[12]The shellmounds in the vicinity of the bay differ considerably in shape and size. The majority appear as extended plateaus 10 to 12 feet in height, others appear as slight undulations of the ground about five feet in height. The truncated conical form is found more rarely; the mound at Ellis Landing near Point Richmond approaches it somewhat in its proportions. Many of these mounds cover acres of ground,e.g., the mounds of Alameda, of Sausalito, of Sierra Point, of West Berkeley (in its older form, now much changed). In tropical regions many shellmounds are said to reach a height of 100 feet or more; this is known with certainty of some in Brazil (cf. Nadaillac,l. c., p. 54), and also of two near the dried-up mouth of the Ica river in Peru. Shellmounds as a rule are much smaller. On the Atlantic coast near Smyrna a shellmound is said to be thirty feet high (Short,l. c., p. 107), but the majority of these mounds are less than four feet high (cf. Wyman, Amer. Naturalist, 1868, I, p. 56 ff., and Abbott,l. c., p. 440), while many of them extend over areas of more than two or three acres. A shellmound near the mouth of the Altamaha river in Florida is estimated as having a size of over 80,000 cubic yards (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 358). The shellmounds of Denmark are only from 3 feet to 10 feet high, although more than a thousand feet long (Ranke, Der Mensch, II, p. 552). Southern California shellmounds generally are from 4 feet to 5 feet high (P. Schumacher, Bull.,l. c., p. 38; and Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 337, etc.). The same is the case with those mounds on the Aleutian Islands explored by W. J. Dall. In Oregon there are some of at least 8 feet in height (cf. Schumacher,l. c., p. 29).
[12]The shellmounds in the vicinity of the bay differ considerably in shape and size. The majority appear as extended plateaus 10 to 12 feet in height, others appear as slight undulations of the ground about five feet in height. The truncated conical form is found more rarely; the mound at Ellis Landing near Point Richmond approaches it somewhat in its proportions. Many of these mounds cover acres of ground,e.g., the mounds of Alameda, of Sausalito, of Sierra Point, of West Berkeley (in its older form, now much changed). In tropical regions many shellmounds are said to reach a height of 100 feet or more; this is known with certainty of some in Brazil (cf. Nadaillac,l. c., p. 54), and also of two near the dried-up mouth of the Ica river in Peru. Shellmounds as a rule are much smaller. On the Atlantic coast near Smyrna a shellmound is said to be thirty feet high (Short,l. c., p. 107), but the majority of these mounds are less than four feet high (cf. Wyman, Amer. Naturalist, 1868, I, p. 56 ff., and Abbott,l. c., p. 440), while many of them extend over areas of more than two or three acres. A shellmound near the mouth of the Altamaha river in Florida is estimated as having a size of over 80,000 cubic yards (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 358). The shellmounds of Denmark are only from 3 feet to 10 feet high, although more than a thousand feet long (Ranke, Der Mensch, II, p. 552). Southern California shellmounds generally are from 4 feet to 5 feet high (P. Schumacher, Bull.,l. c., p. 38; and Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 337, etc.). The same is the case with those mounds on the Aleutian Islands explored by W. J. Dall. In Oregon there are some of at least 8 feet in height (cf. Schumacher,l. c., p. 29).
[13]Shellmounds in the bay region are mostly in localities where there is fresh water, a creek or a spring, generally the former. W. H. Dall (Contributions, p. 34) observes that for the formation of shellmounds on the Aleutian Islands two conditions are necessary, as a rule: running water or a spring, and a site suitable for boat landing; one or the other of these conditions lacking, no shellmounds are to be found. In Oregon the shellmounds are generally to be found near a creek (cf. Schumacher,l. c., p. 28). The same rule probably governs the shellmounds of the East. D. G. Brinton found shellmounds in Florida generally near running water (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 356), but he supposes as the cause of this the greater abundance of shells near the mouths of rivers, while it is certain that the presence of drinking water was the main attraction.
[13]Shellmounds in the bay region are mostly in localities where there is fresh water, a creek or a spring, generally the former. W. H. Dall (Contributions, p. 34) observes that for the formation of shellmounds on the Aleutian Islands two conditions are necessary, as a rule: running water or a spring, and a site suitable for boat landing; one or the other of these conditions lacking, no shellmounds are to be found. In Oregon the shellmounds are generally to be found near a creek (cf. Schumacher,l. c., p. 28). The same rule probably governs the shellmounds of the East. D. G. Brinton found shellmounds in Florida generally near running water (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 356), but he supposes as the cause of this the greater abundance of shells near the mouths of rivers, while it is certain that the presence of drinking water was the main attraction.
[14]Parts of the eastern coast of the United States are sinking. Several shellmounds on the Jersey coast are being washed away at present (cf. Abbott,l. c., p. 448 ff.). The same may be observed with the shellmounds near Ellis Landing on the Bay of San Francisco.
[14]Parts of the eastern coast of the United States are sinking. Several shellmounds on the Jersey coast are being washed away at present (cf. Abbott,l. c., p. 448 ff.). The same may be observed with the shellmounds near Ellis Landing on the Bay of San Francisco.
[15]Near the mouth of the valley of San Rafael a small hill rises from the bay, the isolation of which from the mainland may be explained in this way.
[15]Near the mouth of the valley of San Rafael a small hill rises from the bay, the isolation of which from the mainland may be explained in this way.
[16]Between the shellmounds of Emeryville and West Berkeley the shore for a long stretch forms a steep bank up to twelve feet high, and broken down by the water of the bay. Possibly the coast at this point formed a promontory on the two sides of which these shellmounds were originally founded, as in sheltered bays, similar to other mounds of this region.
[16]Between the shellmounds of Emeryville and West Berkeley the shore for a long stretch forms a steep bank up to twelve feet high, and broken down by the water of the bay. Possibly the coast at this point formed a promontory on the two sides of which these shellmounds were originally founded, as in sheltered bays, similar to other mounds of this region.
[17]In that case the sinkage would have amounted to about 6 inches, the alluvial increase to about 9 to 10 inches in a century.
[17]In that case the sinkage would have amounted to about 6 inches, the alluvial increase to about 9 to 10 inches in a century.
[18]The rapidity of the sinkage of alluvial coasts varies greatly owing to local conditions. For the Atlantic Coast the rate of sinkage is 2 feet per century (cf. Abbott,l. c., p. 449). Applying this same rate to the eastern coast of the Bay, we would arrive at the absurd result that the shellmound of Emeryville had begun to form in 1750, while that date was presumably the end of its occupied state.
[18]The rapidity of the sinkage of alluvial coasts varies greatly owing to local conditions. For the Atlantic Coast the rate of sinkage is 2 feet per century (cf. Abbott,l. c., p. 449). Applying this same rate to the eastern coast of the Bay, we would arrive at the absurd result that the shellmound of Emeryville had begun to form in 1750, while that date was presumably the end of its occupied state.
The principal constituents of the mound are the shells. These have nearly all crumbled into small fragments and are slightly mixed with soil, which when damp gives the entire mass the appearance of pure soil. When this is flooded with water the washing away of the sand produces no noticeable change in its volume. This mass has mingled with it bits of charcoal, bones of animals, ashes or cinders, and stones averaging about the size of one’s fist and blackened by fire.[19]Marks of stratification may be traced through almost the entire mound.Plate 5, representing a photographic view of the excavation, shows the stratification planes in the walls quite distinctly. The strata consist of compact masses of more or less fragmentary shells, or of beds of ashes or cinders. In many cases the latter seem to extend through the entire mound. They are sometimes not thicker than a sheet of heavy paper, but show the general direction of the bedding planes, and form a clear contrast with the homogeneous, dark mass of broken shells.[20]These planes become somewhat less distinct in the deeper strata.[21]As in other shellmounds,[22]there were observed certain rounded masses of shells intersecting the lines of stratification. These are caused by holes, made by moles or other burrowing animals, being afterward refilled with shells.[23]
In some shellmounds in other regions strata of earth and sand were found between the shell layers. These give evidence of a temporary evacuation of the shellmound. No evidence of this character was obtained in the study of the Emeryville mound, where the only occurrence of a natural vegetable soil is the surface cover of 1 to 2 inches in thickness, which has formed since the mound was finally abandoned.[24]It is possible that slight differences in the state of preservation of the shell deposits which now mark the strata lines may have been caused by differences in the length of time of occupation. Other explanations might, however, be offered.
The lines of stratification mark clearly the gradual development of the strata of the mound from the base until the present truncated cone was formed. It is apparent that two different principles governed the growth of the mound. At certain periods it tended to take on a shallow plateau form. At other times a conical shape developed without the corresponding increase around the base. According to the first principle the mound grew in the form of a plateau to a height of from 9 to 10 feet. NearCinpl. 4the edge of the plateau still seems to be traceable, from which point the strata inclined downward. At that period the mound resembled in its proportions the old Indian camping places of the interior valley, some of which are still occupied; or some of the shellmounds along the Bay which have been abandoned at some earlier period. The undulating lines of the strata, such as seen nearfandg, suggest irregularities of the old plateau surface, similar to those which may be observed in the surfaces of camp locations of the interior, which have been abandoned for decades. The hollows from 20 to 40 feet in length mark the sites of former sweat-houses or council-halls; these curves, such as that fromftog, may have a similar origin.[25]
The manner in which the mound was occupied for habitation varied in the upper strata. With the growth of the mound the diameter of the plateau decreased instead of expanding. From linebupward the strata incline obliquely toward the sides. This change in the manner of forming the mound signifies a change in the character of its occupants. It would be interesting to determine, if possible, the exact line where these two types of growth have met. It might have been about 12 feet above the base, so that the mound grew in the shape of a shallow plateau as far as the middle of stratum V inpl. 4, and that it changed after this period to its conical form.
[19]The descriptions of nearly all the shellmounds explored in other parts of the world tally exactly with this one; cf. Ranke,l. c., II, p. 532, for the Danish Kjökkenmöddinger; Schumacher, on the general similarity of shellmounds of the Pacific Coast with the mounds in Denmark, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 355, etc.
[19]The descriptions of nearly all the shellmounds explored in other parts of the world tally exactly with this one; cf. Ranke,l. c., II, p. 532, for the Danish Kjökkenmöddinger; Schumacher, on the general similarity of shellmounds of the Pacific Coast with the mounds in Denmark, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 355, etc.
[20]Although no shellmound is free from stratification marks, owing to the gradual growth of the strata, Brinton maintains that this is the case with shellmounds on the Atlantic Coast (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 356).
[20]Although no shellmound is free from stratification marks, owing to the gradual growth of the strata, Brinton maintains that this is the case with shellmounds on the Atlantic Coast (Smithson. Rep., 1866, p. 356).
[21]Compare the interesting observations of Wyman (Amer. Naturalist, I, p. 571) concerning shellmounds of New England, that there the shells of the lowest stratum were softer and more crumbled than those of the upper strata.
[21]Compare the interesting observations of Wyman (Amer. Naturalist, I, p. 571) concerning shellmounds of New England, that there the shells of the lowest stratum were softer and more crumbled than those of the upper strata.
[22]Cf. Wyman,l. c., p. 365, on a shellmound in the vicinity of Portland, Me.
[22]Cf. Wyman,l. c., p. 365, on a shellmound in the vicinity of Portland, Me.
[23]Similar holes made by moles may be observed occasionally upon old shellmounds along the Bay, which if they had been refilled with shells might also have assumed a rounded form. In such a manner may be explained the finding of a modern steel knife, with the wooden parts still well preserved, in one of the strata of the shellmound of West Berkeley in a place to all appearances undisturbed.
[23]Similar holes made by moles may be observed occasionally upon old shellmounds along the Bay, which if they had been refilled with shells might also have assumed a rounded form. In such a manner may be explained the finding of a modern steel knife, with the wooden parts still well preserved, in one of the strata of the shellmound of West Berkeley in a place to all appearances undisturbed.
[24]Cf. also Wyman,l. c., p. 571. The absence of true soil from the interior of the mound is proof that at no time was the mound abandoned by its occupants long enough to allow of the formation of such a stratum.
[24]Cf. also Wyman,l. c., p. 571. The absence of true soil from the interior of the mound is proof that at no time was the mound abandoned by its occupants long enough to allow of the formation of such a stratum.
[25]Somewhat smaller but quite similar hollows are still preserved upon the surface of the shellmound of Ellis Landing, and are doubtless sites of houses of that nature.
[25]Somewhat smaller but quite similar hollows are still preserved upon the surface of the shellmound of Ellis Landing, and are doubtless sites of houses of that nature.
Shells.—The shell layers of the mound are composed principally of the following species:
Oysters,Ostrea lurida.
Mussel shells,Mytilus edulisandMytilus californianus.
Clams,Macoma edulisandMacoma nasuta.
Many other kinds of shells, including the following species, were found scattered through the mound:
Purpura crispataandcanaliculata.
Cerithidea californica.
Helix, two species indet.
Cardium corbis.
Standella, sp.
Tapes staminea.
Of these last species, the cockle,Cardium corbis, and the clam,Tapes staminea, occur quite frequently.[26]All of these were used as food by the occupants of the mound. The various species ofHelixwere probably also used, as they were in more recent times eaten by the California Indians.[27]It may be, however, that this species lived on the mound.
The state of preservation of the shells is proportional to their natural hardness. Hence the shells of the Macomas are the most conspicuous, those of the mussels, as the most perishable, are the least noticeable ones in the mound. The relative frequency of occurrence in the case of the three most important species depends on different circumstances.
The lower and the upper strata of this mound are composed of the same varieties of shells, in which point it is different from many shellmounds in other regions. It is, however, true that oyster shells predominate in the lower strata, whileMacomashells are more numerous in the upper ones.[28]
Visiting the different shellmounds in the vicinity of the Bay, one finds a general similarity in the kinds of shells composing them. Rarely one or another variety of shell, theMacomaor the cockle, or some other, is found to predominate. This general homogeneity of composition in the shellmounds around the Bay, and the small differences in the amount of any particular species, indicates as a whole the general similarity of the shell fauna at many points about the Bay during the period of occupation of the mounds.
The Indian camping grounds in the interior, although quite similar in form and origin to the shellmounds on the coast, when opened generally present a great difference in appearance. Traces of shells are almost unnoticed from the outside, yet large quantities supplied as food by the rivers of the interior are doubtless to be found in them. These shells have been found during excavations, or their use has been confirmed by persons who observed the mode of living of the Indians of these regions. The Indians also obtained salt-water mussels by trade, even in quite recent times. From the fact that shells are not in evidence on the surface of the camp grounds, one must conclude that their use diminished.
Bones.—Bones of vertebrates are also found in most of the shellmounds. These together with the shells represent the debris of their kitchens. No other shellmound has been seen where so large a quantity of bones was observed as in that at Emeryville. Bones of land and sea mammals, of birds, and of fishes were found in abundance throughout the mound, and fairly evenly distributed in the strata. This fact is the more remarkable since the shellmound at West Berkeley, scarcely two miles distant, does not yield nearly such quantities of bone as this one. The occupants of the mound at Emeryville at all periods were huntsmen to a great degree, besides being fishermen; those of the mound at West Berkeley seem to have depended largely upon fishing; hence the stone sinkers were far more numerous in that mound than at Emeryville.
So far the fauna of only the lowest strata up to 3 feet above the base have been studied. The following species obtained in this horizon were determined by Dr. W. J. Sinclair.
Deer,Cervussp.
Elk,Cervus canadensis.
Sea-otter,Enhydrus lutris.
Beaver,Castor canadensis.[29]
Squirrel,Spermophilussp.
Rabbit,Lepussp.
Gopher,Thomomys talpoides.
Raccoon,Procyon lotor.
Wild cat,Lynxsp.
Wolf,Canissp.
Bear,Ursussp.
Dog,Canis familiaris.[30](?)
Seal,Phocasp.
Sea-lion.
Whale.
Porpoise?
Canvasback Duck,Aythya vallisneria.
Goose?
Cormorant,Phlaeocoraxsp.
Turtle.
Skates, Thornbacks, and other fish.
No traces of cannibalism have been detected. Most of the hollow bones of larger mammals, and even the smaller bones of the foot, were found to have been split to get at the marrow.[31]
Fireplaces.—These were generally known by beds several feet in length consisting of charcoal and yellowish ashes. They occurred in many spots throughout the mound. Numberless scattered bits of charcoal[32]and pebbles, mostly about the size of one’s fist and blackened by fire, were further evidences of the continuous use of fire in the preparation of food. In no instance were there any stones set in rows for fireplaces, such as have been observed elsewhere, as in a shellmound near Sierra Point, where stones are plentiful.[33]A very peculiar feature of this mound is a yellowish layer of ashes comprising the entire depth of stratum II inpl. IV, and tapering towards the edge of the mound. Above it lies only the uppermost stratum (I), that of vegetable soil. Though calcined shells[34]occurred elsewhere in the mound, they were especially numerous in this ash stratum, and in some spots all shells were calcined. The origin of this ash stratum will be explained later. A similar bed is to be seen in a central layer of the shellmound at West Berkeley, and another one of similar thickness but shorter in a mound near Sausalito.
Human Remains and Relics.—A large part of the Emeryville mound consists of remains which have been deposited here by man. Among these are molluscan shells with bones of fish and mammals, used as articles of food. In the narrower sense the human relics consist of the bones of man, graves, and artifacts, which are all found in greater or less abundance throughout the whole thickness of the mound. Actual human bones were not found to be common in this part of the mound except in stratum II, and in the graves of stratum VII. The artifacts obtained were only those of very resistant material, such as stone or shell. All other kinds, such as textiles of plant fibre, baskets, and implements of wood, which doubtless have also existed, had disappeared. The more resistant artifacts were distributed throughout all layers of the mound.[35]
About 200 cubic meters of earth were removed and sifted during the excavations, and yielded 600 artifacts of various kinds, averaging three specimens to one cubic meter. The volume of the whole mound we computed to be about 39,000 cubic meters, and it may be assumed that by excavating the entire mound the yield would be about 100,000 specimens, which indicates that many generations must have lived here to deposit such a large number of objects of imperishable material alone.[36]
The same computation was applied to each separate layer in the mound, and it was shown that the yield differed according to the section and the stratum explored. The open cutAyielded one specimen to .75 cb. m., and the tunnelBand the pitshtom, six per cb. m. SectionCyielded three artifacts to one cb. m. This computation shows that sections nearer the center of the mound yielded the greater number, those toward the edge a smaller number. It also appears that the lower strata contained a larger percentage of artifacts than the upper ones. If, however, the number of flaked chert fragments were subtracted from the yield of the lower strata, their percentage would be much the same as that of the higher layers. The following are the contents of the various strata:
Stratum I had 20 artifacts per 15-1/2 cb. m. = 1.3 per cb. m.
Stratum II, 30 cb. m—133 objects = 4.4 per cb. m.
Stratum III, 20-2/3 cb. m—27 objects = 1.16 per cb. m.
Stratum IV, 11-3/4 cb. m.—41 objects = 3.5 per cb. m.
Stratum V, 9-2/3 cb. m.—34 objects = 3.5 per cb. m.
Stratum VI, 4-1/5 cb. m.—9 objects = 2.1 per cb. m.
Stratum VII, 2-4/5 cb. m.—10 objects = 3.5 per cb. m.
The specimens contained in the graves in strata VI and VII were not counted in with the rest. This comparison shows mainly that stratum II is the richest in implements. The connection of this fact with the preponderance of ashes will be pointed out later.
[26]Eight-tenths of all the shells found in the Oregon shellmounds belong to the species ofMytilus californianus,Tapes staminea,Cardium nuttalii, andPurpura lactuca(Schumacher, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 335).
[26]Eight-tenths of all the shells found in the Oregon shellmounds belong to the species ofMytilus californianus,Tapes staminea,Cardium nuttalii, andPurpura lactuca(Schumacher, Smithson. Rep., 1874, p. 335).
[27]As by the Minooks and the Nishinams (Powers,l. c., pp. 348 and 430); and certainly the custom was a very general one.
[27]As by the Minooks and the Nishinams (Powers,l. c., pp. 348 and 430); and certainly the custom was a very general one.
[28]We were not so fortunate as was W. H. Dall in the shellmounds of the Aleutian Islands in being able to make “a tolerably uniform division” of the layers in the mound according to the various foods used. (These layers were: “1, Echinus layer; 2, fishbone layer; 3, hunting layer.” Contributions to North American Ethnology, I, p. 49.) The shellmound of Emeryville presents a much greater similarity in the kinds of food used during the different periods of its occupancy.
[28]We were not so fortunate as was W. H. Dall in the shellmounds of the Aleutian Islands in being able to make “a tolerably uniform division” of the layers in the mound according to the various foods used. (These layers were: “1, Echinus layer; 2, fishbone layer; 3, hunting layer.” Contributions to North American Ethnology, I, p. 49.) The shellmound of Emeryville presents a much greater similarity in the kinds of food used during the different periods of its occupancy.
[29]Extinct in California, and in fact south of Washington; J. Wyman found the remains of elk, wild turkey, and large auk in the shellmounds of New England. The elk, though still in existence, is no longer to be found east of the Allegheny Mountains; the wild turkey is still in existence, but is not to be found in New England, while the auk lives only in the Arctic regions, or at least not farther south than the northern part of Newfoundland (Amer. Naturalist, I, p. 572).
[29]Extinct in California, and in fact south of Washington; J. Wyman found the remains of elk, wild turkey, and large auk in the shellmounds of New England. The elk, though still in existence, is no longer to be found east of the Allegheny Mountains; the wild turkey is still in existence, but is not to be found in New England, while the auk lives only in the Arctic regions, or at least not farther south than the northern part of Newfoundland (Amer. Naturalist, I, p. 572).
[30]Also found in the shellmounds of New England.
[30]Also found in the shellmounds of New England.
[31]Cf. for shellmounds in Denmark: Ranke,l. c., II, p. 532, for those of the Atlantic Coast, Wyman,l. c., p. 575 (New England) and Abbott,l. c., p. 442 (New York).
[31]Cf. for shellmounds in Denmark: Ranke,l. c., II, p. 532, for those of the Atlantic Coast, Wyman,l. c., p. 575 (New England) and Abbott,l. c., p. 442 (New York).
[32]Analogous is the statement of Wyman,l. c., p. 564, about the shellmounds of New England.
[32]Analogous is the statement of Wyman,l. c., p. 564, about the shellmounds of New England.
[33]Cf. also Hellwald, Der vorgeschichtliche Mensch, p. 449, on the Kjökkenmöddinger of Denmark.
[33]Cf. also Hellwald, Der vorgeschichtliche Mensch, p. 449, on the Kjökkenmöddinger of Denmark.
[34]Nadaillac,l. c., p. 50, states from uncertain authority that a shellmound near San Pablo was said to consist of calcined shells exclusively, which is certainly an exaggeration.
[34]Nadaillac,l. c., p. 50, states from uncertain authority that a shellmound near San Pablo was said to consist of calcined shells exclusively, which is certainly an exaggeration.
[35]It is alleged that there are shellmounds in the East which contain no implements at all, and have been used for the gathering of mussels only, and not as dwelling places (Abbott, p. 447, accord. to Charles A. Woodley). Equally uncertain seems to be the distinction made by Schumacher between shellmounds yielding few artifacts and those containing a larger number, as representing a place for temporary or permanent habitation. Similarly dubious is that classification which considers the piling up of shells in various separate heaps as proof of permanent abode and that of single mounds for the use only as temporary stopping places (Smithson. Rep., 1874, pp. 337 to 338).
[35]It is alleged that there are shellmounds in the East which contain no implements at all, and have been used for the gathering of mussels only, and not as dwelling places (Abbott, p. 447, accord. to Charles A. Woodley). Equally uncertain seems to be the distinction made by Schumacher between shellmounds yielding few artifacts and those containing a larger number, as representing a place for temporary or permanent habitation. Similarly dubious is that classification which considers the piling up of shells in various separate heaps as proof of permanent abode and that of single mounds for the use only as temporary stopping places (Smithson. Rep., 1874, pp. 337 to 338).
[36]W. J. Dall (contrib.l. c., I, p. 47) states that during his excavations of the shellmounds of the Aleutian Islands he found on the average one object in one-half ton of earth. This would be 2.63 objects to one cb. m. The yield of the Emeryville shellmound is three objects to one cb. m.
[36]W. J. Dall (contrib.l. c., I, p. 47) states that during his excavations of the shellmounds of the Aleutian Islands he found on the average one object in one-half ton of earth. This would be 2.63 objects to one cb. m. The yield of the Emeryville shellmound is three objects to one cb. m.
Shellmounds originate on the accumulated refuse deposited by people who have lived in the place when the heap has formed, and the mounds may therefore be regarded as sites for dwelling places, or abodes for the living, and not as mounds set aside as burial grounds by people living elsewhere in the vicinity. Whenever these mounds were used for burials it was not done in spite of their being dwelling places, but rather because they were such.[37]
Many tribes of a low grade of civilization follow the custom of burying their dead underneath their feet in the ground upon which they live, to protect the graves of their dead against being disturbed and also to enjoy the protection of the spirits of the departed against their enemies. Wherever graves are found in shellmounds, in all parts of the world, their presence is generally to be explained in this way.[38]
Ten graves containing skeletons were found during the excavations. They were found only in the middle layers of the mound in a zone extending from stratum VI to stratum VIII. The two lowest layers and the five upper ones contained no evidence of interment, indicating that the custom of burial underneath the dwelling places was observed in one period only. We have no evidence concerning the location of the burials previous to that period or subsequent to it. A burial site slightly elevated above the plain was unearthed some years ago under a shellmound near the principal mound in Emeryville, but as this probably dated from the same period as the graves in the shellmound no light is thrown upon the question.
In the upper strata of the mound there is, however, furnished evidence of a different manner of disposing of the dead, which was observed during the period of the deposition of strata II, III, and IV. During the period represented by strata VI to VIII the dead were buried in the ground. It has already been shown that stratum II consists mainly of ashes and calcined shells, which cannot be regarded as kitchen-midden deposit or as the remains of fireplaces, the latter forming an inconspicuous part of the stratum. Another characteristic feature of this layer is the high percentage of calcined bone implements found there. Very common among them are awls, of which stratum II contained 44 calcined specimens, or 72 per cent. of the whole number. In the other layers a much smaller number has been found, but the percentage of calcined specimens is high. The supposition that these were accidentally burned cannot be considered an adequate explanation, but the fact that a number of human bones were found at the same place in the strata gives weight to the theory that during the deposition of the upper beds the inhabitants of this region practiced cremation of their dead, a custom common among the California tribes of today. Then as now they were accustomed to burn all personal belongings with the body.[39]This accounts for the large number of calcined bone objects and shells in stratum II. Doubtless a large number of shell-fish were thrown into the fire as food for the departed on their long journey into the next world.
Doubtless the practice of cremation was not confined alone to the period of stratum II. The percentage of calcined awls in other strata than this suggests that the builders during the accumulation of stratum I, and probably also of III and IV and parts of V, practiced this custom, but to a less extent than in the period of stratum II, or mainly at other places than the mound.
Eight of the ten graves containing skeletons lay close together in the narrow space of the middle section of the excavation. Four were found in strata VI and VII of the upper cutC. Four of the graves were those of children, lying at different depths in the line of the tunnel. Two other graves were isolated from the others, lying in the edge of the mound. None of the burials were less than nine feet below the present surface. The lowest grave, No. 10 (pl. IV, fig. 2), was 21 feet below the surface. In accordance with the stratification lines of the mound, graves 1 and 2, as well as 6, 8, and 9, may be considered as belonging to the period of strata VII and VIIa. The eight graves which lay close together in the middle of the main excavation were distributed over a space of about 90 square feet. The vertical distance from the uppermost to the lowest of these was nine feet. As the tunnel inclines toward the center of the mound it is not certain whether the cemetery extended through the entire mound or was only around the margin of a settlement on the summit of the mound at the time when it was in use. From the depths at which the different graves were found, varying about nine feet, it is clear that they were not constructed within a short period, but that long periods intervened, during which the mound grew very considerably through the deposition of refuse. P. Schumacher explored the graves of Oregon, which lay at a depth of from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 feet below the surface, and probably the tribes of the Pacific Coast buried their dead in comparatively shallow graves.[40]In the case of a child’s grave (No. 9,pl. 4, fig. 2) it was seen by the stratification lines that it was not made deeper than 1-1/2 feet below the surface. Assuming this as being the general depth of the graves throughout the mound, then the graves varying between 2-1/2 and 12-1/2 feet above the base of the mound were dug at periods when the entire height of the mound was about 5 to 14 feet, hence the period of these burials would have to be placed entirely during the time of the earlier plateau-like growth of the mound. This period of burial is very closely followed by that of cremation, the two possibly overlapping.
The preparation of the graves was not elaborate. A simple pit sufficed. It was made large enough to place the body in it with the knees drawn up. The sides of the grave were left bare. If a covering existed originally it must have been of perishable materials, for none have been found in excavation. The bottom of the grave, however, was prepared somewhat like a bed. A layer of charcoal from one-half inch to one inch thick is found at the very bottom, above that another layer of like thickness of iron oxide. Upon this the body was laid on its side. It is evident that the body was buried with its clothing and personal ornaments, in exceptional cases with utensils or implements only. The body was tightly bound at the knees before burial. Owing to climatic conditions, causing excessive moisture in the strata, the greater part of the material buried with the corpse has decayed and disappeared. Five of the ten graves were entirely lacking in implements or other artifacts.
Before burial the body was entirely covered with the red earth mentioned above. This settled down upon the bones after decomposition and is still adhering to them in some cases like a thick crust. The hands were placed on the body in different ways. In several instances the left hand rested upon the knees, while the other was raised to the mouth or to the crown of the head. The corpse is usually laid upon the right side, generally facing northeast. Associated with a number of skeletons were a variety of interesting ornaments, including beads made from shells ofOlivellaand other molluscs and from sections of bird bones strung together. With skeleton No. 4 were associated a large number of perforated mica flakes. The flakes of mica may originally have been fastened to a garment which shrouded the dead, and when this decayed in the earth the flakes remained there about the body. Beads of bird bone were found in the mouth also, but their presence there might be explained by the settling of the skull in the earth. Mica was much used by the Indians for ornamentation. It has been observed in Peru in a number of cases in the vicinity of graves, but circumstances did not show whether its presence there was purely accidental or not. In the mounds of the middle west of the United States there have sometimes been found ornaments of thin plates of mica of round or oval form, provided with holes to fasten them to the clothing.[41]Similar objects were found in West Virginia and elsewhere. Pieces of mica 2 or 3 inches in size are reported to have been found in mounds or in places suggestive of their use for religious purposes.[42]Beads like the above mentioned from California, both from graves and from living Indians, were pictured by Holmes.[43]With burial six was a bone ring set with shell beads fastened on with asphalt. In burial seven were numerous bone rings similarly decorated with shell beads. Also in burial seven was found a large quartz crystal. One end of the crystal is preserved unbroken. The other end is capped with asphaltum in which numerous small shell beads are set. Quartz crystals have been found elsewhere in California in graves.[44]The above mentioned crystal, however, reminds us most strongly of a number of crystals one foot in length and of the thickness of one’s arm, found during the excavation of the western wall of the Temple of the Moon at Moche (Trujillo), in Peru, now in the collection of the University of California. These, too, had the coating of red coloring earth, the same as the object shown onpl. 11, fig. 9, and were found under peculiar conditions pointing strongly to their religious significance.
Several peculiar bone implements were obtained in burial eight.
The mode of burial seen here resembles that observed elsewhere in the shellmounds of California, for example, near San Luis Obispo, and that of other regions on the Pacific Coast (Oregon), and it is still followed among the California Indian tribes. The burial of the corpse with its knees drawn up has also been observed in Southern California[45]and Oregon.[46]From the latter region also the varying positions in which the corpses face is confirmed by Schumacher.[47]
To the layer of charcoal and red iron oxide which generally formed the bed of the dead may be compared the “thick burned brick-like crusts” and the “thin light colored crusts” found by Schumacher in Southern California graves.[48]A large number of lumps of red coloring earth were found throughout the mound, some of these showing marks of scraping or cutting. In Southern California graves we find conditions resembling these almost identically.[49]Up to recent times the California Indians very generally painted their bodies, and there is undoubtedly a religious significance in this practice of daubing the corpses and associated objects with red coloring material, besides depositing them on red earth. The custom of putting red coloring matter on the body of the dead is found with many aboriginal tribes. So the Caribs in Jamaica[50]paint the entire body of the corpse. The Santees of South Carolina[51]painted face, neck, and hands of the corpse. The Dakotas[52]painted the face alone. In a number of Peruvian mummies the faces were painted red. Crania from ancient Peruvian graves that had been disturbed at some early time were also found covered with red paint.
The absence of implements is explained by Schumacher by the analogous custom of the lower Klamath tribes, where the implements are laid upon the grave instead of being buried with the dead.[53]This custom may have prevailed in this shellmound.
It was an unfortunate circumstance that the exploration in Emeryville occurred at a season of the year when the interior of the mound was still very damp from preceding rains. For this reason none of the skulls could be secured intact, and they will need to be carefully prepared before use can be made of them for anthropological study. It may be noted that none of them show striking eccentricities of form.
Following is a detailed statement of the occurrence and the contents of each of the ten burials excavated.
No. 1,pl. IV, fig. 2, was found 9 feet below the present surface; it may be contemporaneous with the graves of stratum VII (as 6 and 9). The skeleton was that of an adult, drawn up in the usual manner. It was laid on its right side and was facing east. The left arm rested upon the knee, the right hand on the crown of the head, where also was found a cockleshell. The skeleton lay on a bed of red soil; the bones were slightly reddened. No associated objects.
No. 2. Skeleton of an adult, found at a depth of 9 feet in the outer part (A) of the excavation; neither red earth nor associated objects present. The burial dated probably from the same period as the preceding.
No. 3. Grave of a young person, about 15 years of age, in stratum VI. The skeleton was facing northwest. No artifacts or other associated objects.
No. 4. Grave of an adult, in stratum VI. The skeleton lay from east to west upon a double bed of charcoal and red earth. Interspersed in the soil were found a great quantity of flakes of mica 1 to 1-3/4 inches in diameter, rhomboidal, triangular, and irregular in shape, and each with a hole at one end (seepl. 11, fig. 18); also a quantity of beads made of bird bones were found upon the cranium as if they had formed part of a net drawn over it; others lay along the sides of the head and along the temples.
No. 5. Skeleton of an adult lying from east to west and facing north. Stratum VI. The cranium shows a lupus-like mutilation of the nose (fig. 2). No ornaments.