§ 131. No exception against the existence of Batavian, Frisian, Frank, and other elements not strictly Anglo-Saxon, is to be taken from the absence of traces of such in the present language, and that for the following reason.Languages which differ in an older form may so far change according to a common principle, as to become identical in a newer one.E.g., the Frisian infinitive in verbs ends in-a, (asbærna=to burn), the Saxon in-an(asbærnan=to burn). Here is a difference. Let, however, the same change affect both languages; that change being the abandonment, on both sides, of the infinitive termination altogether. What follows? even that the two originally different formsbærn-a, andbærn-an, both come outbærn(burn); so that the result is the same, though the original forms were different.
THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE ENGLISH.
§ 132. The languages of Great Britain at the invasion of Julius Cæsar were of the Celtic stock.
Of the Celtic stock there are two branches.
1. The British or Cambrian branch, represented by the present Welsh, and containing, besides, the Cornish of Cornwall (lately extinct) and the Armorican of the French province of Brittany. It is almost certain that the old British, the ancient language of Gaul, and the Pictish were of this branch.
2. The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the present Irish Gaelic, and containing, besides, the Gaelic of the Highlands of Scotland and the Manks of the Isle of Man.
SPECIMENS.
BRITISH.
The Lord's Prayer in Cornish.
Old Cornish.
An Taz, ny es yn nêf, bethens thy hannow ughelles, gwrênz doz thy gulas ker: bethens thy voth gwrâz yn oar kepare hag yn nêf: ro thyn ny hithow agan peb dyth bara; gava thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha gava ny neb es cam ma erbyn ny; nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyth ny the worth drok: rag gans te yn an mighterneth, and creveder, hag an' worryans, byz a venitha.
Modern Cornish.
Agan Taz, leb ez en nêv, benigas beth de hanno, gurra de gulasketh deaz, de voth beth gwrêz en' oar pokar en nêv; ro dony hithow agan pyb dyth bara; ha gava do ny agan cabmow, pokara ny gava an gy leb es cam mo war bidn ny; ha na dege ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort droge; rag an mychteyrneth ew chee do honnen, ha an crêvder, ha an 'worryans, rag bisqueth ha bisqueth.
Welsh(Cambrian).
Lukexv. 11. 19.
The Prodigal Son.
11. Yr oedd gan ryw wr ddau fab:12. A 'r jeuangaf o honynt a ddwedoddwrtheidâdd, Fy nhâd, dyro i mi y rhan a ddigwydd o 'r da. Ac efe a ranodd iddynteifywyd.13. Ac yn ôl ychydig ddyddiau y mâb jeuangaf a gasglodd y cwbl ynghyd, ac a gymmerth ei daith i wlâd bell; ac yno efe a wasgarodd ei dda, gan fyw yn affrallon.14. Ac wedi iddo dreulio 'r cwbl, y cododd newyn mawr trwy 'r wlâd honno; ac yntef a ddechreuodd fod mewn eisiau.15. Ac efe a aeth, ac a lynodd wrth un o ddinaswyr y wlâd honno; ac efe a 'i hanfonodd ef i 'w faefydd i borthi môch.16. Ac efe a chwennychai lenwi ei fol â 'r cibaua fwytai 'r môch; ac ni roddodd neb iddo.17. A phan ddaeth arto ei hur, efe addywedodd, Pa sawl gwâs cyflog o 'r eiddo fy nhâd sydd yn cael eu gwala a 'i gweddill o fara, a minnau yn marw o newyn!18. Mi a godaf, ac a âf at fy nhâd, ac a ddwyedaf wrtho, Fy nhâd, pechais yn erbyn y nef, ac o'th flaen dithau.19. Ac mwyach nid ydwyf deilwng i 'm galw yn fâb i ti: gwna si fel un o'th weision cyflog.
11. Yr oedd gan ryw wr ddau fab:
12. A 'r jeuangaf o honynt a ddwedoddwrtheidâdd, Fy nhâd, dyro i mi y rhan a ddigwydd o 'r da. Ac efe a ranodd iddynteifywyd.
13. Ac yn ôl ychydig ddyddiau y mâb jeuangaf a gasglodd y cwbl ynghyd, ac a gymmerth ei daith i wlâd bell; ac yno efe a wasgarodd ei dda, gan fyw yn affrallon.
14. Ac wedi iddo dreulio 'r cwbl, y cododd newyn mawr trwy 'r wlâd honno; ac yntef a ddechreuodd fod mewn eisiau.
15. Ac efe a aeth, ac a lynodd wrth un o ddinaswyr y wlâd honno; ac efe a 'i hanfonodd ef i 'w faefydd i borthi môch.
16. Ac efe a chwennychai lenwi ei fol â 'r cibaua fwytai 'r môch; ac ni roddodd neb iddo.
17. A phan ddaeth arto ei hur, efe addywedodd, Pa sawl gwâs cyflog o 'r eiddo fy nhâd sydd yn cael eu gwala a 'i gweddill o fara, a minnau yn marw o newyn!
18. Mi a godaf, ac a âf at fy nhâd, ac a ddwyedaf wrtho, Fy nhâd, pechais yn erbyn y nef, ac o'th flaen dithau.
19. Ac mwyach nid ydwyf deilwng i 'm galw yn fâb i ti: gwna si fel un o'th weision cyflog.
Armorican of Bas-Bretagne(Cambrian).
THE SAME.
11. Eunn dén en doa daou vab.12. Hag ar iaouanka anézhô a lavaraz d'he dâd.—Va zâd, ro d'in al lôden zanvez a zigouéz d'in. Hag hén a rannaz hé zanvez gant ho.13. Hag eunn nébeûd dervésiou goudé, ar mâb iaounka, ô véza dastumet kémend en doa en em lékéaz enn hent évit mond étrézég eur vrô bell meûrbeá, hag énô é tispiñaz hé zanvez ô véva gant gadélez.14. Ha pa en doé dispiñet kémend en doa, é c'hoarvézaz eunn naounégez vrâz er vrô-ze, hag é teûaz, da ézommékaat.15. Kuîd éz éaz eta, hag en em lakaad a réaz é gópr gand eunn dén eûz ar vro. Hag hé man hen kasaz enn eunn ti d'ézhan war ar méaz, évit mesa ar môc'h.16. C'hoantéed en divije leûña he góf gand ar c'hlosou a zebré ar môc'h: ha dén na rôé d'ézhan.17. Hôgen ô veza distrôed d'ezhan hé unar, é lavaraz: a béd gôpraer zo é ti va zâd hag en deûz bara é leiz, ha mé a varv aman gand ann naoun!18. Sévet a rinn, hag éz inn étrézé va zad, hag é livirinn d'ezhan: Va zâd, pech 'ed em euz a eneb ann env hag enu da enep.19. N'ounn két talvoudek pello 'ch da véza galved da vâb: Va zigémer ével unar euz da c'hôpraerien.
11. Eunn dén en doa daou vab.
12. Hag ar iaouanka anézhô a lavaraz d'he dâd.—Va zâd, ro d'in al lôden zanvez a zigouéz d'in. Hag hén a rannaz hé zanvez gant ho.
13. Hag eunn nébeûd dervésiou goudé, ar mâb iaounka, ô véza dastumet kémend en doa en em lékéaz enn hent évit mond étrézég eur vrô bell meûrbeá, hag énô é tispiñaz hé zanvez ô véva gant gadélez.
14. Ha pa en doé dispiñet kémend en doa, é c'hoarvézaz eunn naounégez vrâz er vrô-ze, hag é teûaz, da ézommékaat.
15. Kuîd éz éaz eta, hag en em lakaad a réaz é gópr gand eunn dén eûz ar vro. Hag hé man hen kasaz enn eunn ti d'ézhan war ar méaz, évit mesa ar môc'h.
16. C'hoantéed en divije leûña he góf gand ar c'hlosou a zebré ar môc'h: ha dén na rôé d'ézhan.
17. Hôgen ô veza distrôed d'ezhan hé unar, é lavaraz: a béd gôpraer zo é ti va zâd hag en deûz bara é leiz, ha mé a varv aman gand ann naoun!
18. Sévet a rinn, hag éz inn étrézé va zad, hag é livirinn d'ezhan: Va zâd, pech 'ed em euz a eneb ann env hag enu da enep.
19. N'ounn két talvoudek pello 'ch da véza galved da vâb: Va zigémer ével unar euz da c'hôpraerien.
GAELIC.
Irish Gaelic(Gaelic).
THE SAME.
11. Do bhádar diás mac ag duine áirighe:12. Agus a dubhairt an ti dob óige aca renaathair, Athair, tabhair dhamh an chuid roitheasmisidod mhaóin. Agus do roim seision a mhaoin eatorra.13. Agus tar éis bheagáin aimsire ag cruinniughadh a choda uile don mhac dob óige, do chúaidh sé air coigcrigh a dtalamh imchian, agus do dhiombail se ann sin a mhaóin lé na bheathaidh báoth-chaithfigh.14. Agus tar éis a choda uile do chaitheamh dho, deirigh gorta romhór ann sa tír sin; agus do thosaigh seision ar bheith a ríachdanus.15. Agus do imthigh sé roimhe agus do cheangal sé e féin do cháthruightheoir don tír sin; noch do chuir fá na dhúichte a mach é do bhúachuilleachd muc.16. Agus bá mhián leis a bholg do línoadh do na féithléoguibh do ithidís na muca: agus ní thugadh éunduine dhó íad.17. Agus an tan do chuimhnigh sé air féin, a dubhairt sé, Gá mhéd do luchd tuarasdail matharsa aga bhfúil iomarcdid aráin, agus misi ag dul a múghd lé gorta!18. Eíréochaidh mé agus rachaidh mé dionnsuighe mathair, agus deáruidh me ris; A athair! do pheacaid mé a naghaidh neimhe agusad fhíadhnuisisi.19. Agus ní fiú mé feasda do mhacsa do ghairm dhoim: déana mé mar áon dod luchd thuarasduil.
11. Do bhádar diás mac ag duine áirighe:
12. Agus a dubhairt an ti dob óige aca renaathair, Athair, tabhair dhamh an chuid roitheasmisidod mhaóin. Agus do roim seision a mhaoin eatorra.
13. Agus tar éis bheagáin aimsire ag cruinniughadh a choda uile don mhac dob óige, do chúaidh sé air coigcrigh a dtalamh imchian, agus do dhiombail se ann sin a mhaóin lé na bheathaidh báoth-chaithfigh.
14. Agus tar éis a choda uile do chaitheamh dho, deirigh gorta romhór ann sa tír sin; agus do thosaigh seision ar bheith a ríachdanus.
15. Agus do imthigh sé roimhe agus do cheangal sé e féin do cháthruightheoir don tír sin; noch do chuir fá na dhúichte a mach é do bhúachuilleachd muc.
16. Agus bá mhián leis a bholg do línoadh do na féithléoguibh do ithidís na muca: agus ní thugadh éunduine dhó íad.
17. Agus an tan do chuimhnigh sé air féin, a dubhairt sé, Gá mhéd do luchd tuarasdail matharsa aga bhfúil iomarcdid aráin, agus misi ag dul a múghd lé gorta!
18. Eíréochaidh mé agus rachaidh mé dionnsuighe mathair, agus deáruidh me ris; A athair! do pheacaid mé a naghaidh neimhe agusad fhíadhnuisisi.
19. Agus ní fiú mé feasda do mhacsa do ghairm dhoim: déana mé mar áon dod luchd thuarasduil.
Scotch Gaelic(Gaelic).
THE SAME.
11. Bha aig duine àraidh dithis mhac:12. Agus thubhairtmaca b'òige dhiubh r'a athair, Athair, thoir dhomhsa chuid-roim a thigorm, dodmhaoin. Agus roinn e eatorra a bheathacahadh.13. Agus an déigh beagain do láithibh, chruinnich am mac a b'òige a chuid uile, agus ghabh e a thurus do dhùthaich fad air astar, agus an sin chaith e a mhaoin le beatha struidheasaich.14. Agus an uair achaith e achuiduile, dh' éirich gorta ro mhòr san tír sin; agus thoisich e ri bhi ann an uireasbhuidh.15. Agus chaidh e agus cheangail se e féin ri aon do shaor-dhaoinibh na dùcha sin: agus chuir ed' fhearan e, a bhiadhadh mhuc.16. Agus bu mhiann leis a bhrú a liònadh do na plaosgaibh a bha na mucan ag itheadh; oir cha d' thug neach air bith dha.17. Agus un uair a thainig e chuige féin, thubhairt e, Cia lìon do luchd tuarasdail m'atharsa aig am bheil aran gu leoir agus r' a sheach-nadh, 'nuair a ta mise a' bàsachadh le gorta!18. Eiridh me, agus théid omi dh' ionnsuidh m' athar, agus their mi ris athair, pheaeaich mi 'n aghaidh fhlaitheanais, agus a' d' là thairsa.19. Agus cha 'n fhiu mi tuilleadh gu 'n goirte do mhacsa dhiom: deon mi mar aon do d' luchd tuarasdail.
11. Bha aig duine àraidh dithis mhac:
12. Agus thubhairtmaca b'òige dhiubh r'a athair, Athair, thoir dhomhsa chuid-roim a thigorm, dodmhaoin. Agus roinn e eatorra a bheathacahadh.
13. Agus an déigh beagain do láithibh, chruinnich am mac a b'òige a chuid uile, agus ghabh e a thurus do dhùthaich fad air astar, agus an sin chaith e a mhaoin le beatha struidheasaich.
14. Agus an uair achaith e achuiduile, dh' éirich gorta ro mhòr san tír sin; agus thoisich e ri bhi ann an uireasbhuidh.
15. Agus chaidh e agus cheangail se e féin ri aon do shaor-dhaoinibh na dùcha sin: agus chuir ed' fhearan e, a bhiadhadh mhuc.
16. Agus bu mhiann leis a bhrú a liònadh do na plaosgaibh a bha na mucan ag itheadh; oir cha d' thug neach air bith dha.
17. Agus un uair a thainig e chuige féin, thubhairt e, Cia lìon do luchd tuarasdail m'atharsa aig am bheil aran gu leoir agus r' a sheach-nadh, 'nuair a ta mise a' bàsachadh le gorta!
18. Eiridh me, agus théid omi dh' ionnsuidh m' athar, agus their mi ris athair, pheaeaich mi 'n aghaidh fhlaitheanais, agus a' d' là thairsa.
19. Agus cha 'n fhiu mi tuilleadh gu 'n goirte do mhacsa dhiom: deon mi mar aon do d' luchd tuarasdail.
Manks(Gaelic).
THE SAME.
11. Va daa vac ec dooinney dy row:12. As doort y fer saa rish e ayr; Ayr! cur dooys yh ayrn dy chooid ta my chour. As rheynn eh e chooid orroo.13. As laghyn ny lurg shen, hymsee yn mac saa ooilley cooidjagh as ghow eh jurnah gys cheer foddey, as ayns shen hug he jummal er e chooid liorish baghey rouanagh.14. As tra va ooilley baarit eihey, dirree genney vooar ayns y cheer shen; as ren eh toshiaght dy ve ayns feme.15. As hie eh as daill eh eh-hene rish cummaltagh jeh'n cheer shen; as hug eshyn eh magh gys ny magheryn echey dy ve son bochilley muickey.16. As by-vian lesh e volg y lhieeney lesh ny bleaystyn va ny muckyn dy ee: as cha row dooinney erbee hug eooney da.17. As tra v'eh er jeet huggey hene, dooyrt eh, Nagh nhimmey sharvaant failt t'ee my ayr ta nyn saie arran oe, as fooilliagh, as ta mish goll mow laecal beaghey!18. Trog-ym orrym, as hem roym gys my ayr, as jir-ym rish, Ayr! ta mee er n'yannoo peecah noi niau, as kiongoyrt rhyt's.19. As cha vel mee ny-sodjey feeu dy ve enmyssit dty vac: dell rhym myr rish fer jeh dty harvaantyr failt.
11. Va daa vac ec dooinney dy row:
12. As doort y fer saa rish e ayr; Ayr! cur dooys yh ayrn dy chooid ta my chour. As rheynn eh e chooid orroo.
13. As laghyn ny lurg shen, hymsee yn mac saa ooilley cooidjagh as ghow eh jurnah gys cheer foddey, as ayns shen hug he jummal er e chooid liorish baghey rouanagh.
14. As tra va ooilley baarit eihey, dirree genney vooar ayns y cheer shen; as ren eh toshiaght dy ve ayns feme.
15. As hie eh as daill eh eh-hene rish cummaltagh jeh'n cheer shen; as hug eshyn eh magh gys ny magheryn echey dy ve son bochilley muickey.
16. As by-vian lesh e volg y lhieeney lesh ny bleaystyn va ny muckyn dy ee: as cha row dooinney erbee hug eooney da.
17. As tra v'eh er jeet huggey hene, dooyrt eh, Nagh nhimmey sharvaant failt t'ee my ayr ta nyn saie arran oe, as fooilliagh, as ta mish goll mow laecal beaghey!
18. Trog-ym orrym, as hem roym gys my ayr, as jir-ym rish, Ayr! ta mee er n'yannoo peecah noi niau, as kiongoyrt rhyt's.
19. As cha vel mee ny-sodjey feeu dy ve enmyssit dty vac: dell rhym myr rish fer jeh dty harvaantyr failt.
§ 133. Taken altogether the Celtic tongues form a very remarkable class. As compared with those of the Gothic stock they are marked by the following characteristics—
The scantiness of the declension of Celtic nouns.—In Irish there is a peculiar form for the dative plural, ascos=foot,cos-aibh=to feet(ped-ibus); and beyond this there is nothing else whatever in the way ofcase, as found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues. Even the isolated form in question is not found in the Welsh and Breton. Hencethe Celtic tongues are preeminently uninflected in the way ofdeclension.
§ 134.—2.The agglutinate character of their verbal inflections.—In Welsh the pronouns forwe,ye, andthey, areni,chwyi, andhwyntrespectively. In Welsh also the root=loveiscar. As conjugated in the plural number this is—
Now the-wn,-ych, and-ant, of the persons of the verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is really a verb and a pronoun in a state ofagglutination;i. e., in a state where the original separate existence of the two sorts of words is still manifest. This is probably the case with languages in general. The Celtic, however, has the peculiarity of exhibiting it in an unmistakable manner; showing, as it were, an inflexion in the process of formation, and (as such) exhibiting an early stage of language.
§ 135.The system of initial mutations.—The Celtic, as has been seen, is deficient in the ordinary means of expressing case. How does it make up for this? Even thus. The noun changes its initial letter according to its relation to the other words of the sentence. Of course this is subject to rule. As, however, I am only writing for the sake of illustrating in a general way the peculiarities of the Celtic tongues, the following table, from Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, is sufficient.
From the Erse.
§ 136. When we have seen that one of the great characteristics of the Celtic tongues is to express inflection by initial changes, we may ask how far the principle of such change is common to the two branches—British or Gaelic; this and a few other details being quite sufficient to show the affinity between them.
Inflections formed by Changes of Initial Consonants.
The changes in Welsh, classified according to the relationship of the sounds are—
1. From the sharp lenes to the corresponding flats; asptob,ttod,ctog. The changes in Irish are the same.
2. From the flat lenes to their corresponding so-called aspirates; asbtov,dtoð. This is the change in Welsh. In Irish we have the same, but only as far asbis concerned; the aspirate ofd(ð) being wanting in that language. In neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate ofg. In neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate ofc; which, being wanting, is replaced by the sound of thechin the Germanauch, here speltç.
Now the Welsh grammarians deal with the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate, alike; since, in respect to the grammar of their language, they are enabled to state that they take place under the same circumstances.Taken collectively they are called light: and words whereinpis changed tob, and those whereinbis changed tov, are equally said to assume the light sound. This the Welsh express in spelling, and writebenforpen, andvraintforbraint, &c. In Irish the arrangement is different. When a so-called aspirate is substituted for a lene, the word is said to take an aspiration, andbheulis writtenbeul. If, however, the sharp be made flat, the original sound is said to be eclipsed. In spelling, however, it is preserved; so thatteine, with thetchanged, is writtendteine, and pronounceddeine. With this view we can now ask how far the change fromptob,ttod,ctog,btov,ctoç, takes place in Irish and Welsh under similar circumstances.
InWelsh—after all verbs, except those of the infinitive mood; ascaravi gaer(forcaer)=I love a fort.
InIrish—after all verbs, provided that the substantive be masculine; asta me ag gearrad çrainn=I am cutting (at to cut) a tree. Hereçrainncomes fromcrainn. This change in Irish extends only to the change from lene to aspirate.
InWelsh—after the possessive pronounsthy,thine,his,its,mine(but notmy); asdy vâr(forbâr)=thy wrath;ei vraint(frombraint)=his privilege.N. B.Although the same word (ei) meansher,his, andits, it induces the light change only when it is either masculine or neuter.
InIrish—after the possessive pronounsmy,thy, andhis. Here the change is of the first sort only, or an aspiration; asmo vàs(bàs)=my death;do ços(cos)=thy foot;çeann(ceann)=his head.N. B.Although the same word (a) meansher,his, andits, it induces the aspirate only when it is either masculine or neuter.
InWelsh—the initials of adjectives become light when their substantive is feminine.
InIrish—the initials of adjectives singular, aspirated in the oblique cases only of the masculine, are aspirated throughout in the feminine.
InWelsh—after certain adverbs called formative, used like the English wordsto,as, &c., in the formation of the degrees of nouns, and the moods of verbs (in other words,after certain particles), initial sounds become light; asrhy vyçan(byçan)=very(over)little;ni çarav(carav)=I do not love.
InIrish—the same, in respect to the change from lene to aspirate;ro veag=very little;ni vualim(bualim)=I do not beat;do vuaileas=I struck, &c.
InWelsh—initials are light after all prepositions exceptinandtowards.
InIrish—the prepositions either eclipse the noun that they govern or else aspirate it. A Welsh grammarian would say that it made them light.
InWelsh—initials of feminines become light after the Articles.
InIrish—masculines are aspirated in the genitive and dative singular; feminines in the nominative and dative.N.B.The difference here is less than it appears to be. The masculine dative is changed, not as a masculine, but by the effect of the particledo, the sign of the dative; the genitive, perhaps, is changedob differentiam. This being the fact, the nominative is the only case that is changedas such. Now this is done with the feminines only. The inflection explains this.
Such the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate. The second order of changes is remarkable,viz.from the mutes to their corresponding liquids, and, in the case of seriesk, tong. This, in Welsh, is as follows:—
e.g.,nheyrnasforteyrnas,ngherðforcerð,nuwforduw, &c.
In Irish the combinationsm+h,n+h,ng+hare wanting:t, however, under certain conditions, becomesh, asmo high(tigh)=my house. With the unaspirated liquids the change, however, coincides with that of the Welsh—ar maile(speltmbaile)=our town;ar nia(speltndia)=our God;ar ngearran=our complaint. These words come respectively frombaile,dia,gearran. To show that this change takes place in Irish and Welsh under similar circumstances is more than can be expected; sinceðbeing wanting in Irish, leavesdto be changed inton.
Inflections formed by changes in the middle of words.
Plurals from Singulars.
Inflections formed by addition.
Plural forms.—When not expressed by a change of vowel,-d(or an allied sound) both in Welsh and Irish has a plural power; asmerç,merçed;hyð,hyðoð;teyrn,teyrneð=girls,stags,kings; Welsh:—gealaç,gealaçad;sgolog,sgolagad;uiseog,uiseogad=moons,farmers,larks; Irish. In each language there are plural forms in-d.
Also in-n, asdyn=a person,dynion=persons. In Irish there is the formcu=a greyhound; Pluralcuin. It may be doubted, however, whether-nis not ejected in the singular rather than added in the plural.
Also in-au, Welsh (aspén-au=heads), and in-a, Irish (ascos-a=feet).
In each language there is, in respect to both case andgender, an equal paucity of inflections. The Irish, however, preserves the Indo-European dative plural inb; asços-aiv=ped-ibus.
The ordinals in Welsh are expressed by-ved; assaiþ=seven,seiþved=seventh. The ordinals in Irish are expressed by-vad, asseaçt=seven,seaçt-vad=seventh(speltseachmhadh).
The terminations-nand-gare diminutive in Welsh; asdyn-yn=mannikin,oen-ig=lambkin. They have the same power in Irish; ascnoc-an=a hillock;duil-eog=a leaflet. In Irish, currently spoken, there is no inflection for the comparative degrees;—there is, however, an obsolete form in-d, asglass,glaiside=green,greener. In Welsh the true comparative ends inç, asmain=slender,mainaç=more slender. A form, however, exists in-ed, meaning equality, and so implying comparison,viz.,mein-ed=so slender.
As expressive of an agent, the termination-ris common to both languages. Welsh,mor-ûr=a seaman;telynaur=a harpist; Irish,sealg-aire=a hunter;figead-oir=a weaver.
As expressive of "abounding in," the termination-c(or-g) is common in both languages. Welsh,boliûag=abounding in belly;toirteaç=abounding in fruit. In each language a sound of seriest, is equivalent to the English-ly. Welsh,mab-aið=boy-like. Irish,duin-eata=manly.
Of the personal terminations it may be said, that those of both the Irish and Welsh are those of the other European tongues, and that they coincide and differ in the same way with those of the Gothic stock: the form inmbeing the one more constant. For the theory of the personal terminations, the reader is referred to the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, by Dr. Prichard.
The present notices being indicative of grammatical affinities only, the glossarial points of likeness between the Welsh and Irish are omitted.
§ 137. The Celtic tongues have lately received especial illustration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst other, the two following points are particularly investigated by him:—
1. The affinities of the ancient language of Gaul.
2. The affinities of the Pictish language or dialect.
§ 138.The ancient language of Gaul Cambrian.—The evidence in favour of the ancient language of Gaul being Cambrian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following facts:—
The old Gallic glosses are more Welsh than Gaelic.
a.Petorritum=a four-wheeled carriage, from the Welsh,peaer=four, andrhod=a wheel. The Gaelic forfourisceathair, and the Gaelic compound would have been different.
b.Pempedula, thecinque-foil, from the Welshpump=five, anddalen=a leaf. The Gaelic forfiveiscuig, and the Gaelic compound would have been different.
c.Candetum=a measure of 100 feet, from the Welshcant=100. The Gaelic fora hundrediscead, and the Gaelic compound would have been different.
d.Epona=the goddess of horses. In the Old Armorican the rootep=horse. The Gaelic for a horse iseach.
e.The evidence from the names of geographical localities in Gaul, both ancient and modern, goes the same way:Nantuates,Nantouin,Nanteuil, are derived from the Welshnant=a valley, a word unknown in Gaelic.
f.The evidence of certain French provincial words, which are Welsh and Armorican rather than Erse or Gaelic.
g.An inscription on an ancient Celtic tablet found at Paris,A.D.1711, and representing a bull and three birds (cranes), is TARWOS TRI GARANOS. Now, for the first two names, the Gaelic affords as good an explanation as the Welsh; the third, however, is best explained by the Welsh.
§ 139.The Pictish most probably Cambrian.—The evidence in favour of the Pictish being Cambrian rather than Gaelic lies in the following facts:—
a.When St. Columba preached, whose mother-tongue was Irish Gaelic, he used an interpreter—Adamnanus apudColgarum, 1, 11, c.32. This is a point of external evidence, and shows thedifferencebetween the Pict and Gaelic. What follows are points of internal evidence, and show the affinity between the Pict and Welsh.
b.A manuscript in the Colbertine library contains a list of Pictish kings from the fifth century downwards. These names are not only more Celtic than Gothic, but more Welsh than Gaelic.Taran=thunderin Welsh.Uvenis the WelshOwen. The first syllable inTalorg(=forehead) is thetalinTalhaiarn=iron forehead,Taliessin=splendid forehead, Welsh names.Wrgustis nearer to the WelshGwrgustthan to the IrishFergus. Finally,Drust,Drostan,Wrad,Necton, closely resemble the WelshTrwst,Trwstan,Gwriad,Nwython.CineodandDomhnall(KennethandDonnell), are the only true Erse forms in the list.
c.The only Pictish common name extant is the well-known compoundpen val, which is in the oldest MS. of Bedepeann fahel. This meanscaput valli, and is the name for the eastern termination of the Vallum of Antoninus. Hereinpenis unequivocally Welsh, meaninghead. It is an impossible form in Gaelic.Fal, on the other hand, is apparently Gaelic, the Welsh for arampartbeinggwall.Fal, however, occurs in Welsh also, and meansinclosure.
The evidence just indicated is rendered nearly conclusive by an interpolation, apparently of the twelfth century, of the Durham MS. of Nennius, whereby it is stated that the spot in question was called in GaelicCenail. Now Cenail is the modern nameKinneil, and it is also a Gaelic translation of the Pictpen val, sinceceanis the Gaelic forhead, andfhailforrampartorwall. If the older form were Gaelic, the substitution, or translation, would have been superfluous.
d.The name of theOchil Hillsin Perthshire is better explained from the Pictuchel=high, than from the Gaelicuasal.
e.Bryneich, the British form of the province Bernicia, is better explained by the Welshbryn=ridge(hilly country), than by any word in Gaelic.—Garnett, inTransactions of Philological Society.
THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK.
§ 140. The languages of Greece and Rome belong to one and the same stock.
The Greek and its dialects, both ancient and modern, constitute the Greek or Hellenic branch of the Classical stock.
The Latin in all its dialects, the old Italian languages allied to it, and the modern tongues derived from the Roman, constitute the Latin or Ausonian branch of the Classical stock.
Now, although the Greek or Hellenic dialects are of secondary importance in the illustration of the history of the English language, the Latin or Ausonian elements require a special consideration.
The French element appeared in our language as a result of the battle of Hastings (A.D.1066),perhaps, in a slight degree, at a somewhat earlier period.
§ 141. Previous to the notice of the immediate relations of the Norman-French, or, as it was called after its introduction into England, Anglo-Norman, its position in respect to the other languages derived from the Latin may be exhibited.
The Latin language overspread the greater part of the Roman empire. It supplanted a multiplicity of aboriginal languages; just as the English of North Americahassupplanted the aboriginal tongues of the native Indians, and just as the Russianissupplanting those of Siberia and Kamskatcha.
Sometimes the war that the Romans carried on against the old inhabitants was a war of extermination. In this case the original language was supersededat once. In other cases their influence was introduced gradually. In this case the influence of the original language was greater and more permanent.
Just as in the United States the English came in contact with an American, whilst in New Holland it comes in contact with an Australian language, so was the Latin language of Rome engrafted, sometimes on a Celtic, sometimes on a Gothic, and sometimes on some other stock. The nature of the original language must always be borne in mind.
From Italy, its original seat, the Latin was extended in the following chronological order:—
1. To the Spanish Peninsula; where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages allied to the present Biscayan (i.e., languages of the Iberic stock), mixed in a degree (scarcely determinable) with Celtic elements=Celtiberic.
2. To Gaul, or France, where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages of the Celtic stock. This took place, at least for the more extreme parts of Gaul, in the time of Julius Cæsar; for the more contiguous parts, in the earlier ages of the Republic.
3. To Dacia and Pannonia; where it overlaid or was engrafted on a language the stock whereof is undetermined. The introduction of the Latin into Dacia and Pannonia took place in the time of Trajan.
From (1stly,) the original Latin of Italy, and from the imported Latin, of (2ndly,) the Spanish Peninsula, (3rdly,) Gaul, (4thly,) Dacia and Pannonia, we have (amongst others) the following modern languages—1st Italian, 2nd Spanish and Portuguese, 3rd French, 4th Wallachian. How far these languages differ from each other is currently known.Oneessential cause of this difference is the difference of the original language upon which the Latin was engrafted.
§ 142. I am not doing too much for the sake of system if I classify the languages, of which the Italian, French, &c., are the representatives, as the languages of Germany were classified,viz., into divisions.
I. The Spanish and Portuguese are sufficiently like the Italian to be arranged in a single division. This may conveniently be called the Hesperian division.
II. The second division is the Transalpine. This comprises the languages of Gaul,viz., the Modern French, theAnglo-Norman, and the Provençal. It also includes a language not yet mentioned, the Romanese (Rumonsch), or the language of the Grisons, or Graubünten, of Switzerland.
Specimen of the Romanese.
LukeXV. 11.11. Ün Hum veva dus Filgs:12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la Rauba c' aud' à mi:" ad el parchè or ad els la Rauba.13. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut mess ansemel, scha tilà 'l navent en ünna Terra dalunsch: a lou sfiget el tut sia Rauba cun viver senza spargn.14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra ün grond Fumaz: ad el antschavet a ver basengs.15. Ad el mà, à: sa plidè enn ün Burgeis da quella Terra; a quel ilg tarmatet or sin sês Beins a parchirar ils Porcs.16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils Porcs malgiavan; mo nagin lgi deva.17. Mo el mà en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom!"18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a lgi: 'Bab, jou hai faig puccau ancunter ilg Tschiel ad avont tei;19. "'A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg: fai mei esser sco ün da tes Fumelgs.'"
LukeXV. 11.
11. Ün Hum veva dus Filgs:
12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la Rauba c' aud' à mi:" ad el parchè or ad els la Rauba.
13. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut mess ansemel, scha tilà 'l navent en ünna Terra dalunsch: a lou sfiget el tut sia Rauba cun viver senza spargn.
14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra ün grond Fumaz: ad el antschavet a ver basengs.
15. Ad el mà, à: sa plidè enn ün Burgeis da quella Terra; a quel ilg tarmatet or sin sês Beins a parchirar ils Porcs.
16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils Porcs malgiavan; mo nagin lgi deva.
17. Mo el mà en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom!"
18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a lgi: 'Bab, jou hai faig puccau ancunter ilg Tschiel ad avont tei;
19. "'A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg: fai mei esser sco ün da tes Fumelgs.'"
III. The third division is the Dacian, Pannonian, or Wallachian, containing the present languages of Wallachia and Moldavia.
In theJahrbücher der Literatur, June, 1829, specimens are given of two of its dialects: 1, the Daco-Wallachian, north of the Danube; 2, the Macedono-Wallachian, south of the Danube. The present specimen varies from both. It is taken from the New Testament, printed at Smyrna, 1838. The Dacian division is marked by placing the article after the noun, ashomul=the man=homo ille.
Lukexv. 11.11. Un om avea doĭ fec´orĭ.12. Shi a zis c´el maĭ tinr din eĭ tatluĭ su: tat, dmĭ partea c´e mi se kade de avucie: shi de a imprcit lor avuciea.13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fec orul c´el maĭ tinr, s'a dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr dezmĭerdrĭ.14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a fkut foamete mare intr' ac´ea car: shi el a inc´eput a se lipsi.15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de unul din lkuitoriĭ criĭ ac´eia: si 'l a trimis pre el la carinide sale c pask porc´iĭ.16. Shi doria c 'shĭ sature pinctec´ele sŭ de roshkobele c´e minka porc´iĭ; shi niminĭ nu ĭ da luĭ.17. Iar viind intru sine, a zis: kicĭ argacĭ aĭ tatluĭ mieŭ sint indestulacĭ de piĭne, iar eŭ pĭeiŭ de foame.18. Skula-m-vioŭ, shi m' voiŭ duc´e la tata micŭ, shi vioŭ zic´e lui:19. Tat, greshit-am la c´er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a m kema fiul tŭ; fm ka pre unul din argaciĭ tĭ.
Lukexv. 11.
11. Un om avea doĭ fec´orĭ.
12. Shi a zis c´el maĭ tinr din eĭ tatluĭ su: tat, dmĭ partea c´e mi se kade de avucie: shi de a imprcit lor avuciea.
13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fec orul c´el maĭ tinr, s'a dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr dezmĭerdrĭ.
14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a fkut foamete mare intr' ac´ea car: shi el a inc´eput a se lipsi.
15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de unul din lkuitoriĭ criĭ ac´eia: si 'l a trimis pre el la carinide sale c pask porc´iĭ.
16. Shi doria c 'shĭ sature pinctec´ele sŭ de roshkobele c´e minka porc´iĭ; shi niminĭ nu ĭ da luĭ.
17. Iar viind intru sine, a zis: kicĭ argacĭ aĭ tatluĭ mieŭ sint indestulacĭ de piĭne, iar eŭ pĭeiŭ de foame.
18. Skula-m-vioŭ, shi m' voiŭ duc´e la tata micŭ, shi vioŭ zic´e lui:
19. Tat, greshit-am la c´er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a m kema fiul tŭ; fm ka pre unul din argaciĭ tĭ.
§ 143. Such is thegeneralview of the languages derived from the Latin,i.e., of the languages of the Latin branch of the Classical stock.
The French languages of the Transalpine division require to be more minutely exhibited.
Between the provincial French of the north and the provincial French of the south, there is a difference, at the present day, at least of dialect, and perhaps of language. This is shown by the following specimens: the first from the canton of Arras, on the confines of Flanders; the second, from the department of Var, in Provence. The date of each isA.D.1807.
I.
Lukexv. 11.11. Ain homme avoüait deeux garchéons.12. L'pus jone dit a sain père, "Main père, baillé m'chou qui doüo me 'r'v'nir ed vous bien," et leu père leu partit sain bien.13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, chéon jours après l'pus tiò d'cnés déeux éféans oyant r'cuéllé tout s'n' héritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains nâin pahis gramain loüon, dû qu'il échilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant l'braingand dains chés cabarets.14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mié et tout drélé, il o v'nu adonc dains ch' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruüelle, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye (i.e. faim de pain).
Lukexv. 11.
11. Ain homme avoüait deeux garchéons.
12. L'pus jone dit a sain père, "Main père, baillé m'chou qui doüo me 'r'v'nir ed vous bien," et leu père leu partit sain bien.
13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, chéon jours après l'pus tiò d'cnés déeux éféans oyant r'cuéllé tout s'n' héritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains nâin pahis gramain loüon, dû qu'il échilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant l'braingand dains chés cabarets.
14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mié et tout drélé, il o v'nu adonc dains ch' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruüelle, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye (i.e. faim de pain).
II.
THE SAME.11. Un homé avié dous enfans.12. Lou plus pichoun diguét a son päiré, "Moun päiré, dounas mi ce quèmi reven de vouastré ben;" lou päiré faguet lou partagé de tout ce que poussédavo.13. Paou de jours après, lou pichoun vendét tout se què soun päiré li avié desamparat, et s'en anét dins un päis fourço luench, ounté dissipét tout soun ben en debaucho.14. Quand aguét ton aecaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou päis et, leou, si veguét reduech à la derniero misèro.
THE SAME.
11. Un homé avié dous enfans.
12. Lou plus pichoun diguét a son päiré, "Moun päiré, dounas mi ce quèmi reven de vouastré ben;" lou päiré faguet lou partagé de tout ce que poussédavo.
13. Paou de jours après, lou pichoun vendét tout se què soun päiré li avié desamparat, et s'en anét dins un päis fourço luench, ounté dissipét tout soun ben en debaucho.
14. Quand aguét ton aecaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou päis et, leou, si veguét reduech à la derniero misèro.
Practically speaking, although in the central parts of France the northern and southern dialects melt each into the other, the Loire may be considered as a line of demarcation between two languages; the term language being employed because, in the Middle Ages, whatever may be their real difference, the northern tongue and the southern tongue were dealt with not as separate dialects, but as distinct languages—the southern being called Provençal, the northern Norman-French.
Of these two languages (for so they will in the following pages be called, for the sake of convenience) the southern or Provençal approaches the dialects of Spain; the Valencian of Spain and the Catalonian of Spain being Provençal rather than standard Spanish or Castilian.
The southern French is sometimes called the Langue d'Oc, and sometimes the Limousin.
It is in the Southern French (Provençal, Langue d'Oc, or Limousin) that we have the following specimen,viz., the Oath of Ludwig, swornA.D.842.
The Oath of the King.
Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet: et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.
Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet: et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.
The Oath of the People.
Si Loduuigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat; et Karlus, meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit; si io returnar non l'int pois, ne io, ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig num li iver.
Si Loduuigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat; et Karlus, meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit; si io returnar non l'int pois, ne io, ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig num li iver.
The same in Modern French.
Pour de Dieu l'amour et pour du Chrêtien peuple et le notre commun salut, de ce jour en avant, en quant que Dieu savoir et pouvoir me donneassurément sauverai moi ce mon frère Charles, et en aide, et en chacune chose, ainsi comme homme par droit son frère sauver doit, en cela que lui à moi pareillement fera: et avec Lothaire nul traité ne onques prendrai qui, à mon vouloir, à ce mien frère Charles en dommage soit.Si Louis le serment, qu'à son frère Charles il jure, conserve; Charles, mon seigneur, de sa part ne le maintient; si je détourner ne l'en puis, ni moi, ne nul que je détourner en puis, en nulle aide contre Louis ne lui irai.
Pour de Dieu l'amour et pour du Chrêtien peuple et le notre commun salut, de ce jour en avant, en quant que Dieu savoir et pouvoir me donneassurément sauverai moi ce mon frère Charles, et en aide, et en chacune chose, ainsi comme homme par droit son frère sauver doit, en cela que lui à moi pareillement fera: et avec Lothaire nul traité ne onques prendrai qui, à mon vouloir, à ce mien frère Charles en dommage soit.
Si Louis le serment, qu'à son frère Charles il jure, conserve; Charles, mon seigneur, de sa part ne le maintient; si je détourner ne l'en puis, ni moi, ne nul que je détourner en puis, en nulle aide contre Louis ne lui irai.
§ 144. The Norman-French, spoken from the Loire to the confines of Flanders, and called also the Langue d'Oyl, differed from the Provençal in (amongst others) the following circumstances.
1. It was of later origin; the southern parts of Gaul having been colonized at an early period by the Romans.
2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied languages of Spain, but with the Gothic tongues of Germany and Holland.
It is the Norman-French that most especially bears upon the history of the English language.
The proportion of the original Celtic in the present languages of France has still to be determined. It may, however, be safely asserted, that at a certain epoch between the first and fifth centuries, the language of Gaul was more Roman and less Celtic than that of Britain.
SPECIMEN.
From the Anglo-Norman Poem of Charlemagne.