CHAPTER IV.

The Bruce, iv. 871—892.And as he raid in to the nycht,So saw he, with the monys lycht,Schynnyng off scheldys gret plenté;And had wondre quhat it mycht be.With that all hale thai gaiff a cry,And he, that hard sa suddainlySic noyis, sumdele affrayit was.Bot in schort time he till him taisHis spyrites full hardely;For his gentill hart, and worthy,Assurit hym in to that nede.Then with the spuris he strak the sted,And ruschyt in amaing them all.The feyrst he met he gert him fall;And syne his suord he swapyt out,And roucht about him mony rout,And slew sexsum weill sone and ma:Then wndre him his horss thai sla:And he fell; but he smertty rass,And strykand rowm about him mass:And slew off thaim a quantité.But woundyt wondre sar was he.

The Bruce, iv. 871—892.

And as he raid in to the nycht,So saw he, with the monys lycht,Schynnyng off scheldys gret plenté;And had wondre quhat it mycht be.With that all hale thai gaiff a cry,And he, that hard sa suddainlySic noyis, sumdele affrayit was.Bot in schort time he till him taisHis spyrites full hardely;For his gentill hart, and worthy,Assurit hym in to that nede.Then with the spuris he strak the sted,And ruschyt in amaing them all.The feyrst he met he gert him fall;And syne his suord he swapyt out,And roucht about him mony rout,And slew sexsum weill sone and ma:Then wndre him his horss thai sla:And he fell; but he smertty rass,And strykand rowm about him mass:And slew off thaim a quantité.But woundyt wondre sar was he.

And as he raid in to the nycht,

So saw he, with the monys lycht,

Schynnyng off scheldys gret plenté;

And had wondre quhat it mycht be.

With that all hale thai gaiff a cry,

And he, that hard sa suddainly

Sic noyis, sumdele affrayit was.

Bot in schort time he till him tais

His spyrites full hardely;

For his gentill hart, and worthy,

Assurit hym in to that nede.

Then with the spuris he strak the sted,

And ruschyt in amaing them all.

The feyrst he met he gert him fall;

And syne his suord he swapyt out,

And roucht about him mony rout,

And slew sexsum weill sone and ma:

Then wndre him his horss thai sla:

And he fell; but he smertty rass,

And strykand rowm about him mass:

And slew off thaim a quantité.

But woundyt wondre sar was he.

Wyntoun's Chronicle,I.xiii. 1—22.Blessyde Bretayn Beelde sulde beOf all þe Ilys in þe Se,Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayreHale of hewe, haylsum of ayre.Of all corne þare is copy gret,Pese and A'tys, Bere and Qwhet:Báth froyt on Tre, and fysche in flwde;And tyl all Catale pasture gwde.Solynus Sayis, in BrettanySum steddys growys sá habowndanlyOf Gyrs, þat sum tym (but) þair FeFrá fwlth of Mete refrenyht be,Ðair fwde sall turne þam to peryle,To rot, or bryst, or dey sum quhyle.Ðare wylde in Wode has welth at wille;Ðare hyrdys hydys Holme and Hille:Ðare Bwyis bowys all for Byrtht,Báthe Merle and Maẅesys mellys for myrtht:Ðare huntyng is at all kyne Dere,And rycht gud hawlkyn on Bÿwer;Of Fysche þaire is habowndance;And nedfulle thyng to Mannys substance.

Wyntoun's Chronicle,I.xiii. 1—22.

Blessyde Bretayn Beelde sulde beOf all þe Ilys in þe Se,Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayreHale of hewe, haylsum of ayre.Of all corne þare is copy gret,Pese and A'tys, Bere and Qwhet:Báth froyt on Tre, and fysche in flwde;And tyl all Catale pasture gwde.Solynus Sayis, in BrettanySum steddys growys sá habowndanlyOf Gyrs, þat sum tym (but) þair FeFrá fwlth of Mete refrenyht be,Ðair fwde sall turne þam to peryle,To rot, or bryst, or dey sum quhyle.Ðare wylde in Wode has welth at wille;Ðare hyrdys hydys Holme and Hille:Ðare Bwyis bowys all for Byrtht,Báthe Merle and Maẅesys mellys for myrtht:Ðare huntyng is at all kyne Dere,And rycht gud hawlkyn on Bÿwer;Of Fysche þaire is habowndance;And nedfulle thyng to Mannys substance.

Blessyde Bretayn Beelde sulde be

Of all þe Ilys in þe Se,

Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayre

Hale of hewe, haylsum of ayre.

Of all corne þare is copy gret,

Pese and A'tys, Bere and Qwhet:

Báth froyt on Tre, and fysche in flwde;

And tyl all Catale pasture gwde.

Solynus Sayis, in Brettany

Sum steddys growys sá habowndanly

Of Gyrs, þat sum tym (but) þair Fe

Frá fwlth of Mete refrenyht be,

Ðair fwde sall turne þam to peryle,

To rot, or bryst, or dey sum quhyle.

Ðare wylde in Wode has welth at wille;

Ðare hyrdys hydys Holme and Hille:

Ðare Bwyis bowys all for Byrtht,

Báthe Merle and Maẅesys mellys for myrtht:

Ðare huntyng is at all kyne Dere,

And rycht gud hawlkyn on Bÿwer;

Of Fysche þaire is habowndance;

And nedfulle thyng to Mannys substance.

Wallace, xi. 230-262.A lord off court, quhen he approchyt thar,Wnwisytly sperd, withoutyn prouision;"Wallace, dar ye go fecht on our lioun?"And he said; "Ya, so the Kyng suffyr me;Or on your selff, gyff ye ocht bettyr be."Quhat will ye mar? this thing amittyt was,That Wallace suld on to the lioun pas.The King thaim chargyt to bring him gud harnas:Then he said; "Nay, God scheild me fra sic cass.I wald tak weid, suld I fecht with a man;But (for) a dog, that nocht off armes can,I will haiff nayn, bot synglar as I ga."A gret manteill about his hand can ta,And his gud suerd; with him he tuk na mar;Abandounly in barrace entryt thar.Gret chenys was wrocht in the yet with a gyn,And pulld it to quhen Wallace was tharin.The wod lyoun, on Wallace quhar he stud,Rampand he braid, for he desyryt blud;With his rude pollis in the mantill rocht sa.Aukwart the bak than Wallace can him ta,With his gud suerd, that was off burnest steill,His body in twa it thruschyt euirilkdeill.Syn to the King he raykyt in gret ire,And said on lowd; "Was this all your desyr,To wayr a Scot thus lychtly in to wayn?Is thar mar doggis at ye wald yeit haiff slayne?Go, bryng thaim furth, sen I mon doggis qwell,To do byddyng, quhill that with thee duell.It gaynd full weill I graithit me to Scotland;For grettar deidis thair men has apon hand,Than with a dog in battaill to escheiff—At you in France for euir I tak my leiff."

Wallace, xi. 230-262.

A lord off court, quhen he approchyt thar,Wnwisytly sperd, withoutyn prouision;"Wallace, dar ye go fecht on our lioun?"And he said; "Ya, so the Kyng suffyr me;Or on your selff, gyff ye ocht bettyr be."Quhat will ye mar? this thing amittyt was,That Wallace suld on to the lioun pas.The King thaim chargyt to bring him gud harnas:Then he said; "Nay, God scheild me fra sic cass.I wald tak weid, suld I fecht with a man;But (for) a dog, that nocht off armes can,I will haiff nayn, bot synglar as I ga."A gret manteill about his hand can ta,And his gud suerd; with him he tuk na mar;Abandounly in barrace entryt thar.Gret chenys was wrocht in the yet with a gyn,And pulld it to quhen Wallace was tharin.The wod lyoun, on Wallace quhar he stud,Rampand he braid, for he desyryt blud;With his rude pollis in the mantill rocht sa.Aukwart the bak than Wallace can him ta,With his gud suerd, that was off burnest steill,His body in twa it thruschyt euirilkdeill.Syn to the King he raykyt in gret ire,And said on lowd; "Was this all your desyr,To wayr a Scot thus lychtly in to wayn?Is thar mar doggis at ye wald yeit haiff slayne?Go, bryng thaim furth, sen I mon doggis qwell,To do byddyng, quhill that with thee duell.It gaynd full weill I graithit me to Scotland;For grettar deidis thair men has apon hand,Than with a dog in battaill to escheiff—At you in France for euir I tak my leiff."

A lord off court, quhen he approchyt thar,

Wnwisytly sperd, withoutyn prouision;

"Wallace, dar ye go fecht on our lioun?"

And he said; "Ya, so the Kyng suffyr me;

Or on your selff, gyff ye ocht bettyr be."

Quhat will ye mar? this thing amittyt was,

That Wallace suld on to the lioun pas.

The King thaim chargyt to bring him gud harnas:

Then he said; "Nay, God scheild me fra sic cass.

I wald tak weid, suld I fecht with a man;

But (for) a dog, that nocht off armes can,

I will haiff nayn, bot synglar as I ga."

A gret manteill about his hand can ta,

And his gud suerd; with him he tuk na mar;

Abandounly in barrace entryt thar.

Gret chenys was wrocht in the yet with a gyn,

And pulld it to quhen Wallace was tharin.

The wod lyoun, on Wallace quhar he stud,

Rampand he braid, for he desyryt blud;

With his rude pollis in the mantill rocht sa.

Aukwart the bak than Wallace can him ta,

With his gud suerd, that was off burnest steill,

His body in twa it thruschyt euirilkdeill.

Syn to the King he raykyt in gret ire,

And said on lowd; "Was this all your desyr,

To wayr a Scot thus lychtly in to wayn?

Is thar mar doggis at ye wald yeit haiff slayne?

Go, bryng thaim furth, sen I mon doggis qwell,

To do byddyng, quhill that with thee duell.

It gaynd full weill I graithit me to Scotland;

For grettar deidis thair men has apon hand,

Than with a dog in battaill to escheiff—

At you in France for euir I tak my leiff."

Gawin Douglas, Æn. ii.As Laocon that was Neptunus priest,And chosin by cavil vnto that ilk office,Ane fare grete bull offerit in sacrifice,Solempnithe before the haly altere,Throw the still sey from Tenedos in fere,Lo twa gret lowpit edderis with mony thrawFirst throw the flude towart the land can draw.(My sprete abhorris this matter to declare)Aboue the wattir thare hals stude euirmare,With bludy creistis outwith the wallis hie,The remanent swam always vnder the se,With grisly bodyis lynkit mony fald,The salt fame stouris from the fard they hald,Unto the ground thay glade with glowand ene,Stuffit full of venom, fire and felloun tene,With tounges quhissling in thar mouthis red,Thay lik the twynkilland stangis in thar hed.We fled away al bludles for effere.Bot with ane braide to Laocon in fereThay stert attanis, and his twa sonnys zyngFirst athir serpent lappit like ane ring,And with thare cruel bit, and stangis fell,Of tender membris tuke mony sory morsel;Syne thay the preist invadit baith twane,Quhilk wyth his wappins did his besy paneHis childer for to helpen and reskew.Bot thay about him lowpit in wympillis threw,And twis circulit his myddel round about,And twys faldit thare sprutillit skynnis but dout,About his hals, baith neck and hed they schent.As he ettis thare hankis to haue rent,And with his handis thaym away haue draw,His hede bendis and garlandis all war blawFull of vennum and rank poysoun attanis,Quhilk infekkis the flesche, blude, and banys.

Gawin Douglas, Æn. ii.

As Laocon that was Neptunus priest,And chosin by cavil vnto that ilk office,Ane fare grete bull offerit in sacrifice,Solempnithe before the haly altere,Throw the still sey from Tenedos in fere,Lo twa gret lowpit edderis with mony thrawFirst throw the flude towart the land can draw.(My sprete abhorris this matter to declare)Aboue the wattir thare hals stude euirmare,With bludy creistis outwith the wallis hie,The remanent swam always vnder the se,With grisly bodyis lynkit mony fald,The salt fame stouris from the fard they hald,Unto the ground thay glade with glowand ene,Stuffit full of venom, fire and felloun tene,With tounges quhissling in thar mouthis red,Thay lik the twynkilland stangis in thar hed.We fled away al bludles for effere.Bot with ane braide to Laocon in fereThay stert attanis, and his twa sonnys zyngFirst athir serpent lappit like ane ring,And with thare cruel bit, and stangis fell,Of tender membris tuke mony sory morsel;Syne thay the preist invadit baith twane,Quhilk wyth his wappins did his besy paneHis childer for to helpen and reskew.Bot thay about him lowpit in wympillis threw,And twis circulit his myddel round about,And twys faldit thare sprutillit skynnis but dout,About his hals, baith neck and hed they schent.As he ettis thare hankis to haue rent,And with his handis thaym away haue draw,His hede bendis and garlandis all war blawFull of vennum and rank poysoun attanis,Quhilk infekkis the flesche, blude, and banys.

As Laocon that was Neptunus priest,

And chosin by cavil vnto that ilk office,

Ane fare grete bull offerit in sacrifice,

Solempnithe before the haly altere,

Throw the still sey from Tenedos in fere,

Lo twa gret lowpit edderis with mony thraw

First throw the flude towart the land can draw.

(My sprete abhorris this matter to declare)

Aboue the wattir thare hals stude euirmare,

With bludy creistis outwith the wallis hie,

The remanent swam always vnder the se,

With grisly bodyis lynkit mony fald,

The salt fame stouris from the fard they hald,

Unto the ground thay glade with glowand ene,

Stuffit full of venom, fire and felloun tene,

With tounges quhissling in thar mouthis red,

Thay lik the twynkilland stangis in thar hed.

We fled away al bludles for effere.

Bot with ane braide to Laocon in fere

Thay stert attanis, and his twa sonnys zyng

First athir serpent lappit like ane ring,

And with thare cruel bit, and stangis fell,

Of tender membris tuke mony sory morsel;

Syne thay the preist invadit baith twane,

Quhilk wyth his wappins did his besy pane

His childer for to helpen and reskew.

Bot thay about him lowpit in wympillis threw,

And twis circulit his myddel round about,

And twys faldit thare sprutillit skynnis but dout,

About his hals, baith neck and hed they schent.

As he ettis thare hankis to haue rent,

And with his handis thaym away haue draw,

His hede bendis and garlandis all war blaw

Full of vennum and rank poysoun attanis,

Quhilk infekkis the flesche, blude, and banys.

§ 190. In the way of orthography, the most characteristic difference between the English and Scotch is the use, on the part of the latter, ofquforwh; asquhen,quhare,quhat, forwhen,where,what. The substitution ofschforsh(asschoforshe), and ofzfor the Old Englishȝ(aszourforȝeowr,your), is as much northern English as Scotch.

In pronunciation, the substitution ofdforð(if not a point of spelling), as infaderforfather; ofaforo, asbáithforboth; ofsforsh, assallforshall; and the use of the guttural sound ofch, as inloch,nocht, are the same.

The ejection of thenbeforet, or an allied sound, and the lengthening of the preceding vowel, by way of compensation, as inbegouthforbeginneth, seems truly Scotch. It is the same change that in Greek turns the radical syllableὀδοντintoὀδούς.

The formation of the plural of verbs in-s, rather than in-th(the Anglo-Saxon form), is Northern English as well as Scotch:—Scotch,slepys,lovys; Northern English,slepis,lovis; Old English,slepen,loven; Anglo-Saxonslepiað,lufiað.

The formation of the plural number of the genitive case by the addition of the syllable-is(blastis,birdis,bloomis), instead of the letter-s(blasts,birds,blooms), carries with it a metrical advantage, inasmuch as it gives a greater number of double rhymes.

The same may be said of the participial forms,affrayit,assurit, foraffrayd,assured.

Concerning the comparative rate of change in the two languages no general assertion can be made. In the Scotch wordssterand,slepand, &c., forsteering,sleeping, the form is antiquated, and Anglo-Saxon rather than English. It is not so, however, with the wordsthai(they),thaim(them),thair(their), compared with the contemporary words in English,heo,hem,heora. In these it is the Scottish that is least, and the English that is most Anglo-Saxon.

OF CERTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

§ 191. The languages mentioned in the present chapter claim their place on one ground only,—they have been the subject of controversy. The notice of them will be brief. The current texts upon which the controversies have turned will be quoted; whilst the opinion of the present writer is left to be collected from the title of the chapter.

The Belgæ.—By some these are considered a Germanic rather than a Celtic tribe; the view being supported by the following extracts from Cæsar:—"Gallia est omnis divisa in tres partes; quarum unam incolunt Belgæ, aliam Aquitani, tertiam, qui ipsorum lingua Celtæ, nostra Galli, appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos—a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit."—B. G. i. "Belgæ ab extremis Galliæ finibus oriuntur."—B. G. ii. "Quum ab his quæreret, quæ civitates, quantæque in armis essent, et quid in bello possent, sic reperiebat: plerosque Belgas esse ortos a Germanis, Rhenumque antiquitùs transductos, propter loci fertilitatem ibi consedisse; Gallosque, qui ea loca incolerent, expulisse; solosque esse qui patrum nostrorum memoria, omni Gallia vexata Teutones Cimbrosque intra fines suos ingredi prohibuerunt."—B. G. ii. 4. "Britanniæ pars interior ab iis incolitur quos natos in insulâ ipsâ memoriâ proditum dicunt: maritima pars ab iis, qui prædæ ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio transierant."—B. G. v. 12.

§ 192. The possibly Germanic origin of the Belgæ, and the Belgic element of the British population, are matters which bear upon the question indicated in§ 10, or that of the Germanic influences anterior toA.D.449.

They have a still more important bearing, the historian over and above identifying the Belgæ with the Germans, affirmsthat what applies to the Belgæ applies to the Pictsalso.

Now this is one of the arguments in favour of the doctrine exhibited (and objected to) in pp.124-127, and the extent of questions upon which it bears, may be collected from the following quotation:—"A variety of other considerations might be mentioned, which, although they do not singly amount to proof, yet merit attention, as viewed in connexion with what has been already stated.

"As so great a part of the eastern coast of what is now called England was so early peopled by the Belgæ, it is hardly conceivable that neither so enterprising a people, nor any of their kindred tribes, should ever think of extending their descents a little farther eastward. For that the Belgæ and the inhabitants of the countries bordering on the Baltic, had a common origin, there seems to be little reason to doubt. The Dutch assert that their progenitors were Scandinavians, who, about a century before the common era, left Jutland and the neighbouring territories, in quest of new habitations.[29]The Saxons must be viewed as a branch from the same stock; for they also proceeded from modern Jutland and its vicinity. Now, there is nothing repugnant to reason in supposing that some of these tribes should pass over directly to the coast of Scotland opposite to them, even before the Christian era. For Mr. Whitaker admits that the Saxons, whom he strangely makes a Gaulic people, in the second century applied themselves to navigation, and soon became formidable to the Romans.[30]Before they could become formidable to so powerful a people, they must have been at least so well acquainted with navigation as to account it no great enterprise to cross from the shores of the Baltic over to Scotland, especially if they took the islands of Shetland and Orkney in their way.

"As we have seen that, according to Ptolemy, there were, in his time, different tribes of Belgæ, settled on the northernextremity of our country: the most natural idea undoubtedly is, that they came directly from the Continent. For had these Belgæ crossed the English Channel, according to the common progress of barbarous nations, it is scarcely supposable that this island would have been settled to its utmost extremity so early as the age of Agricola.

"There is every reason to believe, that the Belgic tribes in Caledonia, described by Ptolemy, were Picts. For as the Belgæ, Picts, and Saxons seem to have had a common origin, it is not worth while to differ about names. These frequently arise from causes so trivial, that their origin becomes totally inscrutable to succeeding ages. The Angles, although only one tribe, have accidentally given their name to the country which they invaded, and to all the descendants of the Saxons and Belgæ, who were by far more numerous.

"It is universally admitted, that there is a certain national character, of an external kind, which distinguishes one people from another. This is often so strong that those who have travelled through various countries, or have accurately marked the diversities of this character, will scarcely be deceived even as to a straggling individual. Tacitus long ago remarked the striking resemblance between the Germans and Caledonians. Every stranger, at this day, observes the great difference and complexion between the Highlanders and Lowlanders. No intelligent person in England is in danger of confounding the Welsh with the posterity of the Saxons. Now, if the Lowland Scots be not a Gothic race, but in fact the descendants of the ancient British, they must be supposed to retain some national resemblance of the Welsh. But will any impartial observer venture to assert, that in feature, complexion, or form, there is any such similarity as to induce the slightest apprehension that they have been originally the same people?"[31]

It is doubtful, however, whether Cæsar meant to say more than that over above certain differences which distinguished the Belgæ from the other inhabitants of the common countryGallia, there was an intermixture of Germans.

The import of a possibly Germanic origin for the Belgæ gives us the import of a possibly Germanic origin for—

§ 193.The Caledonians.—A speculative sentence of Tacitus indicates the chance of the Caledonians being Germanic:—"Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigenæ an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus corporum varii: atque ex eo argumenta: namque rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus, Germanicam originem adseverant."—Agricola, xi.

The continuation of the passage quoted in § 193 has induced the notion that there have been in Britain Spanish, Iberic, or Basque tribes:—"Silurum colorati vultus, et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occupâsse fidem faciunt."—Agricola, xi.

As this, although an opinion connected with the history of the languages of Great Britain, is not an opinion connected with the history of the English language, it is a question for the Celtic, rather than the Gothic, philologist. The same applies to the points noticed in§§ 136-138. Nevertheless they are necessary for the purposes of minute philological analysis.

§ 194. As early as the yearA.D.1676, an opinion was advanced by[32]Aylett Sammes, in a work entitled Britannia Antiqua Illustrata, that the first colonisers of Ireland were the merchants of Tyre and Sidon. In confirmation of this opinion the existence of several Eastern customs in Ireland was adduced by subsequent antiquarians. Further marks of an Eastern origin of the Irish were soon found in the Gaelic dialect of that country. Finally, the matter (in the eyes at least of the national writers) was satisfactorily settled by the famous discovery, attributed to General Vallancey, of the true meaning of the Carthaginian lines in Plautus.

In the Little Carthaginian (Pœnulus) of the Latin comic writer Plautus, a portion of the dialogue is carried on in the language of Carthage.

That the Punic language of Carthage should closelyresemble that of the mother-city Tyre, which was Phœnician; and that the Phœnician of Tyre should be allied to the language of Palestine and Syria, was soon remarked by the classical commentators of the time. Joseph Scaliger asserted that the Punic of the Pœnulusdiffered but little from pure Hebrew—"Ab Hebraismi puritate parum abesse."

Emendated and interpreted by Bochart, the first ten lines of a speech in Act v. s. 1. stand thus:—

1. N' yth alionim valionuth sicorath jismacon sith2. Chy-mlachai jythmu mitslia mittebariim ischi3. Liphorcaneth yth beni ith jad adi ubinuthai4. Birua rob syllohom alonim ubymisyrtohom5. Bythrym moth ymoth othi helech Antidamarchon6. Ys sideli: brim tyfel yth chili schontem liphul7. Uth bin imys dibur thim nocuth nu' Agorastocles8. Ythem aneti hy chyr saely choc, sith naso.9. Binni id chi lu hilli gubylim lasibil thym10. Body aly thera ynn' yss' immoncon lu sim—

1. N' yth alionim valionuth sicorath jismacon sith

2. Chy-mlachai jythmu mitslia mittebariim ischi

3. Liphorcaneth yth beni ith jad adi ubinuthai

4. Birua rob syllohom alonim ubymisyrtohom

5. Bythrym moth ymoth othi helech Antidamarchon

6. Ys sideli: brim tyfel yth chili schontem liphul

7. Uth bin imys dibur thim nocuth nu' Agorastocles

8. Ythem aneti hy chyr saely choc, sith naso.

9. Binni id chi lu hilli gubylim lasibil thym

10. Body aly thera ynn' yss' immoncon lu sim—

The Same, in Hebrew Characters.נא את עליונים ועליונות שכורת יסמכון זאת׃‎ .1כי מלכי נתמו׃ מצליח מדבריהם עסקי׃‎ .2לפורקנת את בני את יד עדי ובנותי׃‎ .3ברוח רב שלהם עליונים ובמשורתהם׃‎ .4בטרם מות חנות אותי הלך אנתידמרכון׃‎ .5איש שידעלי׃ ברם טפל את חילי שכינתם לאפל׃‎ .6את בן אמיץ דבור תם נקוט נוה אגורסטוקליס׃‎ .7חותם חנותי הוא כיור שאלי חוק זאת נושא׃‎ .8ביני עד כי לו האלה גבולים לשבת תם׃‎ .9בוא די עלי תרע אנא׃ הנו אשאל אם מנכר לו אם‎ .01

The Same, in Hebrew Characters.

נא את עליונים ועליונות שכורת יסמכון זאת׃‎ .1כי מלכי נתמו׃ מצליח מדבריהם עסקי׃‎ .2לפורקנת את בני את יד עדי ובנותי׃‎ .3ברוח רב שלהם עליונים ובמשורתהם׃‎ .4בטרם מות חנות אותי הלך אנתידמרכון׃‎ .5איש שידעלי׃ ברם טפל את חילי שכינתם לאפל׃‎ .6את בן אמיץ דבור תם נקוט נוה אגורסטוקליס׃‎ .7חותם חנותי הוא כיור שאלי חוק זאת נושא׃‎ .8ביני עד כי לו האלה גבולים לשבת תם׃‎ .9בוא די עלי תרע אנא׃ הנו אשאל אם מנכר לו אם‎ .01

נא את עליונים ועליונות שכורת יסמכון זאת׃‎ .1

כי מלכי נתמו׃ מצליח מדבריהם עסקי׃‎ .2

לפורקנת את בני את יד עדי ובנותי׃‎ .3

ברוח רב שלהם עליונים ובמשורתהם׃‎ .4

בטרם מות חנות אותי הלך אנתידמרכון׃‎ .5

איש שידעלי׃ ברם טפל את חילי שכינתם לאפל׃‎ .6

את בן אמיץ דבור תם נקוט נוה אגורסטוקליס׃‎ .7

חותם חנותי הוא כיור שאלי חוק זאת נושא׃‎ .8

ביני עד כי לו האלה גבולים לשבת תם׃‎ .9

בוא די עלי תרע אנא׃ הנו אשאל אם מנכר לו אם‎ .01

Six lines following these were determined to beLiby-Phœnician, or the language of the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Carthage, mixed with Punic. These, it was stated, had the same meaning with the ten lines in Carthaginian.

The following lines of Plautus have, by all commentators,been viewed in the same light,viz.as the Latin version of the speech of the Carthaginian.

1. Deos deasque veneror, qui hanc urbem colunt,2. Ut, quod de mea re huc veni, rite venerim.3. Measque hic ut gnatas, et mei fratris filium4. Reperire me siritis: Di, vostram fidem!5. Quæ mihi surruptæ sunt, et fratris filium:6. Sed hic mihi antehac hospes Antidamas fuit.7. Eum fecisse aiunt, sibi quod faciendum fuit.8. Ejus filium hic esse prædicant Agorastoclem:9. Deum hospitalem et tesseram mecum fero:10. In hisce habitare monstratum est regionibus.11. Hos percunctabor, qui huc egrediuntur foras.

1. Deos deasque veneror, qui hanc urbem colunt,

2. Ut, quod de mea re huc veni, rite venerim.

3. Measque hic ut gnatas, et mei fratris filium

4. Reperire me siritis: Di, vostram fidem!

5. Quæ mihi surruptæ sunt, et fratris filium:

6. Sed hic mihi antehac hospes Antidamas fuit.

7. Eum fecisse aiunt, sibi quod faciendum fuit.

8. Ejus filium hic esse prædicant Agorastoclem:

9. Deum hospitalem et tesseram mecum fero:

10. In hisce habitare monstratum est regionibus.

11. Hos percunctabor, qui huc egrediuntur foras.

Guided by the metricalparaphraseof the original author, Bochart laid before the scholars of his time a Latin version, of which the following is an English translation:—

Close Translation of Bochart's Latin Version.

1. I ask the gods and goddesses that preside over this city,2. That my plans may be fulfilled.—May my business prosper under their guidance!3. The release of my son and my daughters from the hands of a robber.4. May the gods grant this, through the mighty spirit that is in them and by their providence!5. Before his death, Antidamarchus used to sojourn with me.6. A man intimate with me: but he has joined the ranks of those whose dwelling is in darkness (the dead).7. There is a general report that his son has here taken his abode;viz.Agorastocles.8. The token (tally) of my claim to hospitality is a carven tablet, the sculpture whereof is my god. This I carry.9. A witness has informed me that he lives in this neighbourhood.10. Somebody comes this way through the gate: behold him: I'll ask him whether he knows the name.

1. I ask the gods and goddesses that preside over this city,

2. That my plans may be fulfilled.—May my business prosper under their guidance!

3. The release of my son and my daughters from the hands of a robber.

4. May the gods grant this, through the mighty spirit that is in them and by their providence!

5. Before his death, Antidamarchus used to sojourn with me.

6. A man intimate with me: but he has joined the ranks of those whose dwelling is in darkness (the dead).

7. There is a general report that his son has here taken his abode;viz.Agorastocles.

8. The token (tally) of my claim to hospitality is a carven tablet, the sculpture whereof is my god. This I carry.

9. A witness has informed me that he lives in this neighbourhood.

10. Somebody comes this way through the gate: behold him: I'll ask him whether he knows the name.

To professed classics and to professed orientalists, the version of Bochart has,on the whole, appeared satisfactory. Divisions of opinion there have been, it is true, even amongst those who received it; but merely upon matters of detail. Some have held that the Punic is Syriac rather than Hebraic, whilst others have called in to its interpretation the Arabic,the Maltese, or the Chaldee; all (be it observed) languages akin to the Hebrew. Those who look further than this for their affinities, Gesenius[33]dismisses in the following cavalier and cursory manner:—"Ne eorum somnia memorem, qui e Vasconum et Hiberniæ linguis huic causæ succurri posse opinati sunt; de quibus copiosius referre piget."

The remark of Gesenius concerning the pretended affinities between the Punic and Hibernian arose from the discovery attributed to General Vallancey;viz.that the speech in Plautus was Irish Gaelic, and consequently that the Irish was Carthaginian, andvice versâ. The wordattributedis used because the true originator of the hypothesis was not Vallancey, but O'Neachtan.

The Gaelic Version.

1. N 'iath all o nimh uath lonnaithe socruidshe me comsith2. Chimi lach chuinigh! muini is toil, miocht beiridh iar mo scith3. Liomhtha can ati bi mitche ad éadan beannaithe4. Bior nar ob siladh umhal: o nimh! ibhim a frotha!5. Beith liom! mo thime noctaithe; neil ach tan ti daisic mac coinme6. Is i de leabhraim tafach leith, chi lis con teampluibh ulla7. Uch bin nim i is de beart inn a ccomhnuithe Agorastocles!8. Itche mana ith a chithirsi; leicceath sith nosa!9. Buaine na iad cheile ile: gabh liom an la so bithim'!10. Bo dileachtach nionath n' isle, mon cothoil us im.

1. N 'iath all o nimh uath lonnaithe socruidshe me comsith

2. Chimi lach chuinigh! muini is toil, miocht beiridh iar mo scith

3. Liomhtha can ati bi mitche ad éadan beannaithe

4. Bior nar ob siladh umhal: o nimh! ibhim a frotha!

5. Beith liom! mo thime noctaithe; neil ach tan ti daisic mac coinme

6. Is i de leabhraim tafach leith, chi lis con teampluibh ulla

7. Uch bin nim i is de beart inn a ccomhnuithe Agorastocles!

8. Itche mana ith a chithirsi; leicceath sith nosa!

9. Buaine na iad cheile ile: gabh liom an la so bithim'!

10. Bo dileachtach nionath n' isle, mon cothoil us im.

In English.

1. Omnipotent much-dreaded Deity of this country! assuage my troubled mind!2. Thou! the support of feeble captives! being now exhausted with fatigue, of thy free will guide to my children!3. O let my prayers be perfectly acceptable in thy sight!4. An inexhaustible fountain to the humble: O Deity! let me drink of its streams!5. Forsake me not! my earnest desire is now disclosed, which is only that of recovering my daughters.6. This was my fervent prayer, lamenting their misfortunes in thy sacred temples.7. O bounteous Deity! it is reported here dwelleth Agorastocles.8. Should my request appear just, let here my disquietudes cease.9. Let them be no longer concealed; O that I may this day find my daughters!10. They will be fatherless, and preys to the worst of men, unless it be thy pleasure that I should find them.

1. Omnipotent much-dreaded Deity of this country! assuage my troubled mind!

2. Thou! the support of feeble captives! being now exhausted with fatigue, of thy free will guide to my children!

3. O let my prayers be perfectly acceptable in thy sight!

4. An inexhaustible fountain to the humble: O Deity! let me drink of its streams!

5. Forsake me not! my earnest desire is now disclosed, which is only that of recovering my daughters.

6. This was my fervent prayer, lamenting their misfortunes in thy sacred temples.

7. O bounteous Deity! it is reported here dwelleth Agorastocles.

8. Should my request appear just, let here my disquietudes cease.

9. Let them be no longer concealed; O that I may this day find my daughters!

10. They will be fatherless, and preys to the worst of men, unless it be thy pleasure that I should find them.

From the quotations already given, the general reader may see that both the text and the translation of Plautus are least violated in the reading and rendering of Bochart, a reading and rendering which noGothicorSemiticscholar has ever set aside.

§ 195.The hypothesis of an aboriginal Finnic population in Britain and elsewhere.—A Celtic population of Britain preceded the Germanic. Are there any reasons for believing that any older population preceded the Celtic?

The reasoning upon this point is preeminently that of the Scandinavian (i.e.Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian) school of philology and ethnology.

Arndt, I believe, was the first who argued that if the so-called Indo-European nations were as closely connected with each other as they are generally considered, their separation from the common stock must have been subsequent to the occupation of Europe by some portion or other of the human species—in other words, that this earlier population must have been spread over those areas of which the Indo-Europeans took possession only at a later period.

That the divisions of such an earlier population were,at least, as closely connected with each other as the different members of the so-called Indo-European class, was a reasonable opinion. It was even reasonable to suppose that they weremoreclosely connected; since the date of their diffusion must have been nearer the time of the original dispersion of mankind.

If so, all Europe (the British Isles included) might have had as its aborigines a family older than the oldest members of the Indo-European stock; a family of which every member may now be extinct, or a family of which remains may still survive.

Where are such remains to be sought? In two sorts of localities—

1. Partsbeyondthe limits of the area occupied by the so-called Indo-Europeans.

2. Partswithinthe limits of the so-called Indo-Europeans; but so fortified by nature as to have been the stronghold of a retiring population.

What are the chief parts coming under the first of these conditions?

a.The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Scandinavian and Slavonic areas,i.e.the countries of the Laplanders and Finnlanders.

b.The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Iranian stock,i.e.the Dekkan, or the country of those natives of India (whatever they may be) whose languages are not derived from the Sanscrit.

What are parts coming under the second of these conditions?

a.The Basque districts of the Pyrenees, where the language represents that of the aborigines of Spain anterior to the conquest of the Roman.

b.The Albanians.—Such the doctrine of thecontinuityof anante-Indo-European population, from Cape Comorin to Lapland, and from Lapland to the Pyrenees. There issomephilological evidence of this: whether there isenoughis another matter.

This view, which on itsphilologicalside has been taken up by Rask, Kayser, and the chief Scandinavian scholars, and which, whether right or wrong, is the idea of a bold and comprehensive mind, as well as a powerful instrument of criticism in the way of a provisional theory, has also been adopted on itsphysiologicalside by the chief Scandinavian anatomists and palæontologists—Retzius, Eschricht, Niilson, and others. Skulls differing in shape from the Celtic skulls of Gaul, and from the Gothic skulls of Germany and Scandinavia, have been found in considerable numbers; and generally in burial-places of an apparently greater antiquity than those which contain typical Celtic, or typical Gothic crania. Hence there is someanatomicalas well as philological evidence: whether there is enough is another question.

SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, SPELLING.

————

GENERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

§ 196. To two points connected with the subject of the following Chapter, the attention of the reader is requested.

I. In the comparison of sounds the ear is liable to be misled by the eye.

The syllableskaandgaare similar syllables. The vowel is in each the same, and the consonant is but slightly different. Now the wordskaandgaare more allied to each other than the wordskaandba,kaandta, &c., because the consonantal sounds ofkandgare more allied than the consonantal sounds ofkandb,kandt.

Comparing the syllablesgaandka, we see the affinity between the sounds, and we see it at the first glance. It lies on the surface, and strikes the ear at once.

It is, however, very evident that ways might be devised, or might arise from accident, of concealing the likeness between the two sounds, or, at any rate, of making it less palpable. One of such ways would be a faulty mode of spelling. If instead ofgawe wroteghathe following would be the effect: the syllable would appear less simple than it really was; it would look as if it consisted of three parts instead of two, and consequently its affinity tokawould seem less than it really was. It is perfectly true that a little consideration would tell us that, as long as the sound remained the same, the relationof the two syllables remained the same; and that, if the contrary appeared to be the case, the ear was misled by the eye. Still a little consideration would be required. Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the following modes of spelling that have a tendency to mislead:—

The sounds ofphand off, inPhilipandfillip, differ to the eye, but to the ear are identical. Here a difference is simulated.

The sounds ofthinthin, and ofthinthine, differ to the ear, but to the eye seem the same. Here a difference is concealed.

These last sounds appear to the eye to be double or compound. This is not the case; they are simple single sounds, and not the sounds oftfollowed byh, as the spelling leads us to imagine.

II. Besides improper modes of spelling, there is another way of concealing the true nature of sounds. If I say thatkaandgaare allied, the alliance is manifest; since I compare the actual sounds. If I saykaandgeeare allied, the alliance is concealed; since I compare, not the actual sounds, but only the names of the letters that express those sounds. Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the following names of letters that have a tendency to mislead:—

The soundsfaandvaare allied. The nameseffandveeconceal this alliance.

The soundssaandzaare allied. The namesessandzedconceal the alliance.

In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to do either with letters or names of letters. Compare the sounds themselves.

In many cases it is sufficient, in comparing consonants, to compare syllables that contain those consonants;e.g., to determine the relations ofp,b,f,v, we saypa,ba,fa,va; or for those ofsandz, we saysa,za. Here we comparesyllables, each consonant being followed by a vowel. At times this is insufficient. We are often obliged to isolate the consonant from its vowel, and bring our organs to utter (or half utter) imperfect sounds ofp',b',t',d'. In doing this we isolate the consonant.

§ 197. Let any of thevowels(for instance, theainfather) be sounded. The lips, the tongue, and the parts within the throat remain in the same position: and as long as these remain in the same position the sound is that of the vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in the position of the organs of sound; let, for instance, the lips be closed, or the tongue be applied to the front part of the mouth: in that case the vowel sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates in a sound that is different, according to the state of those organs whereof the position has been changed. If, on the vowel in question, the lips be closed, there then arises an imperfect sound ofborp. If, on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the fore part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imperfect) oftord. This fact illustrates the difference between the vowels and the consonants. It may be verified by pronouncing theainfate,eeinfeet,ooinbook,oinnote, &c.

It is a further condition in the formation of a vowel sound, that the passage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the sound of thel'inlo(isolated from its vowel) the sound is as continuous as it is with theainfate. Between, however, the consonantland the vowelathere is this difference: witha, the passage of the breath is uninterrupted; withl, the tongue is applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the passage of the breath.

§ 198. The primary division of our articulate sounds is into vowels and consonants. The latter are again divided into liquids (l,m,n,r) and mutes (p,b,f,v,t,d,g,s,z, &c.)Definitionsfor the different sorts of articulate sounds have still to be laid down. In place of these, we have general assertions concerning the properties and qualities of the respective classes. Concerning theconsonantsas a class, we may predicate one thing concerning the liquids, and concerning the mutes, another. What the nature of these assertions is, will be seen after the explanation of certain terms.

§ 199.Sharp and flat.—Take the sounds ofp,f,t,k,s; isolate them from their vowels, and pronounce them. The sound is the sound of a whisper.

Letb,v,d,g,z, be similarly treated. The sound is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of our voice.

Nowp,f,t,k,s(with some others that will be brought forward anon) aresharp, whilstb,v, &c. areflat. Instead ofsharp, some sayhard, and instead offlat, some saysoft. The Sanskrit termssonantandsurdare, in a scientific point of view, the least exceptionable. They have, however, the disadvantage of being pedantic. Thetenuesof the classics (as far as they go) are sharp, themediæflat.

Continuous and explosive.—Isolate the sounds ofb,p,t,d,k,g. Pronounce them. You have no power of prolonging the sounds, or of resting upon them. They escape with the breath, and they escape at once.

It is not so withf,v,sh,zh. Here the breath is transmitted by degrees, and the sound can be drawn out and prolonged for an indefinite space of time. Nowb,p,t, &c. are explosivef,v, &c. continuous.

§ 200. Concerning the vowels, we may predicatea) that they are all continuous,b) that they are all flat.

Concerning the liquids, we may predicatea) that they are all continuous,b) that they are all flat.

Concerning the mutes, we may predicatea) that one half of them is flat, and the other half sharp, andb) that some are continuous, and that others are explosive.

§ 201.—The letterhis no articulate sound, but only a breathing.

For the semivowels and the diphthongs, see the sequel.

SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

§ 202.—The attention of the reader is now directed to the followingforeignvowel sounds.

1.é fermé, of the French.—This is a sound allied to, but different from, theainfate, and theeeinfeet. It is intermediate to the two.

2.uof the French,üof the Germans,yof the Danes.—This sound is intermediate to theeeinfeet, and theooinbook.

3.o chiuso, of the Italians.—Intermediate to theoinnote, and theooinbook.

For these sounds we have the following sequences:ainfate,é fermé,eeinfeet,üinübel(German),ooinbook,o chiuso,oinnote. And this is the true order of alliance among the vowels;ainfate, andoinnote, being the extremes; the other sounds being transitional or intermediate. As the English orthography is at once singular and faulty, it exhibits the relationship but imperfectly.

§ 203.The system of the mutes.—Preliminary to the consideration of the system of the mutes, let it be observed:—

1. that thethinthinis a simple single sound, different from thethinthine, and that it may be expressed by the sign þ.

2. That thethinthineis a simple single sound, different from thethinthin, and that it may be expressed by the sign ð.

3. That theshinshineis a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the signσ(Greekσῖγμα).

4. That thezinazure,glazier(Frenchj), is a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the signζ(Greekζῆτα).

5. That in the Laplandic, and possibly in many other languages, there are two peculiar sounds, different from any in English, German, and French, &c., and that they may respectively be expressed by the signκand the signγ(Greekκάππαandγάμμα).

With these preliminary notices we may exhibit the system of the sixteen mutes; having previously determined the meaning of two fresh terms, and bearing in mind what was said concerning the words sharp and flat, continuous and explosive.

Lene and aspirate.—From the sound ofpinpat, the sound offinfatdiffers in a certain degree. This difference is not owing to a difference in their sharpness or flatness. Each is sharp. Neither is it owing to a difference in their continuity or explosiveness; although, at the first glance, such might appear to be the case.Fis continuous, whilstpis explosive.S, however, is continuous, ands, in respect to the difference under consideration, is classed not withfthe continuous sound but withpthe explosive one. I am unable to account for the difference betweenpandf. It exists: it is visible. It has been expressed by a term.Pis calledlene,fis calledaspirate.

Asfis topso isvtob.Asvis tobso isþtot.Asþis totso isðtod.Asðis todso isκtok.Asκis tokso isγtog.Asγis togso isσtos.Asσis tosso isζtoz.

Asfis topso isvtob.

Asvis tobso isþtot.

Asþis totso isðtod.

Asðis todso isκtok.

Asκis tokso isγtog.

Asγis togso isσtos.

Asσis tosso isζtoz.

Hencep,b,t,d,k,g,s,z, arelene;f,v,þ,ð,κ,γ,σ,ζ, areaspirate. Alsop,f,t,þ,k,κ,s,σ, aresharp, whilstb,v,d,ð,g,γ,z,ζ, areflat; so that there is a double series of relationship capable of being expressed as follows:—

I am not familiar enough with the early grammarians to know when the termsleneandaspiratewere first used. They were the Latin equivalents to the Greek wordsψίλον(psilon) andδάσυ(dasy) respectively. The Greek terms are preferable.Theyconvey no determinate idea, whereas the Latin terms convey a false one. The origin of the word aspirate I imagine to be as follows. The Latin language, wanting both the sound of the Greektheta, and the sign to express it (θ) rendered it byth. This orthography engenders the false notion thatθdiffered fromτby the addition of the aspirateh. To guard against similar false notions, I rarely hereafter use the word aspirate without qualifying it by the addition of the adjectiveso-called.

All the so-called aspirates are continuous; and, with the exception ofsandz, all the lenes are explosive.

I believe that in the fact of each mute appearing in a fourfold form (i.e.sharp, or flat, lene, or (so-called) aspirate), lies the essential character of the mutes as opposed to the liquids.

Yandw.—These sounds, respectively intermediate toγandi(theeeinfeet), and toυandu(ooinbook), form a transition from the vowels to the consonants.

§ 204. It has been seen that the sixteen mutes are reducible to four series. Of these series,p,t,k,s, may respectively be taken as the types. Of the liquids it may be predicated as follows:—

1. Thatmis allied to the seriesp.—The combinationinphas a tendency to becomeimp.

2. Thatnis allied to the seriest.—The combinationimthas a tendency to become eitherimpt, orint.

3. Thatlis allied to the seriesk.—The evidence of this lies deep in comparative philology.

4. Thatris allied to the seriess.—The evidence of this is of the same nature with that of the preceding assertion.

The seriespandkhave this peculiarity.—They are connected with the vowels throughwandu(oo), and throughyandi(ee) respectively.

§ 205. The French wordroiand the English wordsoil,house, are specimens of a fresh class of articulations;viz., of compound vowel sounds ordiphthongs. The diphthongoiis the vowelomodified, plus thesemivowely(not thevoweli) modified. The diphthongal sound inroiis the vowelomodified,plusthe semivowelw(not the voweluoroo) modified. Inroithe semivowel element precedes, inoilit follows. Inroiit is the semivowel allied to seriesp; inoilit is the semivowel allied to seriesk.The nature of the modification that the component parts of a diphthong undergo has yet to be determined; although it is certain there is one. If it were not so, the articulations would bedouble, notcompound.

The words quoted indicate the nature of the diphthongal system.

1. Diphthongs with the semivowelw,a)preceding, as in the French wordroi,b)following, as in the English wordnew.

2. Diphthongs with the semivowely,a)preceding, as is common in the languages of the Lithuanic and Slavonic stocks,b)following, as in the wordoil.

3. Triphthongs with a semivowel bothprecedingandfollowing.

The diphthongs in English are four;owas inhouse,ewas innew,oias inoil,ias inbite,fight.

§ 206.Chest,jest.—Here we have compound consonantal sounds. Thechinchestist+sh(σ), thejinjestisd+zh(ζ). I believe that in these combinations one or both the elements,viz.,tandsh,dandzh, are modified; but I am unable to state the exact nature of this modification.

§ 207.Ng.—The sound of thenginsing,king,throng, when at the end of a word, or ofsinger,ringing, &c. in the middle of a word, is not the natural sound of the combinationnandg, each letter retaining its natural power and sound; but a simple single sound, of which the combinationngis a conventional mode of expressing.

§ 208. Other terms, chiefly relating to the vowels, have still to be explained. Theéof the French has been calledfermé, orclose(Italian,chiuso). Its opposite, theainfate, isopen.

Compared withainfate, and theoinnote,ainfather,and theawinbawl, arebroad, the vowels ofnoteandfatebeingslender.

§ 209. Infat, the vowel is, according to common parlance,short; infate, it islong. Here we have the introduction of two fresh terms. For the wordslongandshort, I would fain substituteindependentanddependent. If from the wordfateI separate the final consonantal sound, the syllable,faremains. In this syllable theahas precisely the sound that it had before. It remains unaltered. The removal of the consonant has in nowise modified its sound or power. It is not so with the vowel in the wordfat. If from this I remove the consonant following, and so leave theaat the end of the syllable, instead of in the middle, I must do one of two things: I must sound it either as theainfate, or else as theainfather. Its (so-called) short sound it cannot retain, unless it be supported by a consonant following. For this reason it isdependent. The same is the case with all the so-called short sounds,viz., theeinbed,iinfit,uinbull,oinnot,uinbut.

To the preceding remarks the following statements may be added.

1. That the wordsindependentanddependentcorrespond with the termsperfectandimperfectof the Hebrew grammarians.

2. That the Hebrew grammars give us the truest notions respecting these particular properties of vowels.

The following sentences are copied from Lee's Hebrew Grammar, Art. 33, 34:—"Byperfect vowelsis meant, vowels which, being preceded by a consonant" (or without being so preceded), "will constitute a complete syllable, asבָּ‎bā. Byimperfect vowelsis meant those vowels which are not generally" (never) "found to constitute syllables without either the addition of a consonant or of an accent. Such syllables, therefore, must be either likeבּדַ‎bad, orבֲּ‎bā,i.e., followed by a consonant, or accompanied by an accent." For further remarks on this subject, see the chapter on accent.

§ 210. Beforei,e, andyof the English alphabet, and beforeüandöGerman, the letterscandghave the tendency to assume the sound and power ofsorz, ofshorzh, ofchorj;in other words, of becoming eithersor some sound allied tos. Compared witha,o, andu(as ingat,got,gun), which arefull,i,e,y, aresmallvowels.

It not every vowel that is susceptible of every modification.I(ee) andu(oo) are incapable of becoming broad.Einbed(as I have convinced myself), although both broad and slender, is incapable of becoming independent. For theuinbut, and for theöof certain foreign languages, I have no satisfactory systematic position.

§ 211.Vowel System.

From these, the semivowelswandymake a transition to the consonantsvand the so-called aspirate ofg(γ, not being in English), respectively.

§ 212.System of Consonants.

§ 213. Concerning the vowel system I venture no assertion. The consonantal system I conceive to have been exhibited above in its whole fulness. The number of mutes,specificallydistinct, I consider to be sixteen and no more: the number of liquids, four. What then are the powers of the numerous letters in alphabets like those of Arabia and Armenia? Whatis the Germanch, and Irishgh?Varietiesof one or other of the sounds exhibited above, and not articulations specifically distinct.

§ 214. There is adifference between a connexion in phonetics and a connexion in grammar.—Phonetics is a word expressive of the subject-matter of the present chapter. The present chapter determines (amongst other things) the systematic relation of articulate sounds. The wordphônæticos(φωνήτιχος) signifiesappertaining to articulate sounds. It is evident that between sounds likebandv,sandz, there is a connexion in phonetics. Now in the grammar of languages there is often a change, or a permutation of letters:e.g., in the wordstooth,teeth, the vowel, inprice,prize, the consonant, is changed. Here there is a connexion in grammar.

That the letters most closely allied in phonetics should be most frequently interchanged in grammar, is what, onà priorigrounds, we most naturally are led to expect. And that such isoftenthe case, the study of languages tells us. That, however, it is always so, would be a hasty and an erroneous assertion. The Greek language changespintof. Here the connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language closely coincide. The Welsh language changespintom. Here the connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language donotclosely coincide.

OF CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

§ 215. Certain combinations of articulate sounds are incapable of being pronounced. The following rule is one that, in the forthcoming pages, will frequently be referred to.Two (or more)mutes, of different degrees of sharpness and flatness, are incapable of coming together in the same syllable.For instance,b,v,d,g,z, &c. being flat, andp,f,t,k,s, &c. being sharp, such combinations asabt,avt,apd,afd,agt,akd,atz,ads, &c., are unpronounceable.Spelt, indeed, they may be; but attempts at pronunciation end in achangeof the combination. In this case either the flat letter is changed to its sharp equivalent (btop,dtot, &c.) orvice versâ(ptob,ttod). The combinationsabt, andagt, to be pronounced, must become eitheraptorabd, or elseaktoragd.

For determining which of the two letters shall be changed, in other words, whether it shall be the first that accommodates itself to the second, or the second that accommodates itself to the first, there are no general rules. This is settled by the particular habit of the language in consideration.

The wordmutesin the second sentence of this section must be dwelt on. It is only with themutesthat there is an impossibility of pronouncing the heterogeneous combinations above mentioned. The liquids and the vowels are flat; but the liquids and vowels, although flat, may be followed by a sharp consonant. If this were not the case, the combinationsap,at,alp,alt, &c. would be unpronounceable.

The semivowels, although flat, admit of being followed by a sharp consonant.

The law exhibited above may be called the law of accommodation.

Combinations likegt,kd, &c., may be called incompatible combinations.

§ 216.Unstable combinations.—That certain sounds in combination with others have a tendency to undergo changes, may be collected from the observation of our own language, as we find it spoken by those around us, or by ourselves. Theewinnewis a sample of what may be called an unsteady or unstable combination. There is a natural tendency to change it either intooo(noo) oryoo(nyoo); perhaps also intoyew(nyew).

§ 217.Effect of the semivowelyon certain letters when they precede it.—Taken by itself the semivowely, followed by a vowel (ya,yee,yo,you, &c.), forms a stable combination. Not so, however, if it be preceded by a consonant, of the seriest,k, ors, astya,tyo;dya,dyo;kya,kyo;sya,syo. There then arises an unstable combination.Syaandsyowe pronounce asshaandsho;tyaandtyowe pronounce aschaandja(i.e.tsh,dzh.). This we may verify from our pronunciation of words likesure,picture,verdure(shoor,pictshoor,verdzhoor), having previously remarked that theuin those words is not sounded asoobut asyoo. The effect of the semivowely, taken with instability of the combinationew, accounts for the tendency to pronouncedewas if writtenjew.

§ 218.The evolution of new sounds.—To an English ear the sound of the Germanchfalls strange. To an English organ it is at first difficult to pronounce. The same is the case with the German vowelsöandüand with the French soundsu,eu, &c.

To a German, however, and a Frenchman, the sound of the Englishth(either inthinorthine) is equally a matter of difficulty.

The reason of this lies in the fact of the respective sounds being absent in the German, French, and English languages; since sounds are easy or hard to pronounce just in proportion as we have been familiarised with them.

There is no instance of a new sound being introduced at once into a language. Where they originate at all, they areevolved, not imported.

§ 219.Evolution of sounds.—Let there be a language where there is no such a sound as that ofz, but where there is the sound ofs. The sound ofzmay be evolved under (amongst others) the following conditions. 1. Let there be a number of words ending in the flat mutes; asslab,stag,stud, &c. 2. Let a certain form (the plural number or the genitive case) be formed by the addition ofisores; asslabis,stages,studes, &c. 3. Let the tendency that words have to contract eject the intermediate vowel,eori, so that thesof the inflexion (asharpmute) and theb,d,g, &c. of the original word (flatmutes) be brought into juxta-position,slabs,studs,stags. There is then an incompatible termination, and one of two changes must take place; eitherb,d, orgmust becomep,t, ork(slaps,staks,stuts); orsmust becomez(stagz,studz,slabz). In this latter casezis evolved. Again,

Let there be a language wherein there are no such sounds assh,ch(tsh), orj(dzh); but where there are the sounds ofs,t,d, andy.

Let a change affect the unstable combinationssy,ty,dy. From this will arise the evolved sounds ofsh,ch, andj.

The phenomena of evolution help to determine the pronunciation of dead languages.

§ 220.On the value of a sufficient system of sounds.—In certain imaginable cases, a language may be materially affected by the paucity of its elementary articulate sounds.

In a given language let there be the absence of the soundz, the other conditions being those noted in the case of the wordsstag,slab,stud, &c. Let the intermediate vowel be ejected. Then, instead of thesbeing changed into an evolvedz, let the other alternative take place; so that the words becomestaks,slaps,stuts. In this latter case we have an alteration of the original word, brought about by the insufficiency of the system of articulate sounds.

§ 221.Double consonants rare.—It cannot be too clearly understood that in words likepitted,stabbing,massy, &c. there is no real reduplication of the sounds oft,b, ands, respectively. Between the wordspitted(as with the small-pox) andpitied(as being an object of pity) there is a difference inspelling only. In speech the words are identical.The reduplication of the consonant is in English, and the generality of languages, a conventional mode of expressing upon paper the shortness (dependence) of the vowel that precedes.

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