12.Use definite, specific, concrete language.

Not charity, but simple justice.Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.

Not charity, but simple justice.

Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.

Negative words other thannotare usually strong:

The sun never sets upon the British flag.

The sun never sets upon the British flag.

Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract.

If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines fromMy Last Duchess,

Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,The dropping of the daylight in the west,The bough of cherries some officious foolBroke in the orchard for her, the white muleShe rode with round the terrace—all and eachWould draw from her alike the approving speech,Or blush, at least,

Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,The dropping of the daylight in the west,The bough of cherries some officious foolBroke in the orchard for her, the white muleShe rode with round the terrace—all and eachWould draw from her alike the approving speech,Or blush, at least,

Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,

The dropping of the daylight in the west,

The bough of cherries some officious fool

Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule

She rode with round the terrace—all and each

Would draw from her alike the approving speech,

Or blush, at least,

and those which end the poem,

Notice Neptune, though,Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.

Notice Neptune, though,Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.

Notice Neptune, though,

Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,

Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.

These words call up pictures. Recall how inThe Bishop Orders his Tomb in St. Praxed's Church“the Renaissance spirit—its worldliness, inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of luxury, of good Latin,” to quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms.

Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene.

In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application.

“This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced.”

Herbert Spencer, from whosePhilosophy of Stylethe preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.

Many expressions in common use violate this principle:

In especial the expressionthe fact thatshould be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.

See also undercase,character,nature,systeminChapter V.

Who is,which was, and the like are often superfluous.

As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules11and12illustrate this rule as well.

A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.

This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable (see underRule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious.

An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectivesand,but,so, and less frequently,who,which,when,where, andwhile, these last in non-restrictive senses (see underRule 3).

The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.

The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.

Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted underRule 9, or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) toVanity Fair.

If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.

The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted underRule9. But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction.

The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Correlative expressions (both, and;not, but;not only, but also;either, or;first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. (Such combinations as “both Henry and I,” “not silk, but a cheap substitute,” are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement; others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions.

See also the third example underRule 12and the last underRule 13.

It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he writetwenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table.

The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.

The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning.

The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause. Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense (see examples underRule 18).

The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its antecedent.

If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.

The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who

The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who

A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.

The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs

The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs

Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.

In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summaryis in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.

An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter.

An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter.

But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.

The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.

The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compareRule 15).

In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as “he said,” “he stated,” “the speaker added,” “the speaker then went on to say,” “the author also thinks,” or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.

In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment.Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions.

The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.

The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, thenewelement in the sentence, as it is in the second example.

The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement.

Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.

With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic when placed first.

Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.

So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,

Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

the emphasis uponkingsarises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.

Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.

Headings.Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.

Numerals.Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.

August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)Rule 3Chapter XII352nd Infantry

August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)

Rule 3

Chapter XII

352nd Infantry

Parentheses.A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.

I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.

I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.

He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.

(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)

Quotations.Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

The provision of the Constitution is: “No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.”

The provision of the Constitution is: “No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.”

Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.

I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come.”Aristotle says, “Art is an imitation of nature.”

I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come.”

Aristotle says, “Art is an imitation of nature.”

Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks.

Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:

Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,But to be young was very heaven!

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,But to be young was very heaven!

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,

But to be young was very heaven!

Quotations introduced bythatare regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.

Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks.

These are the times that try men's souls.He lives far from the madding crowd.

These are the times that try men's souls.

He lives far from the madding crowd.

The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.

References.In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the wordsact,scene,line,book,volume,page, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.

After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).2 Samueli:17–27OthelloII.iii. 264–267,III.iii. 155–161.

After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).

2 Samueli:17–27

OthelloII.iii. 264–267,III.iii. 155–161.

Syllabication.If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only asingle letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:

(a) Divide the word according to its formation:

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

(b) Divide “on the vowel:”

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent;

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent;

(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

(d) Do not divide before final-edif theeis silent:

treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).

treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).

The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:

for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.

Titles.For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initialAorThefrom titles when you place the possessive before them.

TheIliad; theOdyssey;As You Like It;To a Skylark;The Newcomes;A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens'sTale of Two Cities.

TheIliad; theOdyssey;As You Like It;To a Skylark;The Newcomes;A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens'sTale of Two Cities.

(Some of the forms here listed, aslike I did, are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, ascase,factor,feature,interesting,one of the most, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under Rules12and13.)

All right.Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words.

As good or better than.Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

As to whether.Whetheris sufficient; see underRule 13.

Bid.Takes the infinitive withoutto. The past tense in the sense,“ordered,”isbade.

But.Unnecessary afterdoubtandhelp.

The too frequent use ofbutas a conjunction leads to the fault discussed underRule 14. A loose sentence formed withbutcan always be converted into a periodic sentence formed withalthough, as illustrated underRule 4.

Particularly awkward is the following of onebutby another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement.

Can.Meansam (is, are) able. Not to be used as a substitute formay.

Case.TheConcise Oxford Dictionarybegins its definition of this word: “instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs.” In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.

See Wood,Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68–71, and Quiller-Couch,The Art of Writing, pp. 103–106.

Certainly.Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others usevery, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.

Character.Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.

Claim, vb.With object-noun, meanslay claim to. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: “He claimed that he was the sole survivingheir.” (But even here, “claimed to be” would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute fordeclare,maintain, orcharge.

Clever.This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.

Compare.Tocompare tois to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; tocompare withis mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.

Consider.Not followed byaswhen it means “believe to be.” “I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator,” where “considered” means “examined” or “discussed.”

Data.A plural, likephenomenaandstrata.

These data were tabulated.

These data were tabulated.

Dependable.A needless substitute forreliable,trustworthy.

Different than.Not permissible. Substitutedifferent from,other than, orunlike.

Divided into.Not to be misused forcomposed of. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.

Don't.Contraction ofdo not. The contraction ofdoes notisdoesn't.

Due to.Incorrectly used forthrough,because of, orowing to, in adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game, due to carelessness.” In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: “This invention is due to Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.”

Folk.A collective noun, equivalent topeople. Use the singular form only.

Effect.As noun, meansresult; as verb, meanstobring about,accomplish(not to be confused withaffect, which means “to influence”).

As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental effect;” “effects in pale green;” “very delicate effects;” “broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a charming effect was produced by.” The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.

Etc.Equivalent toand the rest,and so forth, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.

At the end of a list introduced bysuch as,for example, or any similar expression,etc.is incorrect.

Fact.Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable theymay be, are not properly facts.

On the formulathe fact that, see underRule 13.

Factor.A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.

Feature.Another hackneyed word; likefactorit usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.

As a verb, in the advertising sense ofoffer as a special attraction, to be avoided.

Fix.Colloquial in America forarrange,prepare,mend. In writing restrict it to its literary senses,fasten,make firm or immovable, etc.

Get.The colloquialhave gotforhaveshould not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle isgot.

He is a man who.A common type of redundant expression; seeRule 13.

Help.See underBut.

However.In the meaningnevertheless, not to come first in its sentence or clause.

Whenhowevercomes first, it meansin whatever wayorto whatever extent.

However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.

However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

Interesting.Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so.

Kind of.Not to be used as a substitute forrather(before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, forsomething like(before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil resin;” “I dislike that kind of notoriety.” The same holds true ofsort of.

Less.Should not be misused forfewer.

Lessrefers to quantity,fewerto number. “His troubles are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as mine.” It is, however, correct to say, “The signers of the petition were less than a hundred,” where the round numbera hundredis something like a collective noun, andlessis thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.

Like.Not to be misused foras.Likegoverns nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word isas.

Line, along these lines.Linein the sense ofcourse of procedure,conduct,thought, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrasealong these lines, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

Literal, literally.Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.

Lose out.Meant to be more emphatic thanlose, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true oftry out,win out,sign up,register up. With a number of verbs,outandupform idiomatic combinations:find out,run out,turn out,cheer up,dry up,make up, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb.Lose outis not.

Most.Not to be used foralmost.

Nature.Often simply redundant, used likecharacter.

Often vaguely used in such expressions as a “lover of nature;” “poems about nature.” Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.

Near by.Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy ofclose byandhard byseems to justify it.Near, ornear at hand, is as good, if not better.

Not to be used as an adjective; useneighboring.

Oftentimes, ofttimes.Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word isoften.

One hundred and one.Retain theandin this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.

One of the most.Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, “One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe.” There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.

A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the subject.

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