POTASH.

What effect has lime on muck?On what does the energy of this effect depend?Why should a compost of muck and lime be protected from rain?

What effect has lime on muck?

On what does the energy of this effect depend?

Why should a compost of muck and lime be protected from rain?

Muck may be decomposed by the aid of other materials.Limeis very efficient, though not as much so as when combined with salt. The action of lime, when applied to the muck, depends very much on its condition. Air-slaked lime (carbonate of lime), and hydrate of lime, slaked with water, have but a limited effect compared with lime freshly burned and applied in a caustic (or pure) form. When so used, however, the compost should not be exposed to rains, as this would have a tendency to makemortarwhich would harden it.

Is potash valuable for this use?From what sources may potash be obtained?In what proportion should ashes be applied to muck? Sparlings?

Is potash valuable for this use?

From what sources may potash be obtained?

In what proportion should ashes be applied to muck? Sparlings?

Potashis a very active agent in decomposing vegetable matter, and may be used with great advantage, especially where an analysis of the soil which is to be manured shows a deficiency of potash.

Unleachedwood ashes are generally the best source from which to obtain this, and from five to twenty-five bushels of these mixed with one cord of muck will produce the desired result.[Z]

The sparlings (or refuse) of potash warehouses may often be purchased at sufficiently low rates to be used for this purpose, and answer an excellent end. They may be applied at the rate of from twenty to one hundred pounds to each cord of muck.

By any of the foregoing methods, muck may bepreparedfor use in composting.

FOOTNOTES:[Y]There is, undoubtedly, some of this lime which does not unite with the chlorine; this, however, is still as valuable as any lime.[Z]Leachedashes will not supply the place of these, as the leaching has deprived them of their potash.

[Y]There is, undoubtedly, some of this lime which does not unite with the chlorine; this, however, is still as valuable as any lime.

[Z]Leachedashes will not supply the place of these, as the leaching has deprived them of their potash.

What principles should regulate us in composting?In what condition is solid dung of value as a fertilizer?What do we aim to do in composting?

What principles should regulate us in composting?

In what condition is solid dung of value as a fertilizer?

What do we aim to do in composting?

In composting stable manure in the most economical manner, the evaporation of the organic parts and the leaching of the ashy (and other) portions must be avoided, while the condition of the mass is such as to admit of the perfect decomposition of the manure.

Solid manures in their fresh state are of but very little use to plants. It is only as they are decomposed, and have their nitrogen turned into ammonia, and their other ingredients resolved into the condition required by plants, that they are of much value as fertilizers. We have seen that, if this decomposition takes place without proper precautions being made, the most valuable parts of the manure would be lost. Nor would it be prudent to keep manures from decomposing until they are applied to the soil, for then they are not immediately ready for use, and time is lost. By composting, we aim to save every thing while we prepare the manures for immediate use.

What is the first consideration for composts?Describe the arrangement of floor.

What is the first consideration for composts?

Describe the arrangement of floor.

The first consideration in preparing for composting, is to provide proper shelter. This may be done either by means of a shed or by arranging a cellar under the stables, or in any other manner that may be dictated by circumstances. It is no doubt better to have the manure shed enclosed so as to make it an effectual protection; this however is not absolutely necessary if the roof project far enough over the compost to shelter it from the sun's rays and from driving rains.

The importance of some protection of this kind, is evident from what has already been said, and indeed it is impossible to make an economical use of manures without it. The trifling cost of building a shed, or preparing a cellar, is amply repaid in the benefit resulting from their uses.

Theflooror foundation on which to build the compost deserves some consideration. It may be of plank tightly fitted, a hard bed of clay, or better, a cemented surface. Whatever material is used in its construction (and stiff clay mixed with water andbeaten compactly down answers an excellent purpose), the floor must have such an inclination as will cause it to discharge water only at one point. That is, one part of the edge must be lower than the rest of the floor, which must be so shaped that water will run towards this point from every part of it; then—the floor being water-tight—all of the liquids of the compost may be collected in a

How should the tank be attached?

Thistankused to collect the liquids of the manure may be made by sinking a barrel or hogshead (according to the size of the heap) in the ground at the point where it is required, or in any other convenient manner.

In the tank a pump of cheap construction may be placed, to raise the liquid to a sufficient height to be conveyed by a trough to the centre of the heap, and there distributed by means of a perforated board with raised edges, and long enough to reach across the heap in any direction. By altering the position of this board, the liquid may be carried evenly over the whole mass.

The appearance of the apparatus required for composting, and the compost laid up, may be better shown by the following figure.

Fig. 2. a, tank; b, pump; c & g, perforated board; d, muck; e, manure; f, floor.Fig. 2.a, tank; b, pump; c & g, perforated board; d, muck; e, manure; f, floor.

How is the compost made?

The compost is made by laying on the floor ten or twelve inches of muck, and on that a few inches of manure, then another heavy layer of muck, and another of manure, continuing in this manner until the heap is raised to the required height, always having a thick layer of muck at the top.

What liquids are best for moistening the compost?How should they be applied?What are the advantages of this moistening?How does it compare with forking over?

What liquids are best for moistening the compost?

How should they be applied?

What are the advantages of this moistening?

How does it compare with forking over?

After laying up the heap, the tank should be filled with liquid manure from the stables, slops fromthe house, soap-suds, or other water containing fertilizing matter, to be pumped over the mass. There should be enough of the liquid to saturate the heap and filter through to fill the tank twice a week, at which intervals it should be again pumped up, thus continually being passed through the manure. This liquid should not be changed, as it contains much soluble manure. Should the liquid manures named above not be sufficient, the quantity may be increased by the use of rain-water. That falling during the first ten minutes of a shower is the best, as it contains much ammonia.

The effects produced by frequently watering the compost is one of the greatest advantages of this system.

The soluble portions of the manure are equally diffused through every part of the heap.

Should the heat of fermentation be too great, the watering will reduce it.

When the compost is saturated with water, the air is driven out; and, as the water subsides,freshair enters and takes its place. This fresh air contains oxygen, which assists in the decomposition of the manure.

In short, the watering does all the work of forking over by hand much better and much more cheaply.

Why will the ammonia of manure thus made, not escape if it be used as a top dressing?What are the advantages of preparing manures in this manner?What is the profit attending it?

Why will the ammonia of manure thus made, not escape if it be used as a top dressing?

What are the advantages of preparing manures in this manner?

What is the profit attending it?

At the end of a month or more, this compost will be ready for use. The layers in the manure will have disappeared, the whole mass having become of a uniform character, highly fertilizing, and ready to be immediately used by plants.

It may be applied to the soil, either as a top-dressing, or otherwise, without fear of loss, as the muck will retain all of the gases which would otherwise evaporate.

The cost and trouble of the foregoing system of composting are trifling compared with its advantages. The quantity of the manure is much increased, and its quality improved. The health of the animals is secured by the retention of those gases, which, when allowed to escape, render impure the air which they have to breathe.

The cleanliness of the stable and yard is much advanced as the effete matters, which would otherwise litter them, are carefully removed to the compost.

As an instance of the profit of composting, it may be stated that Prof. Mapes has decomposed ninety-two cords of swamp muck, with four hundred bushels of the lime and salt mixture, and then composted it with eight cords offreshhorse dung, making one hundred cords of manure fully equal to the same amount of stable-manure alone, which has lain oneyear exposed to the weather. Indeed one cord of muck well decomposed, and containing the chlorine lime and soda of four bushels of the mixture, is of itself equal in value to the same amount of manure which has lain in an open barn-yard during the heat and rain of one season, and is then applied to the land in arawor undecomposed state.

In what other manners may muck be used in the preservation of manures?How may liquid manure be made most useful?

In what other manners may muck be used in the preservation of manures?

How may liquid manure be made most useful?

The foregoing system of composting is the best that has yet been suggested for making use of solid manures. Many other methods may be adopted when circumstances will not admit of so much attention. It is a common and excellent practice to throw prepared muck into the cellar under the stables, to be mixed and turned over with the manure by swine. In other cases the manures are kept in the yard, and are covered with a thin layer of muck every morning. The principle which renders these systems beneficial is the absorbent power of charcoal.

Liquid manurefrom animals may, also, be made useful by the assistance of prepared muck. Where a tank is used in composting, the liquids from the stable may all be employed to supply moisture to the heap; but where any system is adopted, not requiring liquids, the urine may be applied to muck heaps, and then allowed to ferment. Fermentation is necessary in urine as well as in solid dung, before it is very active as a manure. Urine, as will be recollected, contains nitrogen and forms ammonia on fermentation.

Describe the manner of digging out the bottoms of stalls.

It is a very good plan to dig out the bottoms of the stalls in a circular or gutter-like form, three or four feet deep in the middle, cement the ground, or make it nearly water-tight, by a plastering of stiff clay, and fill them up with prepared muck. The appearance of a cross section of the floor thus arranged would be as follows:

Fig. 3.Fig. 3.

The prepared muck in the bottom of the stalls would absorb the urine as soon as voided, while yet warm with the animal heat, and receive heat from the animal's body while lying down at night. Thisheat will hasten the decomposition of the urea,[AA]and if the muck be renewed twice a month, and that which is removed composted under cover, it will be found a most prolific source of good manure. In Flanders, the liquid manure of a cow is considered worth $10 per year, and it is not less valuable here. As was stated in the early part of this section, the inorganic (or mineral) matter contained in urine, is soluble, and consequently is immediately useful as food for plants.

By referring to the analysis of liquid and solid manure, insection V., their relative value may be seen.

The manures of different animals are, of course, of different value, as fertilizers, varying according to the food, the age of the animals, etc.

By stable manure we mean, usually, that of thehorse, and that of horned cattle. The case described in chap. 2 (of this section), was one where the animal was not increasing in any of its parts, but returned, in the form of manure, and otherwise, the equivalent of every thing eaten. This case is one of the most simple kind, and is subject to many modifications.

Is the manure of full-grown animals of the same quality as that of other animals?Why does that of the growing animal differ?Why does not the formation offatreduce the quality of manure?What doesmilkremove from the food?

Is the manure of full-grown animals of the same quality as that of other animals?

Why does that of the growing animal differ?

Why does not the formation offatreduce the quality of manure?

What doesmilkremove from the food?

Thegrowinganimal is increasing in size, and as he derives his increase from his food, he does not return in the form of manure as much as he eats. If his bones are growing, he is taking from his food phosphate of lime and nitrogenous matter; consequently, the manure will be poorer in these ingredients. The same may be said of the formation of the muscles, in relation to nitrogen.

Thefattinganimal, if full grown, makes manure which is as good as that from animals that are not increasing in size, because the fat is taken from those parts of the food which is obtained by plants from the atmosphere, and from nature, (i. e.from the 1st class of proximates). Fat contains no nitrogen, and, consequently, does not lessen the amount of this ingredient in the manure.

Milch Cowsturn a part of their food to the formation of milk, and consequently, they produce manure of reduced value.

How do the solid and liquid manure of the horse and ox compare?What occasions these differences?

How do the solid and liquid manure of the horse and ox compare?

What occasions these differences?

The solid manure of the horse is better than that of the ox, while the liquid manure of the ox is comparatively better than that of the horse. The cause of this is that the horse has poorer digestive organs than the ox, and consequently passes more of the valuable parts of his food, in an undigested form, as dung, while the ox, from chewing the cud and having more perfect organs, turns more of his food into urine than the horse.

Full Grownanimals not producing milk, and full grown animals fattening make the best manure.Growing Animalsreduce the value of their manure, taking portions of their food to form their bodies.Milch Cowsreduce the value of their manure by changing a part of their food into milk.The Oxmakes poor dung and rich urine.The Horsemakes rich dung and poor urine.[AB]

Full Grownanimals not producing milk, and full grown animals fattening make the best manure.

Growing Animalsreduce the value of their manure, taking portions of their food to form their bodies.

Milch Cowsreduce the value of their manure by changing a part of their food into milk.

The Oxmakes poor dung and rich urine.

The Horsemakes rich dung and poor urine.[AB]

What is the most valuable manure accessible to the farmer?What is the probable value of the night soil yearly lost in the United States?Of what does the manure of man consist?

What is the most valuable manure accessible to the farmer?

What is the probable value of the night soil yearly lost in the United States?

Of what does the manure of man consist?

Thebestmanure within the reach of the farmer isnight soil, or human excrement. There has always been a false delicacy about mentioning this fertilizer, which has caused much waste, and great loss of health, from the impure and offensive odors which it is allowed to send forth to taint the air.

The value of the night soil yearly lost in the United States is, probably, aboutfifty millions of dollars(50,000,000); an amount nearly equal to the entire expenses of our National Government. Much of the ill health of our people is undoubtedly occasioned by neglecting the proper treatment of night soil.

Describe this manure as compared with the excrements of other animals.Does the use of night soil produce disagreeable properties in plants?

Describe this manure as compared with the excrements of other animals.

Does the use of night soil produce disagreeable properties in plants?

That which directly affects agriculture, as treated of in this book, is the value of this substance as a fertilizer. The manure of man consists (as is the case with that of other animals) of those parts of his food which are not retained in the increase of his body. If he begrowing, his manure is poorer, as in the case of the ox, and it is subject to all the other modifications named in the early part of this chapter. His food is usually of a varied character, and is rich in nitrogen, the phosphates, andother inorganic constituents; consequently, his manure is made valuable by containing large quantities of these matters. As is the case with the ox, thedungcontains the undigested food, the secretions (or leakings) of the digestive organs, and the insoluble parts of the ash of the digested food. Theurine, in like manner, contains a large proportion of the nitrogen and the soluble inorganic parts of the digested food. When we consider how much richer thefoodof man is than that of horned cattle, we shall see the superior value of hisexcrement.

Night soil has been used as a manure, for ages, in China, which is, undoubtedly, one great secret of their success in supporting a dense population, for so long a time, without impoverishing the soil. It has been found, in many instances, to increase the productive power of the natural soil three-fold. That is, if a soil would produce ten bushels of wheat per acre, without manure, it would produce thirty bushels if manured with night soil.

Some have supposed that manuring with night soil would give disagreeable properties to plants: such is not the case; their quality is invariably improved. The color and odor of the rose become richer and more delicate by the use of the most offensive night soil as manure.

What is the direct object of plants?What would result if this were not the case?How may night soil be easily prepared for use, and its offensive odor prevented?

What is the direct object of plants?

What would result if this were not the case?

How may night soil be easily prepared for use, and its offensive odor prevented?

It is evident that this is the case from the fact that plants have it for their direct object to make over and put together the refuse organic matter, and the gases and the minerals found in nature, for the use of animals. If there were no natural means of rendering the excrement of animals available to plants, the earth must soon be shorn of its fertility, as the elements of growth when once consumed would be essentially destroyed, and no soil could survive the exhaustion. There is no reason why the manure of man should be rejected by vegetation more than that of any other animal; and indeed it is not, for ample experience has proved that for most soils there is no better manure in existence.

A single experiment will suffice to show that night soil may be so kept that there shall be no loss of its valuable gases, and consequently no offensive odor arising from it, while it may be removed and applied to crops without unpleasantness. All that is necessary to effect this wonderful change in night soil, and to turn it from its disagreeable character to one entirely inoffensive, is to mix with it a little charcoal dust, prepared muck, or any other good absorbent—thus making what is called poudrette. The mode of doing this must depend on circumstances. In many cases, it would be expedient tokeep a barrel of the absorbent in the privy and throw down a small quantity every day. The effect on the odor of the house would amply repay the trouble.

Should pure night soil be used as a manure?What precaution is necessary in preparing hog manure for use?

Should pure night soil be used as a manure?

What precaution is necessary in preparing hog manure for use?

The manure thus made is of the most valuable character, and may be used under any circumstances with a certainty of obtaining a good crop. It should not be used unmixed with some absorbent, as it is of such strength as to kill plants.

For an analysis of human manure, seeSection V.

Hog Manureis very valuable, but it must be used with care. It is so violent in its action that, when applied in a pure form to crops, it often produces injurious results. It is liable to make cabbagesclump-footed, and to induce a disease in turnips calledambury(or fingers and toes). The only precaution necessary is to supply the stye with prepared muck, charcoal-dust, leaf-mould, or any absorbent in plentiful quantities, often adding fresh supplies. The hogs will work this over with the manure; and, when required for use, it will be found an excellent fertilizer. The absorbent will have overcome its injurious tendency, and it may be safely applied to any crop. From the variety and rich character of the food of this animal, his manure is of a superior quality.

Why is the manure from butchers' hog-pens very valuable?How does the value of poultry manure compare with that of guano?How may it be protected against loss?

Why is the manure from butchers' hog-pens very valuable?

How does the value of poultry manure compare with that of guano?

How may it be protected against loss?

Butchers' hog-pen manureis one of the best fertilizers known. It is made by animals that live almost entirely on blood and other animal refuse, and is very rich in nitrogen and the phosphates. It should be mixed with prepared muck, or its substitute, to prevent the loss of its ammonia, and as a protection against its injurious effect on plants.

Next in value to night soil, among domestic manures, are the excrements of poultry, pigeons, etc. Birds live on the nice bits of creation, seeds, insects, etc., and they discharge their solid and liquid excrements together. Poultry-dung is nearly equal in value to guano (except that it contains more water), and it deserves to be carefully preserved and judiciously used. It is as well worth twenty-five cents per bushel as guano is worth fifty dollars a ton (at which price it is now sold).

Poultry-manure is liable to as much injury from evaporation and leaching as is any other manure, and equal care should be taken (by the same means) to prevent such loss. Good shelter over the roosts, and daily sprinkling with prepared muck or charcoal-dust will be amply repaid by the increased value ofthe manure, and its better action and greater durability in the soil. The value of this manure should be taken into consideration in calculating the profit of keeping poultry (as indeed with all other stock). It has been observed by a gentleman of much experience, in poultry raising, that the yearly manure of a hundred fowls applied to previously unmanured land would produceextracorn enough to keep them for a year. This is probably a large estimate, but it serves to show that this fertilizer is very valuable, and also that poultry may be kept with great profit, if their excrements are properly secured.

The manure of pigeons has been a favorite fertilizer in some countries for more than 2000 years.

Market gardeners attach much value to rabbit-manure.

What can you say of the manure of sheep?

The manure of sheep is less valuable than it would be, if so large a quantity of the nitrogen and mineral parts of the food were not employed in the formation of wool. This has a great effect on the richness of the excrements, but they are still a very good fertilizer, and should be protected from loss in the same way as stable manure.

Should the use of guano induce us to disregard other manures?Where and in what manner is the best guano deposited?

Should the use of guano induce us to disregard other manures?

Where and in what manner is the best guano deposited?

Guanoas a manure has become world renowned. The worn-out tobacco lands of Virginia, and other fields in many parts of the country, which seemed to have yielded to the effect of an ignorant course of cultivation, and to have sunk to their final repose, have in many cases been revived to the production of excellent crops, and have had their value multiplied many fold by the use of guano. Although an excellent manure, it should not cause us to lose sight of those valuable materials which exist on almost every farm. Every ton of guano imported into the United States is an addition to our national wealth, but every ton of stable-manure, or poultry-dung, or night soil evaporated or carried away in rivers, is equally adeductionfrom our riches. If the imported manure is to really benefit us, we must not allow it to occasion the neglect and consequent loss of our domestic fertilizers.

The Peruvian guano (which is considered the best) is brought from islands near the coast of Peru. The birds which frequent these islands live almost entirely on fish, and drop their excrements here in a climate where rain is almost unknown, and where, from the dryness of the air, there is but little losssustained by the manure. It is brought to this country in large quantities, and is an excellent fertilizer, superior even to night soil.

How should it be prepared for use?

It should be mixed with an absorbent before being used, unless it is plowed deeply under the soil, as it contains much ammonia which would be lost from evaporation. It would probably also injure plants. The best way to use guano, is in connection with sulphuric acid and bones, as will be described hereafter.

The composition of the various kinds of guano may be found in the section on analysis.

FOOTNOTES:[AA]The nitrogenous compound in the urine.[AB]Comparatively.

[AA]The nitrogenous compound in the urine.

[AB]Comparatively.

The number of organic manures is almost countless. The most common of these have been described in the previous chapters on the excrements of animals. The more prominent of the remaining ones will now be considered. As a universal rule, it may be stated that all organic matter (every thing which has had vegetable or animal life) is capable of fertilizing plants.

What are the chief fertilizing constituents of dead animals?What becomes of these when exposed to the atmosphere?How may this be prevented?

What are the chief fertilizing constituents of dead animals?

What becomes of these when exposed to the atmosphere?

How may this be prevented?

The bodies of animals contain muchnitrogen, as well as valuable quantities, the phosphates and other inorganic materials required in the growth of plants. On their decay, the nitrogen is resolved intoammonia,[AC]and the mineral matters become valuable as food for the inorganic parts of plants.

If the decomposition of animal bodies takes place in exposed situations, and without proper precautions, the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere, and much of the mineral portion is leached out by rains. The use of absorbents, such as charcoal-dust, prepared muck, etc., will entirely prevent evaporation, and will in a great measure serve as a protection against leaching.

If a dead horse be cut in pieces and mixed with ten loads of muck, the whole mass will, in a single season, become a most valuable compost. Small animals, such as dogs, cats, etc., may be with advantage buried by the roots of grape-vines or trees.

Of what do the bones of animals consist?What is gelatine?Describe the fertilizing qualities of fish.

Of what do the bones of animals consist?

What is gelatine?

Describe the fertilizing qualities of fish.

Thebonesof animals contain phosphate of lime and gelatine. The gelatine is a nitrogenous substance, and produces ammonia on its decomposition. This subject will be spoken of more fully under the head of 'phosphate of lime' in the chapter on mineral manures, as the treatment of bones is more directly with reference to the fertilizing value of their inorganic matter.

In many localities near the sea-shore large quantities of fish are caught and applied to the soil. These make excellent manure. They contain much nitrogen, which renders them strongly ammoniacal on decomposition. Their bones consist of phosphate and carbonate of lime; and, being naturally soft, they decompose in the soil with great facility, and become available to plants. The scales of fish contain valuable quantities of nitrogen, phosphate of lime, etc., all of which are highly useful.

Refuse fishy matters from markets and from the house are well worth saving. These and fish caught for manure may be made into compost with preparedmuck, etc.; and, as they putrefy rapidly, they soon become ready for use. They may be added to the compost of stable manure with great advantage.

Should these be applied as a top dressing to the soil?What are the fertilizing properties of woollen rags?What is the best way to use them?

Should these be applied as a top dressing to the soil?

What are the fertilizing properties of woollen rags?

What is the best way to use them?

Fish (like all other nitrogenous manures) should never be applied as a top dressing, unless previously mixed with a good absorbent of ammonia, but should when used alone be immediately plowed under to considerable depth, to prevent the evaporation—and consequent loss—of their fertilizing gases.

Woollen rags, hair, waste of woollen factories, etc., contain both nitrogen and phosphate of lime; and, like all other matters containing these ingredients, are excellent manures, but must be used in such a way as to prevent the escape of their fertilizing gases. They decompose slowly, and are therefore considered alastingmanure. Like alllastingmanures, however, they areslowin their effects, and the most advantageous way to use them is to compost them with stable manure, or with some other rapidly fermenting substance, which will hasten their decomposition and render them sooner available.

Rags, hair, etc., thus treated, will in a short time be reduced to such a condition that they may be immediately used by plants instead of lying in thesoil to be slowly taken up. It is better in all cases to have manures actquicklyand give an immediate return for their cost, than to lie for a long time in the soil before their influence is felt.

What is their value compared with that of farm-yard manure?How should old leather be treated?Describe the manurial properties of tanners' refuse.How should they be treated?Are horn piths, etc. valuable?

What is their value compared with that of farm-yard manure?

How should old leather be treated?

Describe the manurial properties of tanners' refuse.

How should they be treated?

Are horn piths, etc. valuable?

A pound of woollen rags is worth, as a manure, twice as much as is paid for good linen shreds for paper making; still, while the latter are always preserved, the former are thrown away, although considered by good judges to be worth forty times as much as barn-yard manure.

Old leather should not be thrown away. It decomposes very slowly, and consequently is of but a little value; but, if put at the roots of young trees, it will in time produce appreciable effects.

Tanners' and curriers' refuse, and all other animal offal, including that of the slaughter-house, is well worth attention, as it contains more or less of those two most important ingredients of manures, nitrogen and phosphate of lime.

It is unnecessary to add that, in common with all other animal manures, these substances must be either composted, or immediately plowed under the soil. Horn piths, and horn shavings, if decomposed in compost, with substances which ferment rapidly, make very good manure, and are worth fully the price charged for them.

Muck, the most important of the purely vegetable manures, has been already sufficiently described. It should be particularly borne in mind that, when first taken from the swamp it is oftensour, orcold, but that if exposed for a long time to the air, or if well treated with lime, unleached ashes, the lime and salt mixture, or any other alkali, its acids will beneutralized(or overcome), and it becomes a good application to any soil, except peat or other soils already containing large quantities of organic matter. In applying muck to the soil (as has been before stated), it should be made a vehicle for carrying ammoniacal manures.

Why is decomposed bark more fertilizing than that of decayed wood?

Spent tan bark, if previously decomposed by the use of the lime and salt mixture, or potash, answers all the purposes of prepared muck, but is more difficult of decomposition.

How may bark be decomposed?Why should tan bark be composted with an alkali?Why is it good for mulching?Is sawdust of any value?

How may bark be decomposed?

Why should tan bark be composted with an alkali?

Why is it good for mulching?

Is sawdust of any value?

The bark of trees contains a larger proportion of inorganic matter than the wood, and much of this, on the decomposition of the bark, becomes available as manure. The chemical effect on the bark, ofusing it in the tanning of leather, is such as to render it difficult to be rotted by the ordinary means, but, by the use of the lime and salt mixture it may be reduced to the finest condition, and becomes a most excellent manure. It probably contains small quantities of nitrogen (obtained from the leather), which adds to its value. Unless tan bark be composted with lime, or some other alkali, it may produce injurious effects from thetannic acidwhich it is liable to contain. Alkaline substances will neutralize this acid, and prevent it from being injurious.

One great benefit resulting from the use of spent tan bark, is due to its power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. For this reason it is very valuable formulching[AD]young trees and plants when first set out.

Why is sawdust a good addition to the pig-stye?What is the peculiarity of sawdust from the beech, etc.?What is a peculiarity of soot?Why may soot be used as a top dressing without losing its ammonia?

Why is sawdust a good addition to the pig-stye?

What is the peculiarity of sawdust from the beech, etc.?

What is a peculiarity of soot?

Why may soot be used as a top dressing without losing its ammonia?

Sawdustin its natural state is of very little value to the land, but when decomposed, as may be done by the same method as was described for tan bark, it is of some importance, as it contains a large quantity of carbon. Its ash, too, which becomesavailable, contains soluble inorganic matter, and in this way it acts as a direct manure. So far as concerns the value of the ash, however, the bark is superior to sawdust. Sawdust may be partially rotted by mixing it with strong manure (as hog manure), while it acts as adivisor, and prevents the too rapid action of this when applied to the soil. Some kinds of sawdust, such as that from beech wood, form acetic acid on their decomposition, and these should be treated with, at least, a sufficient quantity of lime to correct the acid.

Sootis a good manure. It contains much carbon, and has, thus far, all of the beneficial effects of charcoal dust. The sulphur, which is one of its constituents, not only serves as food for plants, but, from its odor, is a good protection against some insects. By throwing a handful of soot on a melon vine, or young cabbage plant, it will keep away many insects.

Soot contains some ammonia, and as this is in the form of asulphate, it is not volatile, and consequently does not evaporate when the soot is applied as a top dressing, which is the almost universal custom.

What plants are most used as green crops?What office is performed by the roots of green crops?How do such manures increase the organic matter of soils?

What plants are most used as green crops?

What office is performed by the roots of green crops?

How do such manures increase the organic matter of soils?

Green crops, to plow under, are in many places largely raised, and are always beneficial. The plants most used for this purpose, in our country, are clover, buckwheat, and peas. These plants have very long roots, which they send deep in the soil, to draw up mineral matter for their support. This mineral matter is deposited in the plant. The leaves and roots receive carbonic acid and ammonia from the air, and from water. In this manner they obtain their carbon. When the crop is turned under the soil, it decomposes, and the carbon, as well as the mineral ingredients obtained from the subsoil, are deposited in the surface soil, and become of use to succeeding crops. The hollow stalks of the buckwheat and pea, serve as tubes, in the soil, for the passage of air, and thus, in heavy soils, give a much needed circulation of atmospheric fertilizers.

What office is performed by the straw of the buckwheat and pea?What treatment may be substituted for the use of green crops?Which course should be adopted in high farming?Why is the use of green crops preferable in ordinary cultivation?Name some other valuable manures.

What office is performed by the straw of the buckwheat and pea?

What treatment may be substituted for the use of green crops?

Which course should be adopted in high farming?

Why is the use of green crops preferable in ordinary cultivation?

Name some other valuable manures.

Although green crops are of great benefit, and are managed with little labor, there is no doubt but the same results may be more economically produced. A few loads of prepared muck will do more towards increasing the organic matter in the soil, than a very heavy crop of clover, while it would be ready for immediate cultivation, instead of having to lie idleduring the year required in the production and decomposition of the green crop. The effect of the roots penetrating the subsoil is, as we have seen, to draw up inorganic matter, to be deposited within reach of the roots of future crops. In the next section we shall show that this end may be much more efficiently attained by the use of the sub-soil plow, which makes a passage for the roots into the subsoil, where they can obtain for themselves what would, in the other case, be brought up for them by the roots of the green crop.

The offices of the hollow straws may be performed by a system of ridging and back furrowing, having previously covered the soil with leaves, or other refuse organic material.

Inhigh farming, where the object of the cultivator is to make a profitable investment of labor, these last named methods will be found most expedient; but, if the farmer have a large quantity of land, and can afford but a limited amount of labor, the raising of green crops, to be plowed under in the fall, will probably be adopted.

Before closing this chapter, it may be well to remark that there are various other fertilizers, such astheammoniacal liquor of gas-houses,soapers' wastes,bleachers' lye,lees of old oil casks, etc., which we have not space to consider at length, but which are all valuable as additions to the compost heap, or as applications, in a liquid form, to the soil.

What are the advantages arising from burying manure in its green state?Which is generally preferable, this course, or composting? Why?

What are the advantages arising from burying manure in its green state?

Which is generally preferable, this course, or composting? Why?

In many cases (when heavy manuring is practised), it may be well to apply organic manures to the soil in a green state, turn them under, and allow them to undergo decomposition in the ground. The advantages of this system are, that theheat, resulting from the chemical changes, will hasten the growth of plants, by making the soil warmer; the carbonic acid formed will be presented to the roots instead of escaping into the atmosphere; and if the soil be heavy, the rising of the gases will tend to loosen it, and the leaving vacant of the spaces occupied by the solid matters will, on their being resolved into gases, render the soil of a more porous character. As a general rule, however, in ordinary farming, where the amount of manure applied is only sufficient for the supply of food to the crop, it is undoubtedly better to have it previously decomposed—cookedas it were, for the uses of the plants—as they can then obtain the required amount of nutriment as fast as needed.

It is often convenient to know the relative power of different manures to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, especially when we wish to manure lands that suffer from drought. The following results are given by C. W. Johnson, in his essay on salt, (pp. 8 and 19). In these experiments the animal manures were employed without any admixture of straw.

Muck is a most excellent absorbent of moisture, when thoroughly decomposed.

The following table from Johnson, on manures, will be found convenient in the distribution of manures.

By its assistance the farmer will know how many loads of manure he requires, dividing each load into a stated number of heaps, and placing them at certain distances. In this manner manure may be applied evenly, and calculation may be made as to the amount, per acre, which a certain quantity will supply.[AF]

Example 1.—Required, the number of loads necessary to manure an acre of ground, dividing each load into six heaps, and placing them at a distance of 4½ yards from each other? The answer by the table is 39¾.

Example 2.—A farmer has a field containing 5½ acres, over which he wishes to spread 82 loads of dung. Now 82 divided by 5½, gives 15 loads per acre; and by referring to the table, it will be seen that the desired object may be accomplished, by making 4 heaps of a load, and placing them 9 yards apart, or by 9 heaps at 6 yards, as may be thought advisable.

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