent masonry; some, indeed, have both, the former being intended for the use of cattle, which are either suffered to drink there, or are employed to carry large leather bags of water for the use of the inhabitants. Owing to the great force of the periodical rains, and to the swelling of the soil during the season of excessive moisture, the masonry is generally burst in various places, and for the most part either sinks, or is prostrated into the tank. As no credit would follow the repairs of such breaches, they are left to their fate.
A due attention to the proper proportion of base, so as to give a substantial talus both within and without the walls, added to the precaution of leaving vents for the free discharge of the springs, or the super-abundant fluid, into the tank, would most assuredly counteract so destructive a weakness as now generally exists. I cannot call to mind, at this time, any very old masonry that has not succombed thereto, excepting the greatbund, or dyke, at Juanpore; which, according to tradition, was built about fifteen hundred years ago, and having been made of a very obdurate kind ofkunkur, found in those parts, blended with excellent lime, probably burnt from the same stones, appears now a completemass of rock, capable of resisting the ravages of all time to come. Thisbund, which bears all the venerable marks of antiquity, was originally thrown up to limit the Goomty; a fine river that rises in the Peelabeet country, and, washing Lucknow, the capital of Oude, passes through the city of Juanpore under a very lofty bridge, built on strong piers, terminating in gothic arches. The want of due breadth in the arches occasions the waters to rise during the rainy season to an immense height, creating a fall of which that at London Bridge, at its worst, is indeed but a poor epitome! The distance between the top of the bridge and the water below it, in the dry season, is something less than sixty feet; yet it is on record, and in the memory of many inhabitants of Juanpore, that the river has been so full as to run over the bridge, which is flat from one end to the other, lying level between two high banks, distant about three hundred and twenty yards.
Formerly, when the waters were high, they used, according to the tradition alluded to, to over-run the country on the left bank; forming an immense inundation throughout the country lying east of Juanpore, and extending down towards the fertile plains of Gazypore. The hollow, or low land, by which they penetrated, was about two miles in width; therefore thebundwas built to a suitable extent: it is now abouttwo miles and a half long; in most parts, about thirty feet broad at the top, and double that width at the base. Its height varies from ten to twenty feet. The record states it to have proved effectual in resisting the inundation, which, however, on account of thebundbeing at right angles with the river, so as to occupy a favorable position, and cut off the torrent, continued to flow annually as far as its base. In time, the sediment deposited by the water thus rendered stagnant, filled up the hollow, raising its surface as high as the other parts of the river’s boundary, and creating a soil peculiarly valuable, now chiefly occupied by indigo planters. The insalubrity occasioned by the many swamps left by the inundation, was at the same time averted, and the dread entertained that the Goomty would, in time, force a new channel for the entire body of its stream, removed. Large tracts, before of little value, acquired a deep staple of soil, which, at this date, yields sugar, indigo, wheat, barley, &c., in abundance and perfection.
The rage for digging tanks, has, I apprehend, in a certain measure, subsided; for we find little of that very absurd ostentation now prevalent, which must have actuated to such immense works, rendered useless by their too great number, or carried to an excess in regard to their measurement. It would be, perhaps, difficultto ascribe to any other motive than that of unparalleled vanity, why a man should have dug near seventy tanks, all nearly contiguous, on a plain not many miles distant from the military station of Burragong, in the district of Sircar Sarung, situate between the Gunduc and the Gogra. The population did not require more than one tank; especially as a stream of tolerably good water passes within a few hundred yards of the site of these offsprings of ostentation. The inhabitants tell various stories as to the person who lavished his money in this empty manner; and, (which would, no doubt, vex the real prodigal to his very heart,) the modern narrators differ widely even as to the name and rank of the individual!
With respect toseraies, we may, at least, praise the convenience they afford, without bestowing much admiration on the charity of their founders. Some of these are very extensive, covering, perhaps, six or eight acres. They generally consist of a quadrangle, built across the road, which passes under two lofty arched gateways, having battlements, or turrets, over them. The gates open to an extent sufficient to allow any laden elephant, however stupendous, to pass freely. They are made of strong wood, well bound with iron, and studded with iron spikes, of which the points are on the outside; for the purpose of preventing elephants fromforcing them by pressure. The surrounding walls of the quadrangle are generally about fourteen feet in height, and from two to four in thickness, according either to the antiquity of the building, or to the parsimony of the builder. They are lined all around with a shed, built on pillars, and divided by mats, &c., into various apartments, all sheltered from the sun and rain by means of doors, &c., of bamboos, mats, grass, &c., as the country may afford; or, eventually, a part is built up with thin brick, or with mud.
In the central parts of theseraythere are generally some shops, ranged on each side of the road, and one building appropriated to thecutwal, or superintendant of the place; whose office is, properly, to regulate all matters, and to see that travellers are duty accommodated; that thebytearahs, or cooks, dress their victuals, and that thechokey-darstake due charge of the goods consigned to their care. All this, however, is done in a slovenly way; the greatest impositions are often practised; and the itinerant journies on from one scene of thievish combination to another.
Although aseraymay be built near to a river, or to some sufficient stream, yet there is invariably a well, ordinarily lined with circular tiles, or masonry, in the area. The water is drawn from such wells, for the most part, by means ofa truck-pulley, suspended between the limbs of a forked bough cut for the purpose, and having a wooden pin through it as an axle. Each person draws his own water, and for that purpose carries a line, generally about twenty feet long. Few indeed travel, even on foot, without alootah, or brass water-vessel; of which there are various sizes, from a pint, to half a gallon; atully, or flat brass plate, with a border about an inch high, nearly perpendicular; and acuttorah, or metal cup. Some even carry theirdaikçhees, or metal boilers; though, in general, they purchase for a farthing, or, at the utmost, for a halfpenny, a new earthen pot, capable of holding perhaps three quarts, or a gallon, with a lid of the same, in which, if they do not intend to employ the people of theseray, they dress their own victuals; leaving the crockery, which no one else will use, it being considered as polluted.
The water of wells in theseraies, or in populous towns, is certainly far fresher and better than is to be had, in general, from small rivers. But much will depend on the soil, the lining of the well, its depth, and, indeed, on its width. A quick draught necessarily insures a plentiful flow, and prevents corruption from any impurity that may casually fall in from above. At a certain depth there is usually found a stratum of sand; this is remarkably fine, and, in some places, retainssuch a large portion of fluid as to become a perfect quicksand. In many parts, and especially in the Ramghur district, which, on an average, may be a thousand feet or more above the level country, this sub-stratum presents a most serious difficulty in the sinking of wells.
Of this I experienced two instances in my own practice, which gave me much trouble. Having to sink a well in the corner of a garden, and wishing to avoid the expence and delay attendant on masonry, I cut a square shaft, and went on admirably until I came to a tremulous body of sand. Never having met with a quicksand at such a depth, then about twenty-four feet from the surface, and on so elevated a table land, there being no hills nearer than two miles, and those being separated by deep vallies, in which were running streams, I was somewhat disconcerted. I felt the whole of the difficulty, but necessity urged me to proceed. The well was to be lined with logs of about seven feet long, and about eight inches diameter; they were notched at each end, so that two, being placed parallel at five feet distance, and two others being laid over their ends, the four made a quadrangle, which, by means of the notches, came nearly to a level, and locked very firmly into each other. Having prepared abundance of these logs, I commenced my operations, by affixing a pulley over the well for the purpose of lowering them down to alaborer who stood on a board slung from four stakes at the brink of the shaft; for he could not stand on the sand, which, when the surface was broken, instantly became loose and liquid. The four first logs were scarcely placed before their own weight began to sink them, scarcely allowing time to put on four others before they disappeared. I perceived my error, and immediately had the other logs all wrapped round with straw-rope of about an inch in diameter; whereby they became more buoyant, and resisted the liquescence of the sand more powerfully, by their encrease of diameter. As a foundation, I pinned the four first, forming the primary layer, strongly at their several corners; so that they made a fixed frame. The work now went on merrily, but it was with the utmost difficulty I could supply the logs fast enough, the sand removed by their admission rose so very rapidly. Being determined to overcome the difficulty, I let down full twenty rounds of logs, equal to about seventeen feet, when I had the pleasure to see no more would sink: the sand was excavated, and I found, that, although in one or two places intervals of two or three inches had taken place, yet, on the whole, I was able to boast of better success than I expected. By degrees, I got the logs settled in their places, (a work of serious labor,) and always had water enough for every culinary purpose, but not for a large garden, which required ample irrigationdaily during the hot season; further, a quantity was indispensably requisite for wetting thetatties, or frames applied during that season to the doors and windows, to keep my house cool.
My well appeared full of water up to the top of the quicksand, but it was a perfect deception: the sand filled up the shaft in the course of three or four days, though emptied to the very bottom, which was a hard red clay.
Finding that more expence was incurred by the perpetual necessity for sending men down to empty out the sand, I resolved to adopt the old custom of lining the well with masonry; and having got all clear to the bed of clay, into which I sunk a stout frame, near a foot and a half deep, I went on with spirit for a whole day, in which near two yards of wall were built up: but, during the night, the balers went to sleep, and I found the whole immersed in the morning. As the sand and water were emptied, the draft was so great as to wash the lime from between the bricks, and I was compelled to take all out again. It then occurred to me to have bricks made in the form of the frustum of a pyramid, so as to fit exactly in a circle of two feet and a half in diameter internally, and of four feet externally. These were laid on the frame, which I now buried a full yard in the clay: between the bricks I put abundance of dry lime, rubbing them close together, and, with the clay, all theinterval between the masonry and the wooden frame was filled up. Two workmen were employed all night; one in the well, who ladled the water from the four corners into a bucket, which the other raised to the surface: none worthy of notice got within the circular masonry, and I had the satisfaction, in about a week, to see the whole completed. Sufficient water found its way through the crevices, to keep me supplied, and the sand gave so little trouble, that, during a whole year that I occupied the premises, no clearance was necessary.
This digression may appear irrelevant to the subject; but I could not forbear giving the fact a place here, as it possibly may prove an useful guide to others who may be under similar disadvantages. It is curious, that a very large well, of about twelve feet diameter, was commenced at the same time by a brother officer, within a hundred yards of mine, which went on admirably, and was finished in a very short time. He had no quicksand opposed to his labors; on the contrary, his great difficulty lay in cutting through two strata of rock, from which only a few dribblets appeared while the well was lining with masonry; but, so soon as the rainy season set in, those rocks prevented the descent of the moisture, which, being by them directed to the well, rushed in such a violent manner against the masonry, as to force out many stones:creating a fissure which, in a few weeks, proved fatal to the whole of the work. A handsome well, with a rich spring issuing from a gravelly bottom, was thus ruined, and the station was again subjected to much inconvenience for what we often had in too liberal abundance.
The natives throughout India have a great respect for such persons as plantmango topes(or woods). These are, in general, managed with great care, the trees being set at regular distances each way, forming parallel vistas both lengthwise and breadthwise: the width of which are equal each way, and varying from twenty to forty feet. When first planted, they are well enclosed with a ditch and bank, sufficient to prevent cattle from doing mischief to the young trees, which are also watered at intervals during the dry season, generally through the means of a well, dug at the expence of the planter on one side of thetope. If the proprietor be rich, the well is usually large, lined with masonry, and furnished with cisterns of the same, or of hewn stone, so that cattle may be refreshed in numbers; two pillars of masonry, or of substantial wood, are erected; each supporting the end of a timber, stretching across the well at about five feet above the brink. On this timber, a shieve of wood is fixed, with one or more grooves for the reception of the cord used in drawing water.
The first-fruits of plantations are, with few exceptions, considered as appertaining to the tutelary deity of the planter, and are tendered to him as offerings on the part of thetope. The priests who officiate on these august occasions, commonly find means to save the sacred character of their invisible patron from any suspicion of gluttony, by taking upon themselves the troublesome office of proxy, on this and every occasion wherein mastication is needful.
On many of the great roads, such as that leading from Benares to the upper stations, we find very large wells, conveniently situated near some shelter, though, perhaps, distant from any town: occasionally, a hut or two may be erected in the vicinity, for the residence of abunneah, (or kind of chandler,) or for a vender of spirits. Some of these wells are furnished with various sets of pillars and shieves, very substantial in their construction; so as to bear the weight of a leather bag, formed by stitching the edges of a whole hide, trimmed of its superfluous angles, &c., to an iron hoop of about a foot and a half in diameter: by means of two arched irons, rivetted at their crossing in the middle by a swivel and loop, the bag, ormoot, is managed in the same way as a bucket in Europe. Many of thesemootsare capable of containing, at least, half a hogshead. They retain the water more steadily in ascending, than any vesselwhose sides are fixed and firm; and, as they are drawn into a cistern, or over a bed made hollow for their reception, above the brink of the well, no great exertion is required in emptying them; the waters discharging voluntarily when themootis suffered, by the slackening of the rope, to touch the bottom of the bed, or cistern.
It may reasonably be inferred, that such a weight of water as may be contained in an ordinary ox or cow hide, though of small growth, must be more than manual strength could well manage; especially as the pulley is extremely small, rarely more than six or seven inches in diameter, nearly as much in width, and moving on a rude piece of wood for an axis; of which, probably, nearly half has been lost by the excessive friction so unfinished, and ill proportioned, a piece of machinery must occasion. Not one in a thousand ever is lubricated, but the hole in the shieve is generally adequate to the admission of an axis treble the size of that in use; whence the pulley must jump from one inequality to another; creating, at every such transition, a check of some consequence to that power whence it derives its motion.
To draw water by means of themoot, two men and a pair oxen are requisite: the size of themootbeing proportioned to the bulk of the cattle, which are yoked in the ordinary manner, drawing by means of the rope fastened roundthe centre of the yoke, and passing between them. The strength of the oxen is aided very considerably, by the path they follow being on a declivity; so that, in proceeding from the well, as they draw up themoot, they descend a talus, or slope, of which the angle may vary from fifteen to twenty-five degrees: the driver frequently seats himself on the yoke, to encrease the weight acting in opposition to themoot.
The quantity of earth derived from the shaft of the well, rarely suffices to give the talus sufficient slope, therefore, one half the length of the bullock’s track (which is regulated by the length of the rope, and may usually measure about twenty-five yards) is sunk in the ground, and the height near the well raised with the proceeds of the excavation. This ensures a sufficient addition to the energies of the cattle in descending: which they do with great effect, when goaded by the driver. Arriving at the bottom of the slope, or when themootis raised above the surface of the well, the cattle stop, and the man in attendance at the brink draws themootover the bed, or cistern, which is made to project over about one-third of the well.
Some of the wells seen at the sides of the great roads, measure fifteen or sixteen feet in diameter, and have slopes cut out of the soil, lined on each side with masonry, that lead to an opening in the well’s circumference, near to theordinary level of the water; which, in the dry season, is generally within very narrow limits. Near the opening, we sometimes see an iron ladle fastened by means of a chain. This convenience is, for the most part, held sacred, and he would, in those parts, be considered a consummate villain, that would pilfer one from its place of security. But, from many obvious marks of violence, we must suppose that there are men so depraved as to steal these chains and ladles, when necessity may press them to take advantage of a fair opportunity.
We should naturally conclude, that wells founded on such a principle, in a climate where excessive heats prevail for three months, at least, would be invaluable. But they really are little used; their surfaces are, in general, covered with duck-weed, and they rarely are deficient of an ample colony of frogs. Where huts are built near them, their waters being rather less stagnant, are, of course, more wholesome, as well as more palatable: the encampment of a regiment in their neighbourhood soon sweetens them.
Some are rendered foul by their containing fish. It would be difficult to account for fish being there, unless they fall with the heavy showers attendant upon those violent squalls called north-westers, during the hot season, when multitudes of small fry have been occasionallyfound, even on the tops of houses, in various parts of the country. Some assert that many have been found alive: I have seen some lying dead; once, in particular, near Allahabad, after a very heavy shower of rain. It does not appear possible, that, even if sucked up by a water-spout, and immediately returned with the rain, they could survive the rapidity of the ascent, and the force with which they fall.
It is remarkable, that only three kinds of fish are ever seen in wells; viz. thesolee, which, in a great measure, resembles ourpike, and is equally ravenous; thegurrye, or mud-fish, very similar in form to ourmiller’s thumb; and thesingnee, or bayonet-fish, so called from its having three terrible spines in its dorsal and lateral fins, the wounds made by which are, generally, very severe. This fish has a purplish skin, without scales, is thin like a substantial pork knife, and has a broad flat head. Like thegurrye, it is found only among mud and slime, wherein it works very nimbly. Both species can live a long while in moist mud; as is proved by their being found in recent puddles, where water had formerly been dried up. It is remarkable, that both thegurryeand thesingneeare very sweet eating, and are never muddy; the latter in particular.
If we except those small streams that come down from mountains containing ores, whichmust, of course, impregnate the waters in those parts, the catalogue of mineral springs, as yet discovered in Bengal, and the subordinate stations under that presidency, will be found very confined indeed. Possibly, numbers may exist that are not generally known; and this I am the more apt to believe, from having myself discovered one within a few yards of the road on the west bank of the Mahana, a small river which rises among the hills near the Catcumsandy-pass in the Ramghur district. The river being much swelled by heavy rains, I was compelled to wait until it subsided sufficiently to admit of my being conveyed over on a raft made of pots.
The mineral water above mentioned would, very probably, have escaped my notice, had I not been attracted by a nauseous smell, and the black greasy appearance of the soil whence it issued. The flavor was soapy, but strongly sulphuric; and a slight scum, which appeared to rise with the spring, was peculiarly acrid. I do not believe it was ever analyzed, but should conjecture it to have proceeded from a bed composed of sulphur and bitumen; especially as coals are found within that district.
There is a very remarkable hot-spring at a place callSeetah-Coon, within three miles of the fort ofMonghyr. This, it appears, has been known for ages, it is about twelve or fourteenfeet square, and may be from seven to eight feet deep in the middle: that, however, must be taken as a computation; the sides being of masonry, shelving in greatly, and the bottom not remarkably clear of weeds, &c. The water is very hot: it was with great difficulty I could keep my finger immersed during the time I counted one hundred and five; and that, too, rather hastily, it being for a wager. My finger, far from being the better for my curiosity, was slightly blistered. I have seen an egg moderately poached at this spring, and have heard that one was boiled in it; but, I apprehend, not to any degree of firmness.
The most complete proof that a large portion of caloric is contained in this spring, may be collected from the melancholy fact, of an artillery soldier, who, in the year 1777, attempting to swim across, was scalded in such a manner as to expire shortly after being taken out.
The natives, who judge by appearances, and, probably, are guided in this particular from the encreased quantity of vapour that appears during the winter to rise from the spring, affirm, that the water is then considerably hotter than at any other season. The fallacy of such an opinion is easily detected, and has, indeed, been proved: several gentlemen have been at the trouble of keeping a register of its daily variations, which were found to be extremelysmall. I could not assert myself to be correct in stating its average degree of heat, having mislaid my memoranda on that head; but, to the best of my memory, the temperature lay between 140° and 160° of Fahrenheit.
This well, of which the waters are considered remarkably wholesome, stands on the borders of a small plantation of (I believe mango) trees; near to three or four other wells, of which the waters are cold, and have not any distinguishing quality. The redundant water from the hot well affords a stream, whose section may be equal to thirty square inches; it passes into a large marsh, of at least twenty acres, close to the plantation, where it nourishes a great variety of aquatic plants, that appear to grow with more than ordinary vigor.
The same negligence in regard to botany and natural history, which appears to operate throughout India, (if we except the labours of a few zealous individuals, among whom, Captain T. Hardwicke, of the Bengal Artillery; Dr. Roxburgh, Superintendant of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta; Dr. Bruce, formerly Physician to the Nabob of Oude; and Dr. William Hunter, of the Bengal Medical Department; are the most conspicuous,) seems to operate against enquiry into various important matters relating to the mineral waters; which, I doubt not, would be found in abundance, were eitherthe cost of research so moderate as to permit active individuals to explore the vast regions whose very boundaries are, as yet, scarcely known; or, were the Government of India to defray the expence of a few capable men, whose time should be wholly devoted to an enquiry into whatever might appertain to botany, mineralogy, natural history, and the various branches of knowledge on which chemistry and physic depend. The disbursement could not be felt; while, not only would the world at large be benefitted, but, possibly, some new articles of trade, or for manufacture, might be discovered; whereby even the Company itself would derive thosesolidadvantages to which, on most occasions, they direct the attention of their servants.
Such has been the negligence shewn in regard to the hot well at Monghyr, that, although it stands within two miles of the Ganges, is not more than three miles from the Fort of Monghyr, (a grand depôt for stores, garrisoned by upwards of two thousand invalids,) and is in the direct track from Calcutta to the upper provinces; nay, although the waters of this well are sent for from all parts of the country, and form, frequently, a part of the stock of persons, especially ladies, going to sea; for which purpose it is bottled in very large quantities; yet, strange to tell, its propertieshave never been duly analyzed. I have been in company with various medical men, who differed as to its basis; some asserting it to be chalybeate, others considering it as impregnated with soda, while some, I know not why, declared it to possess no particular impregnation, nor any active principle.
It must be evident, that, in a country whose soil is subject to be parched during so many months in the year, heavy fogs and miasma must abound; consequently, during the four months following the cessation of the annual rains, it frequently happens that the atmosphere is laden with mists and vapors until a very late hour in the day. In great cities, the bad effects of these are not so perceptible, on account of the general fumigation which takes place during the evenings, when the bulk of the inhabitants, as if by general consent, kindle fires for the purpose of cooking their victuals; of which they rarely eat at an earlier hour than six or seven o’clock; the cold remains of the repast being put by for the morning’s meal. This fortuitous circumstance tends to purify the air, and obviates a large portion of those evils to which the villages, which stand more exposed in the midst of the marshy tracts, are imminently subject. In such, it is common to find a very large portion of the inhabitants annually laid upwith intermittents of a very obstinate description, but from which they are rescued by their moderation in regard to diet, and by a few medicinal simples every where common, and whose application is sufficiently understood. Great numbers are, however, swept off by the disease itself, or by the obstructions it generally creates. Those obstructions are ever to be dreaded, even though a perfect cure should apparently have taken place. It is by no means uncommon to see persons, especially Europeans, who have, to appearance, been cured of Jungle, or Hill-fevers, as they are locally designated, and which correspond exactly with our Marsh-fever, laid up at either the full or change of the moon, or, possibly, at both, for years after.
Many have affected to doubt the planetary influence on the human constitution, but, to me, there appears every reason to accredit the opinion. I have seen so many instances, among my own most intimate friends, as well as a thousand ordinary cases among soldiers, camp-followers, villagers, &c., that my mind was fully made up on the subject long before I had the opportunity of perusing the treatise of Dr. Francis Balfour, of the Bengal Medical Establishment; from which I offer to the consideration of my readers the following interesting extracts.