The Scottes come that to this dayHavys, and Scotland haldyn ay.Wintoun, 11. 9. 73.
The Scottes come that to this dayHavys, and Scotland haldyn ay.
The Scottes come that to this day
Havys, and Scotland haldyn ay.
Wintoun, 11. 9. 73.
Wintoun, 11. 9. 73.
James I. of England ends nearly all his plurals in-s.
ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS.
§ 355. The inflection of the present tense, not only in Anglo-Saxon, but in several other languages as well, has been given in the preceding chapter. As compared with the present plural forms,we love,ye love,they love, both the Anglo-Saxonwe lufiað,ge lufiað,hi lufiað, and the Old Englishwe loven,ye loven,they loven, have a peculiar termination for the plural number which the present language wants. In other words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a pluralpersonalcharacteristic, whilst the Modern English has nothing to correspond with it.
The wordpersonalis printed in italics. It does not follow, that, because there is no pluralpersonalcharacteristic, there is also no plural characteristic.
There is no reason against the inflection of the wordloverunning thus—I love,thou lovest,he loves;we lave,ye lave,they lave; in other words, there is no reason against the vowel of the root being changed with the number. In such a case there would be nopersonalinflection, though there would be a plural, or anumeral, inflection.
Now, in Anglo-Saxon, with a great number of verbs such a plural inflection not only actually takes place, but takes place most regularly. It takes place, however, in the past tense only. And this is the case in all the Gothic languages as well as in Anglo-Saxon. Amongst the rest, in—
Mœso-Gothic.
Anglo-Saxon.
In all the Anglo-Saxon words, it may be remarked that the change is fromatou, and that both the vowels are short, or dependent. Also, that the vowel of the present tense isishort; asswim,sing, &c. The Anglo-Saxon form ofrunisyrnan.
In the following words the change is from the Anglo-Saxonáto the Anglo-Saxonī. In English, the regularity of the change is obscured by a change of pronunciation.
From these examples the reader has himself drawn his inference;viz.that words like
generally called double forms of the past tense, were originally different numbers of the same tense, the forms inu, asswum, and the forms ini,bit, being plural.
ON MOODS.
§ 356. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive has already been considered.
§ 357. Between the second plural imperative, and the second plural indicative,speak yeandye speak, there is no difference of form. Between the second singular imperativespeak, and the second singular indicative,speakest, there is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative formspeakis distinguished from the indicative formspeakestby the negation of a character rather than by the possession of one, it cannot be said that there is in English any imperative mood.
§ 358.If he speak, as opposed toif he speaks, is characterised by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a subjunctive.Be, as opposed toam, in the sentenceif it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive.
The only true subjunctive inflection in the English language is that ofwereandwert, as opposed to the indicative formswasandwast.
ON TENSES IN GENERAL.
§ 359. The nature of tenses in general is best exhibited by reference to the Greek; since in that language they are more numerous, and more strongly marked than elsewhere.
I strike, I struck.—Of these words, the first implies an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action that has already taken place.
These two notions of present and of past time, being expressed by a change of form, are true tenses. They are however, the only true tenses in our language. InI was beating,I have beaten,I had beaten, andI shall beat, a difference of time is expressed; but as it is expressed by a combination of words, and not by a change of form, no true tenses are constituted.
In Greek the case is different.Τύπτω(typtô)=I beat;ἔτυπτον(etypton)=I was beating;τύψω(typsô)=I shall beat;ἔτυψα(etypsa)=I beat;τέτυφα(tetyfa)=I have beaten;ἐτετύφειν(etetyfein)=I had beaten. In these words we have, of the same mood, the same voice, and the same conjugation, six different tenses;[47]whereas, in English, there are but two. The formsτέτυφαandἔτυψαare so strongly marked, that we recognise them wheresoever they occur. The first is formed by a reduplication of the initialτ, and, consequently, may be called the reduplicate form. As a tense it is called the perfect. In the formἔτυψαanεis prefixed, and anσis added. In the allied language of Italytheεdisappears, whilst theσ(s) remains.Ἔτυψαis said to be an aorist tense.Scripsi:scribo::ἔτυψα:τύπτω.
§ 360. Now in the Latin language a confusion takes place between these two tenses. Both forms exist. They are used, however, indiscriminately. The aorist form has, besides its own, the sense of the perfect. The perfect has, besides its own, the sense of the aorist. In the following pair of quotations,vixi, the aorist form, is translatedI have lived, whiletetigit, the perfect form, is translatedhe touched.
Vixi, et quem dederat cursum Fortuna peregi;Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibit imago.—Æn.iv.Ut primum alatistetigitmagalia plantis.—Æn.iv.
Vixi, et quem dederat cursum Fortuna peregi;Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibit imago.—Æn.iv.
Vixi, et quem dederat cursum Fortuna peregi;
Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibit imago.—Æn.iv.
Ut primum alatistetigitmagalia plantis.—Æn.iv.
Ut primum alatistetigitmagalia plantis.—Æn.iv.
When a difference of form has ceased to express a difference of meaning, it has become superfluous. This is the case with the two forms in question. One of them may be dispensed with; and the consequence is, that, although in the Latin language both the perfect and the aorist forms are found, they are, with few exceptions, never found in the same word. Wherever there is the perfect, the aorist is wanting, andvice versâ. The two ideasI have struckandI struckare merged into the notion of past time in general, and are expressed by one of two forms, sometimes by that of the Greek perfect, and sometimes by that of the Greek aorist. On account of this the grammarians have cut down the number of Latin tenses tofive; forms likecucurriandvixibeing dealt with as one and the same tense. The true view is, that incurrothe aorist form is replaced by the perfect, and invixithe perfect form is replaced by the aorist.
§ 361. In the present English there is no undoubted perfect or reduplicate form. The formmovedcorresponds in meaning not withτέτυφαandmomordi, but withἔτυψαandvixi. Its sense is that ofἔτυψα, and not that ofτέτυφα. The notion given byτέτυφαwe express by the circumlocutionI have beaten. We have no such form asbebeatormemove. In the Mœso-Gothic, however, there was a true reduplicate form; in other words, a perfect tense as well as an aorist. Itis by the possession of this form that the verbs of the first six conjugations are characterized.
In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, the perfect forms have, besides their own, an aorist sense, andvice versâ.
In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, few (if any) words are found in both forms.
In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, the two forms are dealt with as a single tense;láilôbeing called the præterite ofláia, andsvôrthe præterite ofsvara. The true view, however, is that in Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, there are two past tenses, each having a certain latitude of meaning, and each, in certain words, replacing the other.
The reduplicate form, in other words, the perfect tense, is current in none of the Gothic languages except the Mœso-Gothic. A trace of it is found in the Anglo-Saxon of the seventh century in the wordheht, which is considered to behê-ht, the Mœso-Gothicháiháit,vocavi. This statement is taken from the Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. 378.Didfromdois also considered to be a reduplicate form.
§ 362. In the English language the tense corresponding with the Greek aorist and the Latin forms likevixi, is formed after two modes; 1, as infell,sang, andtook, fromfall,sing, andtake, by changing the vowel of the present: 2, as inmovedandwept, frommoveandweep, by the addition ofdort; thedortnot being found in the original word, but being a fresh element added to it. In forms, on the contrary, likesangandfell, no addition being made, no new element appears. Thevowel, indeed, is changed, but nothing is added. Verbs, then, of the first sort, may be said to form their præterites out of themselves; whilst verbs of the second sort require something from without. To speak in a metaphor, words likesangandfellare comparatively independent. Be this as it may, the German grammarians call the tenses formed by a change of vowel the strong tenses, the strong verbs, the strong conjugation, or the strong order; and those formed by the addition ofdort, the weak tenses, the weak verbs, the weak conjugation, or the weak order.Bound,spoke,gave,lay, &c., are strong;moved,favoured,instructed, &c., are weak. For the proof that the division of verbs into weak and strong is a natural division, see the Chapter on Conjugation.
THE STRONG TENSES.
§ 363. The strong præterites are formed from the present by changing the vowel, assing,sang,speak,spoke.
The first point in the history of these tenses that the reader is required to be aware of, is stated in the Chapter upon the Numbers, viz., that, in Anglo-Saxon, several præterites change, in their plural, the vowel of their singular; as
As a general rule, the second singular has the same vowel with the plural persons, asburne,thou burntest, pluralburnon,we burnt.
The bearing of this fact upon the præterites has been indicated in p.300. In a great number of words we have a double form, asranandrun,sangandsung,drankanddrunk, &c. One of these forms is derived from the singular, and the other from the plural. I cannot say at what period the difference of form ceased to denote a difference of sense.
In cases where but one form is preserved, that form is not necessarily the singular one. For instance, Ic fand,I found, we fundon,we found, are the Anglo-Saxon forms. Now the present wordfoundcomes, not from the singularfand, but from the pluralfund; although in the Lowland Scotch dialect and in the old writers, the singular form occurs.
Donald Caird finds orra things,Where Allan Gregorfandthe tings.—Scott.
Donald Caird finds orra things,Where Allan Gregorfandthe tings.—Scott.
Donald Caird finds orra things,
Where Allan Gregorfandthe tings.—Scott.
Even in the present English it will be found convenient tocall the forms likesanganddrankthe singular, and those likesungandboundthe plural forms.
Be it observed, that, though this fact accounts for most of our double forms, it will not account for all. In the Anglo-Saxon, Ic sprǽc,I spake, we sprǽcon,we spake. There is no change of number to account for the two formsspakeandspoke.
First Class.
§ 364. Contains the two wordsfallandfell,holdandheld, where the sound ofois changed into that ofĕ. Here must be noticed the natural tendency ofato becomeo; since the forms in Anglo-Saxon are,Ic fealle, I fall;Ic feoll, I fell;Ic healde, I hold;Ic heold, I held.
Second Class.
§ 365. Here the præterite ends in-ew. Words of this class are distinguished from those of the third Class by the different form of the present tense.
In these words thewhas grown out of ag, as may be seen from the Anglo-Saxon forms. The wordsee(saw) belongs to this class: since, in Anglo-Saxon, we find the formsgeseáhandgesegen, and in the Swedish the præterite form issaag.
Third Class.
§ 366. Here anobeforew, in the present, becomesebeforewin the præterite; as
Fourth Class.
§ 367. Contains the single wordlet, where a shortein thepresent remains unchanged in the præterite. In the Anglo-Saxon the present form wasIc læte, the præteriteIc lét.
Fifth Class.
§ 368. Contains the single wordbeat, where a longeremains unchanged. In Anglo-Saxon the forms wereIc beate,Ic beot.
Sixth Class.
§ 369. Presentcome, præteritecame, participlecome. In Anglo-Saxon,cume,com,cumen.
Seventh Class.
§ 370. In this class we have the sounds of theee, infeet, and of theainfate(spelteaora), changed intoooroo. As several words in this class have a second form ina, the præterite inooroowill be called the primary, the præterite inathe secondary form.
The præterite ofstandwas originally long. This we collectfrom the spelling, and from the Anglo-Saxon formstód. The process that ejects thendis the same process that, in Greek, convertsὀδόντ-οςintoὀδούς.
All the words with secondary forms will appear again in the eighth class.
Eighth Class.
§ 371. In this class the sound of theeeinfeet, and theainfate(speltea), is changed intoa. Several words of this class have secondary forms. Further details may be seen in the remarks that come after the following list of verbs.
Here observe,—1. That inspeak,cleave,steal, theeahas the same power with theeeinfreezeandseethe; so that it may be dealt with as the long (or independent) sound of theiinbid,sit,give.
2. That the same view may be taken of theeainbreak, although the word by some persons is pronouncedbrake.Gabrika,gabrak, Mœso-Gothic;briku,brak, Old Saxon;brece,brac, Anglo-Saxon. Also ofbear,tear,swear,wear. In the provincial dialects these words are even now pronouncedbeer,teer,sweer. The forms in the allied languages are, inrespect to these last-mentioned words, less confirmatory; Mœso-Gothic,svara,báira; Old High German,sverju,piru.
3. That theeaintreadwas originally long; Anglo-Saxon,tredan,trede,trǽd,treden.
4.Lie.—Here the sound is diphthongal, having grown out of the Anglo-Saxon formslicgan,lǽg,legen.
5.Sat.—The original præterite was long. This we collect from the spellingsate, and from the Anglo-Saxonsǽt.
Ninth Class.
§ 372.A, as infate, is changed either into theoinnote, or theooinbook. Here it should be noticed that, unlikebreakandswear, &c., there is no tendency to sound theaof the present asee, neither is there, as was the case withcloveandspoke, any tendency to secondary forms ina. A partial reason for this lies in the original nature of the vowel. The original vowel inspeakwase. If this was theé ferméof the French, it was a sound from which theainfateand theeeinfeetmight equally have been evolved. The vowel sound of the verbs of the present class was that ofafor the present and that ofófor the præterite forms; aswace,wóc,grafe,gróf. Now of these two sounds it may be said that theahas no tendency to become theeeinfeet, and that theóhas no tendency to become theainfate.
The sounds that are evolved from the accentuatedó, are theoinnoteand theooinbook.
Tenth Class.
§ 373. Containing the single wordstrike,struck,stricken. It is only in the Middle High German, the Middle Dutch, the New High German, the Modern Dutch, and the English, thatthis word is found in its præterite forms. These are, in Middle High German,streich; New High German,strich; Middle Dutch,strêc; Modern Dutch,strîk. Originally it must have been referable to the ninth class.
Eleventh Class.
§ 374. In this class we first find the secondary forms accounted for by the difference of form between the singular and plural numbers. The change is from theiinbiteto theoinnote, and theiinpit. Sometimes it is from theiinbitto theainbat. The Anglo-Saxon conjugation (A) may be compared with the present English (B).
A.
B.
On this list we may make the following observations and statements.
1. That, with the exception of the wordslit, theiis sounded as a diphthong.
2. That, with the exception ofbatandslat, it is changed intooin the singular and intoĭin the plural forms.
3. That, with the exception ofshone, theois always long (or independent).
4. That, even with the wordshone, theowas originally long. This is known from the final-emute, and from the Anglo-Saxon formscéan; Mœso-Gothic,skáin; Old Norse,skein.
5. That theo, in English, represents anáin Anglo-Saxon.
6. That the statement last made shows that evenbatandslatwere once in the same condition witharoseandsmote, the Anglo-Saxon forms beingarás,smát,bát,slát.
Twelfth Class.
§ 375. In this classiis generally short; originally it was always so. In the singular form it becomesă, in the plural,ŭ.
Upon this list we make the following observations and statements:—
1. That, with the exceptions ofbind,find,grind, andwind, the vowels are short (or dependent) throughout.
2. That, with the exception ofrunandburst, the vowel of the present tense is either theiore.
3. Thatishort changes intoafor the singular, and intoufor the plural forms.
4. Thatechanges intooin the singular forms; these being the only ones preserved.
5. That theiinbind, &c., changes intoouin the plural forms; the only ones current.
6. That the vowel beforemornis, with the single exception ofrun, alwaysi.
7. That the vowel beforelandris, with the single exception ofburst, alwayse.
8. That, where theiis sounded as inbind, the combination following is-nd.
9. Thatngbeing considered as a modification ofk(the Norse and Mœso-Gothic forms beingdreckaanddrikjan), it may be stated thatishort, in the twelfth class, precedes either a liquid or a mute of seriesk.
From these observations, even on the English forms only, we find thus much regularity; and from these observations, even on the English forms only, we may lay down a rule like the following:viz.thatioru, short, before the consonantsm,n,orck, is changed intoafor the singular, and intoufor the plural forms; thatilong, or diphthongal, becomesou; thatebeforelbecomeso; and thatubeforerremains unchanged.
This statement, however, is nothing like so general as the one that, after a comparison of the older forms and the allied languages, we are enabled to make. Here we are taught,
1. That, in the wordsbind, &c., theiwas once pronounced as intill,fill; in other words, that it was the simple short vowel, and not the diphthongey; or at least that it was treated as such.
When the vowelĭof the present took the sound of theiinbite, theŭin the præterite became theouinmouse. From this we see that the wordsbind, &c., are naturally subject to the same changes withspin, &c., and that,mutatis mutandis, they are so still.
2. That theeinswell, &c., was onceĭ. This we collect from the following forms:—hilpa, Mœso-Gothic;hilfu, Old High German;hilpu, Old Saxon;hilpe, Middle High German;hilpe, Old Frisian.Suillu=swell, Old High German.Tilfu=delve, Old High German;dilbu, Old Saxon.Smilzu, Old High German=smeltormelt. This shows that originally the voweliran throughout, but that beforelandrit was changed intoe. This change took place at different periods in different dialects. The Old Saxon preserved theilonger than the Anglo-Saxon. It is found even in themiddleHigh German; in thenewit has becomee; asschwelle,schmelze. In one wordmilk, the originaliis still preserved; although in Anglo-Saxon it wase; asmelce,mealc=milked,mulcon. In the Norse the change fromitoetook place full soon, assvëll=swells. The Norse language is in this respect important.
3. That theoinswoll,holp, was originallya; as
4. That a change betweenaandotook place by times. The Anglo-Saxon præterite ofswelleissweoll; whilstongon,bond,song,gelomp, are found in the same language forongan,band,sang,gelamp.—Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, p. 90.
5. Thatrunis only an apparent exception, the older form beingrinn.