A. Implements made of Stone.

[64]Remains of pottery are found in quantities in the shellmounds on the Atlantic Coast (cf. Abbott,l. c., p. 43a), and also in those of other localities (Brazil, Peru). They do not, of course, appear in California shellmounds since stone pots and baskets were used in their place at all times.

[65]The specimens of bone implements recovered in shellmounds are of great importance in the study of the use of such implements among primitive peoples, since they are so rarely found in other fields of research (cf. also Abbott,l. c., p. 205). Still shellmounds greatly differ in this respect. While bone implements are “quite abundant” in the shellmounds of New England, the same as here (Wyman, Am. Naturalist. I, p. 581), the mounds in New Jersey yield only one bone to every 3,000 stone implements. (Abbott,l. c.)

Stone mortars were among the most common and most useful implements that the ancient inhabitants of the land possessed, being used for the preparation of meal and for other purposes. Correspondingly numerous therefore are these objects, found mostly in fragments, and scattered through nearly all the strata from the second to the tenth. There are three perfect specimens and eleven fragments in our collection, nearly all made of lava. The largest of the mortars, 1-9102, fig. 3, was recovered quite accidentally near g in plan III at the extreme western end of the mound. Judging from the place of its discovery, about 3-1/2 inches below the surface, the mortar must have been lost in about the middle period while the foot of the mound was increasing from n to p. Its outside surface is rough like the natural boulder, it is 1 foot long by 9 inches wide and 7-1/2 inches high. Within it is oval and measures 6 to 7 inches in diameter and 5 inches in depth. The smaller mortar, 1-8705, fig. 4, was found in stratum VI. On the outside it is rounded off and ornamented with engraved vertical lines, which are intersected near the edge by a horizontal one. The edge is partly worn away by use. Such simple lines as an ornamentation of the outside are occasionally observed on California mortars.

Fig. 3. × 1/4. A large mortar.

1-8664, fig. 5, a small mortar from stratum III, is of different shape, oval both in its outline and in cross section, the bottom being slightly flattened; it has a rather small round cavity, 1-1/2 inches in diameter and one-sixth inch deep. It may have served for the pounding up of substances which were used only in small quantities, such as color pigments. The width of this mortar is 2-1/2 inches, its height and thickness 1-7/8 inches. Powers presents a view of a similar specimen from California, a proof that this type occurred in this region. A fragment, 1-8810 of the collection from stratum VIII, may be the bottom of a similar utensil.

Fig. 4. About one-half natural size.

Fig. 5. × 3/4. Small mortars.

Some additional types of mortars are represented among the fragments; they will be given below in the order in which they were recovered. 1-8594, fig. 6, from stratum II, is one of several fragments of this stratum and belongs to a relatively advanced type, resembling a vessel. These stone vessels had a fairly even thickness of the sides of about an inch, and were fashioned quite regularly without and within. This rim is flattened and slopes inward. The diameter of the complete mortars may have been a foot. This type of mortar is quite common in California. The collection from Santa Rosa Island in the University Museum made by Dr. Jones contains several similar specimens. 1-8707 fig. 7, stratum IV, is an odd fragment. Its well fashioned bottom part is surrounded by a rim which in turn is bordered by two chambers which exactly correspond; the surface between them is broken. This fragment may also have been part of a mortar, although it is not possible now to restore it to any shape represented among the familiar types. Fig. 8, 1-9077, shows a fragment of a mortar recovered in the Xth stratum, and it is the only one found lower than stratum VIII. It lay hardly an inch from the base of the mound. It has a peculiarly jagged shape; theconvex exterior is the rough boulder stone, as are the uneven sides, but the inner concave surface is ground down smooth. The peculiar jagged shape may be explained by the fact that it is a piece of a mortar, the rim of which by long usage had been worn away in places, and as a result points were formed. The collection of Dr. Jones from Santa Rosa contains a mortar with a jagged rim, caused probably also by wearing away, but in that case the points of the rim show some decoration, unlike the present fragment. 1-8848, fig. 9, stratum VIIa, may throw some light on the possible cause of these indentations resulting from long usage. In the latter specimen the surface of the bulging portion is rough, as in 1-9077.

Figs. 6, 7, and 8. × 1/2. Fragments of mortars.

Fig. 9. × 2/3.

Fig. 10. × 1/2. Fragments of mortars.

The small fragment, 1-8621, fig. 10, stratum II, has to be included also in the class of mortar-like utensils. It is made of a soft material resembling steatite, it curves as if it were a handle and is broken off at one end, while the other rounded end shows marks of blows. This object may be compared to the handle of the cup-shaped vessel of steatite from Dos Pueblos in Southern California and shown by Professor Putnam, l. c., pl. VI, fig. 5 (cf. l. c., p. 110). Similar utensils from Santa Catalina Island and other places are mentioned there; hence it may be assumed that this type of utensils was used by the occupants of the mound during its last period.

Fig. 11. × 1/2. Fragment of a mortar.

Fig. 11, 1-8533, from stratum I, shows a stone fragment, hollowed out like a mortar. The upper rim of the specimen must have had a sharp angle, as the outer surface is almost vertical while the concavity is rather shallow, forming a cup with a considerable diameter.

Fig. 12. × 1/2. Fragment of a stone used for grinding.

It is only from three small fragments that the presence of this type within the mound may be inferred. All three were recovered in stratum V; one of them, 1-8751, is shown in figure 12. Judging from the fragments, these grinding stones were square in shape, about 1-1/2 to 2 inches in thickness and were worn smooth, both on the horizontal surface and on the sides and ends. The occurrence of flat grindstones is not unprecedented in California; some have been found in Sonoma county[68]and elsewhere. They were perhaps used in the manufacture of shell ornaments and beads.

[68]Moorehead,l. c., p. 291.

Fig. 13. × 1/2. Pestle with depression on one side. Fig. 14. × 1/2. A grooved sinker. Fig. 15. × 1/2. Upper end of a pestle.

Many fragments having the usual form were found, but only one was perfect, and that of unusual shape. 1-8670, fig. 13, was recovered in cut A, 6 inches below the surface. It is 6-3/8 inches long, 3 inches wide, and 2-1/8 inches thick, tapering toward the pestle-like rounded end, the other end being flat. Marks on it show that it was also used as a hammer. Sunk into one of the sides, at about the center of gravity, is a long conical groove about one-third of an inch deep; the opposite side shows the beginning of another such groove. They may have been worn into the stone by using the broad side of the implement in driving stakes, etc. The beginning of a second groove, otherwise superfluous, on the opposite side seems to bear this out, as do the marks on the surface of the broad end. These latter indications are a proof that the utensil was not used as a pestle only. This is not the only instance of a pestle with side grooves. Ch. Rau pictures a very similar one from Tesuque in New Mexico.[69]Mr. Stevenson’s opinion that the side grooves served for holding the pigment which had just been ground by the pestle seems to be merely a conjecture on his part. A stone was found in the West Berkeley shellmound which seems arbitrarily to combine several purposes,—a groove encircling it shows its use as a sinker, a semispherical cavity which at its widest part breaks into the groove points to its use as a mortar.

Fig. 16 and 17. × 1/2. The lower ends of pestles. Fig. 18. × 1/2. Stone used for hammer with depression for fingers. Fig. 19. × 1/2. A new type of implement of unknown use.

The 17 fragments of pestles of usual shape were fairly uniformly distributed throughout all the strata, as was the case with the mortars. However, 7 of these came from stratum II alone. There were no peculiarities to be noted in the fragments as to their forms. They were about 2-1/2 inches thick and were rounded off at the lower end. The upper end sometimes tapered after a conical swelling immediately next the grinding surface. They were cut straight off at the upper end, unless indeed the abruptly cut surface is the result of a previous breaking. Sharply pointed or button-like ornamentations at the upper ends which are usual in those found in California[70]were not noticed. Figures 15 to 17 show three fragments,—1-8882, 1-8597, and 1-8666 from strata VIII, II, and from the cut A. Of these, the first illustrates the upper end of a pestle, the other two, lower ends.

The little object 1-8620 from stratum II,plate 12, fig. 11, seems to be best included under pestle stones. It is made of fine grained stone, which would point to its use for more delicate purposes. It is a truncated cone, with oval section, 1-1/8 inches wide and 1-3/16 inches thick. The lower base is slightly arched and, as can plainly be seen, is scratched slightly by use; a small middle cavity in the narrow upper surface shows traces of asphaltum. It may have been used as a pestle.

[69]Observations on the cup-shaped sculpture in Contrib. to North American Ethnology, 1882, V, fig. 39, with p. 47 repeated by Stephen D. Peet in The Moundbuilders, 1892, I, p. 5, fig. 5.

[70]Putnam,l. c., pp. 87-89; Moorehead,l. c., p. 290.

Strangely enough, only two such implements were found in this mound, while in the West Berkeley mound several that conclusively belonged to this class were unearthed.

One of these, a boulder stone the size of one’s fist, oval in shape and flattened, was found in the lowest stratum, X. The marks of blows making the side edges uneven show its use as a hammer. The other, 1-8720, fig. 18, from stratum IV, is one of the familiar type having a groove for the insertion of the fingers. It is a stone 3-1/4 inches long, 3 inches wide, and of an uneven thickness not exceeding 1-5/8 inches, flattened off at its thickest (lower) end. There is a depression in each of the broad sides. The surface of the indentations is dotted with small holes. Similar stones have been found in many places in the United States,—in New Jersey, Pennsylvania,[71]on the Aleutians,[72]and elsewhere. Abbott has pointed out the fact that the edges of some of these stones could not very well have been used for hammering since they do not show the signs of such usage. The stone in question was evidently used in two ways,—as a hammer at the lower flat surface, which is from five-eighths to 1-1/8 inches wide and in this case provided with indentations serving for the insertion of the finger; and as a hammer at the flat sides for the driving of stakes, etc., in which case it was grasped by the rims. The pits in the depressions were probably the result of this latter use of the implement. The writer has noticed that just such flat stones were used in Bolivia for the driving of stakes, and there, too, the broad side which gave the blow was pitted. The material used is hard sandstone.

[71]Abbott,l. c., pp. 425 to 431, figs. 399 to 404. Chas. Rau,l. c.Smithson. Contrib., No. 297, Vol. XXII, p. 20, figs. 80 to 81, and p. 22.

[72]Dall,l. c., p. 55.

Two objects of this form, coming from stratum II, represents a new type of implement. They are almost identical in shape. One of them, 1-8604, is shown in fig. 19. They consist of long, flat, quadrangular boulder stones, 3-5/8 and 3-7/8 inches long, with an even width and thickness of 1-5/8 inches. Both ends are simply sharpened to a point, and the broad sides, top and bottom, are shaved off as far as the middle of the stone. In form, the stones are similar to a wooden top of today.

Stones of this description form a large class, exhibiting, however, great diversities of shape. They all seem to have served the same purpose since most of them show indisputable signs of such usage.

About 18 stones of this kind were found in the mound. As regards their varying form and utility, they may be classed as follows:

I. Spherical and oval stones with a peripheral groove: Fig. 20, 1-8669, shows a spherical stone of this kind, found at a depth of 5 feet in cut A. 1-8534, fig. 21, a fragment of an oval stone with a groove about its largest circumference is from stratum I.

II. Flat boulder stones with notches in the corresponding sides for fastening them: Two of these were found in the upper strata; one, from stratum IV, is shown in figure 22.

Fig. 20. × 1/2. Figs. 21 and 22. × 3/4. Sinker-like stones.

III. Stones with holes pierced through them by which they were suspended: These form the type that may with the most certainty be classed as sinkers. 1-8535,plate 12, fig. 7, from stratum I, is the only specimen of this class found.

IV. Pear-shaped and kindred stones; also conical pendant stones: The fourth class is the largest, in that the greatest number of shapes may be included in it. The following are to be counted in with this class:

a.Pear-shaped stones and others, though slighter, still very like them. This type is represented by:

1. A perfect pear-shaped stone, 1-8611,plate 10, fig. 2, from stratum II.

2. More or less fragmentary bits, 1-8612, 3, the first without a doubt, the second probably from stratum II. See 1-8613,plate 10, fig. 1.

3. Five fragments of stones of a slenderer, less perfect though similar form, 1-8614, 5 and 6 (plate 10, figs. 5, 3, 8), 1-8617 and 1-8718 (plate 10, fig. 4), the latter one from stratum IV, the others from II.

b.Inverted pear-shaped stones, some flat. This shape is related, though distantly, to the above. Two fragments, 1-8618 and 1-8619, from stratum II, see 1-8618,plate 10, fig. 6.

c.A conical stone with slanting lower surface (1-8719,plate 10, fig. 7) from stratum IV. It is very similar in shape to the upper part of the pear-shaped stones.

d.A pointed stone, 1-8925, from stratum VIII,plate 10, fig. 9, which is only very distantly related to the pear-shape forms.

These stones belong to that class of objects which have been interpreted at different times as being:

1. Weights for determining the vertical.2. Weights for weaving apparatus.3. Weights used in spinning.4. Weights used for fishing nets or lines.5. Ornaments.6. Medicine stones or charms.[73]

1. Weights for determining the vertical.

2. Weights for weaving apparatus.

3. Weights used in spinning.

4. Weights used for fishing nets or lines.

5. Ornaments.

6. Medicine stones or charms.[73]

A number of articles under class IV (Form IVa) are made of hematite.[74]Of the objects under consideration, 1-8925 (plate 10, fig. 9) is made of the same. The use of hematite generally presupposes that an implement is going to be employed as a weight. Since the forms that belong to this class merge into one another in an uninterrupted series, one is justified in assuming that they were all weights.

It is further clear that the shape of the pear-like stones, which have caused so much speculation, must have been fitted for some particular purpose. This is to be inferred from the fact that stones of like shape have been found in widely separated parts of the United States outside of California, in Maine,[75]Massachusetts,[76]Ohio,[77]Illinois,[78]and elsewhere.

Furthermore, H. H. Bancroft[79]has made the important assertion that such implements are usually found in a mutilated condition. This is borne out by the fact that out of the nine pear-shaped and inverted pear-shaped stones represented by groups 4aand 4b, there is only one which is perfect. It is to be inferred from this that, however elaborately they are ornamented, these implements were put to essentially practical uses. Hence the theory that they were worn as ornaments or charms is untenable.[80]

The supposition that they were used on the end of a plumb line is also invalid, since civilization was not far enough advanced among the Indians for that sort of thing. Weaving and spinning apparatus requiring the use of the stones as weights are so rarely found that we cannot explain the presence of such a large number of stones in that way. And especially not in California since the Indians there have never spun nor woven.

Hence the only explanation left is that they were used in fishing. The great quantities of such implements found on the coast has often been noted.[81]That nine were found in a shellmound such as the one at Emeryville substantiates this theory. They have also been noticed in a number of other shellmounds about the bay (even though these have been little excavated), as at Ellis Landing and in Visitacion Valley,[82]and their shape is identically the same (plate 10, fig. 2). There is one from a shellmound on Seaver’s Ranch with exactly the same shape,plate 10, fig. 1. Drawings were made by J. Deans of two other objects which were also taken from the same shellmound in Visitacion Valley and which had like forms.[83]If we accept the hypothesis that these stones in general are sinkers, there are of course difficulties in the case of individual stones, that must be explained away. The following peculiarities which appear must be mentioned:

1. Occasional peculiarities in material: Some are not very heavy, some rather soft; and in others the ornamentation either in color, grain, or crystalline markings is so prominent that an ornamental use is suggested. 1-8615,plate 10, fig. 3, seems to be a stone of this description,—the material of which it is made is reddish and fine grained, and ornamented to some extent.

2. The occasional absolute lack of any contrivance by which the implement might have been suspended: 1-8925,plate 10, fig. 9, is, for instance, of this kind. It is for the greater part of its length absolutely round and gradually tapers to a point. The outer end is in the form of a handle which is flattened to about one-half inch wide and one-quarter inch thick and is rough from the marks of blows; the main part of the instrument is smooth. The handle-like part must, from its form and roughness, have served to fasten it by. It looks, however, more as though it were intended to fit into a shaft, rather than to be suspended. It is important to note that one of the long sides is entirely covered with asphaltum. This fact excludes the possibility that it was fastened into a shaft. It must further be called to mind that, as in the case of the California Indian dancing costume, various rod-like bits of stone are sometimes fastened on by means of hangers, the provision for their suspension being made on the stones themselves. The use of asphaltum in securing them often did away with otherwise necessary changes in their form. At any rate it allowed great imperfection in form.

Fragment 1-8616,plate 10, fig. 8, is an example of the above; it is pear-shaped and the upper conical point is encircled by a broad band of asphaltum which served for its attachment.

The sinker-like stones of classes I-III present fewer difficulties in their explanation than do the pear-shaped and kindred ones. The use of flat boulder stones with side grooves as net-sinkers is agreed to by all.[84]The fact that here as in the East, and as in the shellmound of West Berkeley, many of these have been found in groups, points almost conclusively to their use as net weights.

Professor Putnam has already called attention to the use of spherical stones (fig. 20), with a peripherally encircling groove as sinkers.[85]Similar stones are also found in shellmounds in Massachusetts and in the Aleutian Islands.

Dr. Yates[86]was informed by an Indian that such was the use of a stone found in Napa (California).[87]The use of the oval stones (as fig. 21) is in general to be explained in the same way. A stone of that kind is, for example, known to have been found in Oregon.[88]Another one has been found in California (supposedly at Spanish Flat). It has been pictured by H. H. Bancroft.[89]

The stone, 1-8535,plate 12, fig. 7, from stratum I, is a sinker, judging from its general shape; it is long and oval, pierced at the upper end. Stones of like form have been found in numbers in the shellmound at West Berkeley. They are probably sinkers like many other stones found there.[90]The upper eyelet has been broken off in the stone under consideration. The stone is slightly flattened; one of the end surfaces is more curved than the other and one of the broad sides more elaborately adorned. On one side a lattice-like ornamentation joins on to a deep groove. On the other side may be seen several somewhat ruder lines like hatchings. The material is that commonly used. Abbott describes an ornamented stone pendent as a gorget and another one from Illinois with plastic ornaments, as a sinker.[91]Compare this with a picture of a pendent stone from San Clemente Island.[92]The fact that these stones are ornamented seems to make their use as sinkers doubtful but not impossible, since fishhooks are sometimes much ornamented.[93]

Plate 12, fig. 8, 1-8630, is somewhat sinker-like, but in many respects it diverges from the general class. It is made of very light, soft stone, and is an elongated oval in shape, with five grooves parallel to one another cut in about the edge. It is elaborately ornamented with oblique hatch-like lines on the edges between the grooves. Hence it is improbable that it was a sinker—it cannot, however, as yet be assigned to another use.

[73]Dr. L. G. Yates, Smiths. Rep., 1886, pt. I, p. 296, further explained in Bulletin of the Santa Barbara Soc. of Nat. History, No. 2; Moorehead,l. c., pp. 249 to 250, etc.

[74]Abbott,l. c., p. 232, fig. 220, from Illinois; Rau, Smith’s Contrib., p. 27, No. 101, from Tennessee (cf. for both pl. VIII, fig. 2); Moorehead,l. c., p. 251, fig. 29, from Santa Barbara, Cal.

[75]Moorehead,l. c., p. 92, fig. 113.

[76]Rau,l. c., p. 27, figs. 105-106, Abbott, pp. 228 and 230, figs. 216 and 218.

[77]Abbott,l. c., p. 233, fig. 222, Rau, fig. 103.

[78]Abbott,l. c., pp. 232 and 233, figs. 221 and 223.

[79]Native Races, IV, p. 711.

[80]According to Dr. L. G. Yates, Bulletin 2 of the Santa Barbara Soc. of Nat. Hist., the California Indians regard such pear-shaped stones as charms and use them as such. This is analogous to their superstitious belief concerning stone hatchets whose original significance has long been forgotten and hence is no explanation of the original use to which these articles were put.

[81]Cf. F. W. Putnam,l. c., p. 195.

[82]See Illustration in H. H. Bancroft’s Native Races, IV, p. 711.

[83]Journal of the Anthropological Institute,l. c., p. 489.

[84]Cf. particularly Abbott,l. c., p. 237.

[85]l. c., p. 203.

[86]Bulletin,l. c., pl. III, fig. 22, and p. 17.

[87]Spherical and oval stones with a peripheral groove are implements of a very simple form and hence they lend themselves to different uses. The old copper fac-simile of a stone hammer in the Museum of Science and Art in Philadelphia shows conclusively for the region in which it was found,viz., Lake Titicaca, Pako Island, in Bolivia, that similar stones were used as hammers.

[88]Rau, Smiths. Contrib., No. 318, p. 27, fig. 110.

[89]Native Races, IV, p. 705.

[90]Sinkers provided with a hole and of like shape are in use among the Western Eskimos. See J. Murdock, in IX, Am. Rep. of Bur. of Ethnology, 1887 to 1888, p. 282, fig. 273. They are found in great numbers in the United States.

[91]l. c., pp. 398 and 234.

[92]Putnam,l. c., p. 209, fig. 81.

[93]Among the Thlinkites conys Niblack.

These differ from the pestles in that their diameter is smaller and that they bulge out only slightly toward the middle. Two objects of this kind came from stratum II, of which 1-8609 is shown inplate 10, fig. 10. Both are broken at their ends. They are respectively 4-13/15 inches and 2-5/8 inches long and fifteen-sixteenths inch and 1 inch thick. The surface of the break in the shorter one was subsequently smoothed off; perhaps by using it as a pestle. Long cylindrical stones of this kind partly flattened on one side and having encircling grooves at the tapering ends have been pictured by Yates[94]and Moorehead[95]; these were found at Santa Barbara, Southern California. To these may also be compared a stone pendant from Tuolumne county[96]pictured by Moorehead, since the lack of complete ends in the stones gives considerable room for speculation as to what the whole form might have been. On the other hand, the tentative designation of them by Moorehead and Yates as charms is in no way justified. The better interpretation of their use would be that of sinkers especially in the case of those provided at both ends with grooves for attachment,[97]since stones coming from Peru[98]which are undeniably sinkers are very like these in many respects.

[94]l. c., pl. IV, figs. 32, 33, so. Smiths. Reports, 1886, I, partly, pl. IV, figs. 32, 33, pp. 296 to 305.

[95]l. c., p. 251, fig. 381, Nos. 30 to 33.

[96]l. c., p. 249, fig. 380, No. 1.

[97]Cf. V. A., also flat specimen, Smiths. Rep., I, pl. IV, fig. 30.

[98]In the Museum of the Univ. of Philadelphia.

An awl, 1-8608,plate 12, fig. 10, of stone, comes from stratum II.Plate 12, fig. 9, 1-8711, from stratum IV, is pierced and similar to the above though needle-shaped.[99]From scratches appearing on 1-8608 we infer that it was used on rather hard materials.

It is remarkable that tobacco pipes were found only in stratum II; of these we have five perfect specimens and one fragment. This bears out the statement made above, that stone utensils well-made and smoothed off were found only in the upper strata of the mound and particularly in stratum II. Since it is not probable that the inhabitants of the lower strata were ignorant of the practice of smoking, the absence of pipes must be explained in some other way. On the one hand it is possible that many of the older pipes were made of wood. Powers has described a number of wooden pipes in use among the Indians of today. On the other hand, it is possible that the practice of smoking was not so common in remoter periods and therefore it would be likely that fewer pipes would be found. There is a third possibility, that the large number of pipes found in stratum II is dependent on the method of disposing of the dead, so characteristic of this stratum and which caused articles to be preserved which would otherwise have disappeared. The pipes described below represent two primitive types, with some insignificant variations.

Plate 12, figs. 2aand (cross section) 2b, 1-8622, represents one type. It is made of a soft serpentine-like material, gray on the broken surface and reddish brown on the outside. It is one and seven-eighths inches long and incomplete. There is a broad bowl-like part and a narrow neck or stem, a prolongation of it. The bowl is conical, one and one-eighth inches long and of inconsiderable width, being three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The “boring” of the stem portion is cylindrical and eccentric.

Plate 12, figs. 3aand 3b, 1-8623, is the only representative of the second type. It is made of green serpentine, and is two and one-sixteenth inches long, tapering into a tubular shape. The hole in the stem is as above, only at the mouth end it is conical and shorter. A groove is cut into the tapering end.

Plate 12, figs. 1aand (in section) 1b, 1-8624, is made of soft gray stone and is very similar to the preceding one, except that it lacks the groove at the mouth end and that it is shorter and thicker.

Plate 12, figs. 4aand (in section) 4b, 1-8626, is a small cylindrical object only nine-sixteenths of an inch long and seventeen-thirty-seconds of an inch wide. The seven-sixteenth inch conical hole takes up nearly the whole width of the stem so that the rim surrounding it is sharp. The short conical boring at the stem end is only five-sixteenths of an inch wide. The proof that this too was used as a tobacco pipe lies in the fact of the disparity of the two conical borings and in that the entire width of the bowl end of the pipe is used to the best advantage. It seems to have been more of a miniature or toy than an article in common use. However, the quantity of tobacco needed to fill any of the pipes could not have been great since the cone-shaped cavity in the bowl is so small. One is here reminded of Schumacher’s entertaining description of the way in which a Klamath tipped back his head in order to raise his pipe vertically that he might lose none of the tobacco. The stem ends of the pipes are equally imperfect. They must certainly all have been fastened to a pipe-like mouth-piece similar to the stone pipes which Professor Putnam has pictured and described and which when unearthed still had the mouth-pieces attached by means of asphaltum.[100]Some Indian pipes of today are fastened to the mouth-pieces by means of ligatures,[101]as was evidently the case with pipe shown inplate 12, fig. 3, and with another one of the collection (1-8625) the stem of which had been broken. A rude notch was cut into the outside of the stem to facilitate the rebinding and to give it a better hold. At any rate, the means of attaching the mouth-piece (comp. particularly figs. 1 and 4) was as inadequate as was the receptacle for the tobacco at the front end. Short reed-like tobacco pipes are particularly characteristic of the middle portion of California. A stone tobacco pipe coming from a shellmound in Visitacion Valley south of San Francisco, pictured by H. H. Bancroft,[102]is very similar toplate 12, fig. 3. The fourth one in the plate, pictured by Powers, is also analogous. Short pipes are of course also found in southern California,[103]but the longer reed-like variety is more usual. A tobacco pipe pictured by Marquis de Nadaillac and coming from the cliff dwellers[104]is somewhat similar toplate 12, fig. 2, but here the stem was so slight that there was no need of a special mouth-piece. The short pipes as well as the long ones of southern California[105]are also found in the eastern part of the United States. Several clay pipes from New Jersey[106]may be compared to them; also two objects merely classified as “pipes,” but most probably tobacco pipes, from West Virginia[107]and Tennessee.[108]

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