FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[22]"Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.[23]"Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi. part 2. See also pp.112,113of the present volume.[24]Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."[25]Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.[26]"Asiatic Researches," vol. v.[27]Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.[28]Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.[29]Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.[30]Eliot,ut supra.[31]For Jan. 1849.[32]"Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science," 1844.[33]"Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi.[34]From the Greekpolys=many, andanær=man.[35]Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.[36]Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. xiii.[37]See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. viii.[38]Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society," May to August 1850.[39]The Soars of Orissa.[40]Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."

[22]"Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.

[23]"Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi. part 2. See also pp.112,113of the present volume.

[24]Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."

[25]Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.

[26]"Asiatic Researches," vol. v.

[27]Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.

[28]Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.

[29]Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.

[30]Eliot,ut supra.

[31]For Jan. 1849.

[32]"Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science," 1844.

[33]"Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi.

[34]From the Greekpolys=many, andanær=man.

[35]Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.

[36]Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. xiii.

[37]See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. viii.

[38]Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society," May to August 1850.

[39]The Soars of Orissa.

[40]Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."

[150]

THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.—ITS RELATIONS TO CERTAIN MODERN LANGUAGES OF INDIA; TO THE SLAVONIC AND LITHUANIC OF EUROPE.—INFERENCES.—BRAHMINISM OF THE PURANAS—OF THE INSTITUTES OF MENU.—EXTRACT.—OF THE VEDAS.—EXTRACT.—INFERENCES.—THE HINDÚS.—SIKHS.—BILUCHI.—AFGHANS.—WANDERING TRIBES.—MISCELLANEOUS POPULATIONS.—CEYLON.—BUDDHISM.—DEVIL-WORSHIP.—VADDAHS.

The language calledSanskrithas a peculiar alphabet. It has long been written, and embodies an important literature. It has been well studied; and its ethnological affinities are understood. They are at least as remarkable as any other of its characters.

Like most other tongues, it falls into dialects; just like the ancient Greek. Like the Doric, Æolic, and Ionic, these dialects were spoken over distant countries, and cultivated at different periods. Like them, too, each is characterized by its peculiar literature.

The Sanskrit itself, in its oldest form, is theVedaicdialect of the religious hymns calledVedas—of great, but of exaggerated, antiquity.

Another form of equal antiquity is the language[151]of the Persepolitan and other arrow-headed inscriptions. These are of a known antiquity, and range from the time of Cambyses to that of Artaxerxes.

Byoldis meantold in structure,i.e., betraying by its archaic forms, an early stage of development. It is by no meansoldin chronology. In the way of chronology, the English of Shakespeare is older than the German of Goethe; yet the German of Goethe is the older tongue, because it retains more old inflections.

The third form is calledPali. In this is written the oldest Indian inscription; one containing the name of Antiochus, one of Alexander's successors. It is also the dialect of the chief Buddhist works.

A fourth form is theBactrian. This occurs in the coins of Macedonian and other Indianized kings of Bactria, and is best studied in the "Ariana Antiqua," of Wilson.

A fifth is theZendof the Zendavesta, the Scriptures of the followers of Zoroaster.

Others are calledPracrit. Some of the Sanskrit works are dramatic. In the modern comedies of Italy we find certain characters speaking the provincial dialects of Naples, Bologna, and other districts. The same took place here. In the Sanskrit plays we find deflexions from the standard language, put into the mouths of some of[152]the subordinate characters. It is believed that these Pracrits represented certain local dialects, as opposed to the purer and more classical Sanskrit.

Every spoken dialect of Hindostan has a per-centage of Sanskrit words in it; just as every dialect of England has an amount of Anglo-Norman. What does this prove? That depends upon the per-centage; and this differs in different languages. In a general way it may be stated that, amongst the tongues already enumerated, it is smallest in the isolated Tamulian tongues; larger in the Tamul of the Dekhan; and largest in the tongues about to be enumerated; these being the chief languages of modern Hindostan.

1. TheMarathiof the Mahrattas. Here the Sanskrit words amount to four-fifths in the Marathi dictionaries.

2. TheUdiya, of Cuttack and Orissa, with a per-centage of Sanskrit greater than that of the Marathi, but less than that of—

3. TheBengali. Here it is at itsmaximum, and amounts to nine-tenths.

4. TheHindú, of Oude, and the parts between Bengal and the Punjâb, falling into the subordinate dialects of the Rajpút country.

5. TheGujerathiof Gujerat.

6. TheScindianof Scinde.

7. TheMultaniof Múltan; probably a dialect of either the Gujerathi or[153]—

8. ThePunjabiof the Punjâb.

By going into minor differences this list might be enlarged.

None of the previous languages were mentioned in the last chapter; in fact, they were those different Hindú tongues which were contrasted with the Tamulian, and which, in the northern part of the Peninsula had effected those displacements which separated, or were supposed to separate, the Rajmahali, Kól, and Khond dialects from each other. They formed theseaof speech, in which those tongues wereislands.

Now what is the inference from these per-centages? from such a one as the Bengali, of ninety out of one hundred? What do they prove as to the character of the language in which they occur? Do they make the Sanskrit the basis of the tongue, just as the Anglo-Saxon is of the English, or do they merely show it as a superadded foreign element, like the Norman—like that in kind, but far greater in degree? The answer to this will give us the philological position of the North-Indian tongues. It will make the Bengali either Tamul, with an unprecedented amount of foreign vocables, or Sanskrit, with a few words of the older native tongue retained.

If the question were settled by a reference to authorities, the answer would be that the Bengali was essentially Sanskrit.[154]

It would be the same if we took only theprimâ facieview of the matter.

Yet the answer is traversed by two facts.

1. In making the per-centage of Sanskrit words it has been assumed that, whenever the modern and ancient tongues have any words in common, the former has always taken them from the latter,—an undue assumption, since the Sanskrit may easily have adopted native words.

2. The grammatical inflections are so far from being as Sanskritic as the vocables, that they are either non-existent altogether, unequivocally Tamul, or elsecontrovertedSanskrit.

Here I pause,—giving, at present, no opinion upon the merits of the two views. The reader has seen the complications of the case; and is prepared for hearing that, though most of the highest authorities consider the languages of northern India to be related to the Sanskrit, just as the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, and the Italian to the Latin; others deny such a connexion, affirming that as the real relations of the Sanskrit are those of the Norman-French to our own tongue, and of the Arabic to the Spanish, there is no such thing throughout the whole length and breadth of Hindostan as a dialect descended from the Sanskrit, or a spot whereon that famous tongue can be shown to have existed as a spoken and indigenous language.[155]

But, perhaps, we may find in Persia what we lack in India; and as the modern Persian is descended from the Zend, and as the Zend is a sister to the Sanskrit, Persia may, perhaps, supply such a locality. The same doubts apply here.

Such are the doubts that apply to an important question in Asiatic ethnology. I am not, at present, going beyond the simple fact of their existence. Rightly or wrongly, there is an opinion that the Sanskrit never was indigenous to any part of India, not even the most north-western; and there is an extension of this opinion which—rightly or wrongly—similarly excludes it from Persia. So much doubt should be relieved by the exhibition of some universally admitted fact as a set-off.

Such a contrast shall be supplied, in the shape of a comment on the following tables.[41]It is one of Dr. Trithem's.

ENGLISH.LITHUANIC.RUSSIAN.SANSKRIT.Fathertewasotetspitr.Mothermotinamat'mātr.Sonsunaisuinsūnu.Brotherbrolisbratbhratr.Sistersessusestrasvasr.Daughter-in-law—snokhasnushā.[42]Father-in-law—svekor[43]śvasúra.Mother-in-law—svekrov'[44]śvas ru.[156]Brother-in-law—dever'[45]devr.Onewienasodineka.Twodudvadvā.Threetrystritri.Fourketurichetuirechatvārah.Fivepenkipiat'pancha.Sixszessishest'shash.Sevenseptynisedm'saptan.Eightasstuoniosm'ashtan.Ninedewynideviat'navan.Tendessimtisdesiat'dasá.

The following similarities go the same way,viz., towards the proof of a remarkable affinity with certain languages ofEurope, there being none equally strong with any existing and undoubted Asiatic ones.

ENGLISH.LITHUANIC.SANSKRIT.ZEND.Iassahamazem.Thoututwamtūm.Yeyusyūyamyūs.The[46]tasta-dtad.—szisahho.

LITHUANIC.Laups-inni =I praise.

Present.

1. Laups-innu-innawa-inname.2. —-inni-innata-innata.3. —-inna-inna-inna.

[157]

SANSKRIT.Jaj-ami =I conquer.

Present.

1. Jaj-āmi-āvah-āmah.2. —-ăsi-ăthah-ătha.3. —-ăti-ătah-anti.

LITHUANIC.Esmi =I am.

1. Esmieswaesme.2. Essiestaesti.3. Estiestiesti.

SANSKRIT.Asmi =I am.

1. Asmiswahsmah.2. Asisthahstha.3. Astistahsanti.

The inference from the vast series of philological facts, of which the following is a specimen, has, generally—perhapsuniversally—been as follows,viz., that the Lithuanic, Slavonic, and the allied languages of Germany, Italy, and Greece—numerous, widely-spread, and unequivocally European—areAsiaticin origin; the Sanskrit being first referred to Asia, and then assumed to represent the languages of that Asiatic locality. I merely express my dissent from this inference; adding my belief that the relations of the Sanskrit to the Hindú tongues are those of the Anglo-Norman to the English, and that its relation to[158]those of the south-eastern Slavonic area, is that of the Greek of Bactria, to the Greek of Macedon—greater, much greater in degree, but the same in kind.[47]

The Brahminic creed of Hindostan is the next great characteristic. Brahminism may be viewed in two ways. We may either take it in its later forms, and trace its history backwards, or begin with it in its simplest and most unmodified stage, and notice the changes that have affected it as they occur. At the present its principles are to be found in the holy book calledPuranas; the Brahminism of thePuranasstanding in the same relation to certain earlier forms, as the Rabbinism of the Talmud, or the Romanism of the fathers does to primitive Judaism and Christianity. The pre-eminence of a sacred caste—the sanctitude of the cow—an impossible cosmogony—the worship of Siva and Vishnu—and an indefinite sort of recognition of beings like Rama, Krishna, Kali, and others, are the leading features here; the recognition of the Ramas and Krishnas being of an indefinite and equivocal character, because the extent to which the elements of their divine nature are referable to the idea ofdead men deified, or the very opposite notion ofGods[159]become incarnate, are inextricably mixed together. The Puranas are referable to different dates between the twelfth and sixth centuriesA.D.

The germs of the Brahminism of the Puranas are the two great epics, theRamayana, or the conquest of Hindostan by Rama, and theMahabharata, or great war between the Sun and Moon dynasties. If we call theworship of dead men deified, Euhemerism, it is the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, to which the Euhemerist elements of the present Brahminism are to be attributed. They increased thepersonalityof the previous religion. This is the natural effect of narrative poetry, and one of which we may measure the magnitude by looking at the influence and tendencies of the great Homeric poems of Greece. It is these which give us Kali, Rama, Krishna, Siva, and Vishnu, and which helped to determine the preponderance of the two last over Brahma—Brahma being the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Siva, the Destroyer. The highest antiquity which has been given to theepicsis the second centuryB.C.; and this is full high enough.

The Brahminism of the "Institutes of Menu," the oldest Indian code of laws, is simpler than that of the epics. Its Euhemerism is less. Nevertheless, it contains the great text on the caste-system, thefulcrumof priestly pre-eminence.[160]

INSTITUTES OF MENU.

Sir Graves Haughton's Translation.

1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being, supremely glorious, allotted separate duties to those who sprang respectively from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot.2. ToBráhminshe assigned the duties of reading theVeda, of teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of giving alms,if they be rich, and, ifindigent, of receiving gifts.3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read theVeda, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, in a few words, the duties of aCshatriya.4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to cultivate land, areprescribed or permittedto aVaisya.5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to aSúdra; namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without depreciating their worth.6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating Power declared the purest part of him to be his mouth.7. Since the Bráhmin sprang from the most excellent part, since he was the first born, and since he possesses theVeda, he is by right the chief of this whole creation.8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the beginning, from his own mouth, that having performed holy rites, he might present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes of rice to the progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of this world.9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose[161]mouth the gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified butter, and the manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal class.11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned, those who know their duty; of those who know it, such as perform it virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.12. The very birth ofBráhminsis a constant incarnation ofDherma,God of Justice; for theBráhminis born to promote justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.13. When aBráhminsprings to light, he is borne above the world, the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of duties, religious and civil.14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect,though not in form, the wealth of theBráhmin; since theBráhminis entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth.15. TheBráhmineats but his own food; wears but his own apparel; and bestows but his own in alms: through the benevolence of theBráhmin, indeed, other mortals enjoy life.16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other classes in due order, the sageMenu, sprung from the self-existing, promulged this code of laws.17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by every learnedBráhmin, and fully explained to his disciples, butmust be taughtby no other manof an inferior class.18. TheBráhminwho studies this book, having performed sacred rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word, and in deed.19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors,[162]and on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He alone deserves to possess this whole earth.

1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being, supremely glorious, allotted separate duties to those who sprang respectively from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot.

2. ToBráhminshe assigned the duties of reading theVeda, of teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of giving alms,if they be rich, and, ifindigent, of receiving gifts.

3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read theVeda, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, in a few words, the duties of aCshatriya.

4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to cultivate land, areprescribed or permittedto aVaisya.

5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to aSúdra; namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without depreciating their worth.

6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating Power declared the purest part of him to be his mouth.

7. Since the Bráhmin sprang from the most excellent part, since he was the first born, and since he possesses theVeda, he is by right the chief of this whole creation.

8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the beginning, from his own mouth, that having performed holy rites, he might present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes of rice to the progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of this world.

9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose[161]mouth the gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified butter, and the manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?

10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal class.

11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned, those who know their duty; of those who know it, such as perform it virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.

12. The very birth ofBráhminsis a constant incarnation ofDherma,God of Justice; for theBráhminis born to promote justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.

13. When aBráhminsprings to light, he is borne above the world, the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of duties, religious and civil.

14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect,though not in form, the wealth of theBráhmin; since theBráhminis entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth.

15. TheBráhmineats but his own food; wears but his own apparel; and bestows but his own in alms: through the benevolence of theBráhmin, indeed, other mortals enjoy life.

16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other classes in due order, the sageMenu, sprung from the self-existing, promulged this code of laws.

17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by every learnedBráhmin, and fully explained to his disciples, butmust be taughtby no other manof an inferior class.

18. TheBráhminwho studies this book, having performed sacred rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word, and in deed.

19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors,[162]and on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He alone deserves to possess this whole earth.

Subtract from the Brahminism of the Institutes, the importance assigned to caste; substitute for the Euhemerism of the Epics, anelemental religion, and we ascend to the religion of the Vedas; the nominal, but only the nominal basis, of all Hinduism. In the following Vedaic hymns,Agniisfire;Indra, thesky,firmament, oratmosphere; andMarut, thecloud.

Wilson's Translation.

I.1. I glorifyAgni, the high priest of the sacrifice, the divine, the ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the gods), and is the possessor of great wealth.2. May thatAgni, who is to be celebrated by both ancient and modern sages, conduct the gods hither.3. ThroughAgnithe worshipper obtains that affluence, which increases day by day, which is the source of fame and the multiplier of mankind.4.Agni, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on every side the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.5. MayAgni, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of knowledge; he who is true, renowned, and divine, come hither with the gods!6. Whatever good thou mayest,Agni, bestow upon the giver (of the oblation), that verily,Angiras, shall revert to thee.[163]7. We approach thee,Agni, with reverential homage in our thoughts, daily, both morning and evening.8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!9.Agni, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son; be ever present with us for our good!II.1.Aświns, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept with outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!2.Aświns, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion), endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our praises!3.Aświns, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth, leaders in the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations sprinkled on the lopped sacred grass!4.Indra, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations, ever pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are desirous of thee!5.Indra, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated by the wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the priest), as he offers the libation!6. FleetIndrawith the tawny coursers, come hither to the prayers (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered) food.7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers (of rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of rain, come to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently' to the days!9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay, omniscient, devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the sacrifice!10. MaySaraswatí, the purifier, the bestower of food, the[164]recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our offered viands to our rite!11.Saraswatí, the inspirer of those who delight in truth, the instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!12.Saraswatímakes manifest by her acts a mighty river, and (in her own form) enlightens all understandings.III.1. Come,Indra, and be regaled with all viands and libations, and thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy foes)!2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating and efficacious (draught) to the rejoicingIndra, the accomplisher of all things.3.Indra, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these animating praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all mankind, (come) to these rites (with the gods)!4. I have addressed to thee,Indra, the showerer (of blessings), the protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have reached thee, and of which thou hast approved!5. Place before us,Indra, precious and multiform riches, for enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!6. OpulentIndra, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement of wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!7. Grant us,Indra, wealth beyond measure or calculation, inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.8.Indra, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a thousand ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought from the field) in carts!9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property,Indra, the lord of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to the place of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies[165]the vast prowess ofIndra, the mighty, the dweller in (an eternal mansion)!IV.1. TheMarutswho are going forth decorate themselves like females: they are gliders (through the air), the sons ofRudra, and the doers of good works, by which they promote the welfare of earth and heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid rocks), they delight in sacrifices!2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty, the sons ofRudrahave established their dwelling above the sky: glorifying him (Indra) who merits to be glorified, they have inspired him with vigour: the sons ofPrisnihave acquired dominion!3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with ornaments, they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant) decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters follow their path!4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various weapons: incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers (of mountains):Maruts, swift as thought, intrusted with the duty of sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your cars!5. WhenMaruts, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing) food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the drops fall from the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like a hide, with water!6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you (hither), and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled with good things: sit,Maruts, upon the broad seat of sacred grass, and regale yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in (power); they have attained heaven by their greatness, and have made (for themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for[166]whomVishnudefends (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires and confers delight, come (quickly) like birds, and sit down upon the pleasant and sacred grass!8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, the swift-moving (Maruts) have engaged in battles: all beings fear theMaruts, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful of aspect, like princes!9.Indrawields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt, which the skilfulTwashtrihas framed for him, that he may achieve great exploits in war. He has slainVritra, and sent forth an ocean of water!10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove asunder the mountain that obstructed their path: the munificentMaruts, blowing upon their pipe, have conferred, when exhilarated by thesomajuice, desirable (gifts upon the sacrificer)!11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where theMuniwas), and sprinkled the water upon the thirstyGotama: the variously-radiant (Maruts) come to his succour, gratifying the desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three worlds, and are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of the libation), who addresses you with praise; bestow them, also,Maruts, upon us, and grant us, bestowers of all good, riches, whence springs prosperity!

1. I glorifyAgni, the high priest of the sacrifice, the divine, the ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the gods), and is the possessor of great wealth.

2. May thatAgni, who is to be celebrated by both ancient and modern sages, conduct the gods hither.

3. ThroughAgnithe worshipper obtains that affluence, which increases day by day, which is the source of fame and the multiplier of mankind.

4.Agni, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on every side the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.

5. MayAgni, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of knowledge; he who is true, renowned, and divine, come hither with the gods!

6. Whatever good thou mayest,Agni, bestow upon the giver (of the oblation), that verily,Angiras, shall revert to thee.[163]

7. We approach thee,Agni, with reverential homage in our thoughts, daily, both morning and evening.

8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!

9.Agni, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son; be ever present with us for our good!

II.

1.Aświns, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept with outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!

2.Aświns, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion), endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our praises!

3.Aświns, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth, leaders in the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations sprinkled on the lopped sacred grass!

4.Indra, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations, ever pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are desirous of thee!

5.Indra, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated by the wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the priest), as he offers the libation!

6. FleetIndrawith the tawny coursers, come hither to the prayers (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered) food.

7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers (of rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!

8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of rain, come to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently' to the days!

9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay, omniscient, devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the sacrifice!

10. MaySaraswatí, the purifier, the bestower of food, the[164]recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our offered viands to our rite!

11.Saraswatí, the inspirer of those who delight in truth, the instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!

12.Saraswatímakes manifest by her acts a mighty river, and (in her own form) enlightens all understandings.

III.

1. Come,Indra, and be regaled with all viands and libations, and thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy foes)!

2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating and efficacious (draught) to the rejoicingIndra, the accomplisher of all things.

3.Indra, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these animating praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all mankind, (come) to these rites (with the gods)!

4. I have addressed to thee,Indra, the showerer (of blessings), the protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have reached thee, and of which thou hast approved!

5. Place before us,Indra, precious and multiform riches, for enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!

6. OpulentIndra, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement of wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!

7. Grant us,Indra, wealth beyond measure or calculation, inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.

8.Indra, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a thousand ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought from the field) in carts!

9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property,Indra, the lord of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to the place of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!

10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies[165]the vast prowess ofIndra, the mighty, the dweller in (an eternal mansion)!

IV.

1. TheMarutswho are going forth decorate themselves like females: they are gliders (through the air), the sons ofRudra, and the doers of good works, by which they promote the welfare of earth and heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid rocks), they delight in sacrifices!

2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty, the sons ofRudrahave established their dwelling above the sky: glorifying him (Indra) who merits to be glorified, they have inspired him with vigour: the sons ofPrisnihave acquired dominion!

3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with ornaments, they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant) decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters follow their path!

4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various weapons: incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers (of mountains):Maruts, swift as thought, intrusted with the duty of sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your cars!

5. WhenMaruts, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing) food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the drops fall from the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like a hide, with water!

6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you (hither), and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled with good things: sit,Maruts, upon the broad seat of sacred grass, and regale yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!

7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in (power); they have attained heaven by their greatness, and have made (for themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for[166]whomVishnudefends (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires and confers delight, come (quickly) like birds, and sit down upon the pleasant and sacred grass!

8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, the swift-moving (Maruts) have engaged in battles: all beings fear theMaruts, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful of aspect, like princes!

9.Indrawields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt, which the skilfulTwashtrihas framed for him, that he may achieve great exploits in war. He has slainVritra, and sent forth an ocean of water!

10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove asunder the mountain that obstructed their path: the munificentMaruts, blowing upon their pipe, have conferred, when exhilarated by thesomajuice, desirable (gifts upon the sacrificer)!

11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where theMuniwas), and sprinkled the water upon the thirstyGotama: the variously-radiant (Maruts) come to his succour, gratifying the desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!

12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three worlds, and are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of the libation), who addresses you with praise; bestow them, also,Maruts, upon us, and grant us, bestowers of all good, riches, whence springs prosperity!

If we investigate the antiquity of these hymns we shall find no definite and unimpeachable date. Their epoch is assigned on the score of internal evidence. The language is so much more archaic than that of the Institutes, and the mythology so much simpler; whilst the Institutes themselves are similarly circumstanced in respect[167]to the Epics. Fixing these at about 200,B.C.; we allow so many centuries for the archaisms of Menu, and so many more for those of the Vedas. For the whole, eleven hundred has not been thought too little, which places the Vedas in the fourteenth century,B.C., and makes them the earliest, or nearly the earliest records in the world.

It is clear that this is but an approximation, and, although all inquirers admit that creeds, languages, and social conditions present the phenomena ofgrowth, the opinions as to therateof such growths are varied, and none of much value. This is because the particular induction required for the formation of anything better than a mere impression has yet to be undertaken—till when, one man's guess is as good as another's. The age of a tree may be reckoned from its concentric rings, but the age of a language, a doctrine, or a polity, has neither bark nor wood, neither teeth like a horse, nor a register like a child.

Now the antiquity of the Vedas, as inferred from the archaic character of their language, has been shaken by the discovery of the structure of the Persepolitan dialect of the arrow-headed inscriptions. It approaches that of the Vedas; being, in some points, older than the Sanskrit of Menu. Yet its date is less than 500,B.C.Again, the Pali is less archaic than the Sanskrit; yet the[168]Pali is the language of the oldest inscriptions in India, indeed, of the oldest Indian records of any sort, with a definite date.

One of the few cases where the phenomena ofratehave been studied with due attention, is in the evolution of the three languages of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden out of the Icelandic. What does this tell us? The last has altered so slowly that a modern Icelander can read the oldest works of his language. In Sweden, however, the speechhasaltered. So it has in Denmark; whilst both these languages are unintelligible to the Icelander, andvice versâ. As to their respective changes, Petersen shows that the Danish was always about a hundred years forwarder than the Swedish, having attained that point at (say) 1200, which the Swedish did not reach till 1300. Both, however, changed; and that, at a uniform rate; the Danish having, as it were, the start of a century. The Norwegian, however, comported itself differently. Until the Reformation it hardly changed at all; less than the stationary Icelandic itself. Fifty years, however, of sudden and rapid transformation brought it, at once, to the stage which the Danish had been three hundred years in reaching. How many times must the observation of such phenomena be multiplied before we can strike an average as to the rate of change in languages, creeds, and polities?[169]

Again—it is by no means certain that the Institutes and the Vedas represent a contemporary state of things. All doctrinal writings contain something appertaining to a period older than that of their composition.

Lastly,—the proof that all the writings in question belong to the same linear series, and represent the growth ofthe same phenomena in the same placeis deficient. The Ægyptologist believes that contemporary kings are mistaken for successive ones; the philologist, that difference of dialects simulates a difference of age. Doubts of a more specific nature dawn upon us when we attempt to realize the alphabet in which an Indian MS. of even only eight hundred yearsB.C., was written. No Indian MS. is fifteen hundred years old; no inscription older than Alexander's time. Nevertheless,—though I write upon this subject with diffidence—the Devanagari characters of the Sanskrit MSS. can be deduced from the alphabet of the inscriptions; whilst these inscriptions themselves approach the alphabets of the Semitic character in proportion to their antiquity: so that the oldest alphabet of the Vedas is referable to that of the inscriptions, and that of the inscriptions betrays an origin external to India. Its introductionmaybe very early; nevertheless its epoch must be investigated with a full recognition of the[170]comparatively modern date of even the earliest alphabets of Persia, and the parts westward; early as compared with such a date as 1400,B.C., the accredited epoch of the Vedas; an epoch, perhaps, a thousand years too early.

Nevertheless, the existence of an alphabet, an architecture, a coinage, and an algebra at a period which no scepticism puts much later than 250,B.C., is so undoubted, that they may pass as ethnological facts,i.e., facts sufficiently true to be not merely admitted with what is called anotiosebelief, but to be classed with the most unexceptionabledataof history, and to be used as effects from which we may argue backwards—more ethnologico—to their antecedent causes; the appreciation of these requiring a philosophy and an induction of its own.

We cannot detract from the antiquity of Indian civilization without impugning its indigenous origin, nor doubt this without stirring the question as to the countries from which it was introduced. These have been Persia, Assyria, Egypt, and Greece; the introduction being direct or indirect as the case might be.

In this way are contrasted the views of the general ethnologist, with those of the special orientalist, in respect to the great and difficult question of Indian antiquity. Yet, how far does the scepticism of the former affect our views concerning[171]the descent of the Hindús, the Mahrattas, the Bengali, and those other populations, to the languages whereof they applied? Not much. Whichever way we decide, the population may still be Tamulian; only, in case we make the language Sanskritic, it is Tamulian in the same way as the Cornish are Welsh;i.e., Tamulian with a change of tongue.

The doubts, too, as to the antiquity of the Sanskrit literature unsettle but little. They merely make the introduction of certain foreign elements some centuries later.

Whatever may be the oldest of the great Hindú creeds, that of theSikhsis the newest. Its founder, Nanuk, in the fifteenth century, was a contemplative enthusiast; his successor, Govind, a zealous man of action; himself succeeded by similargúrús, or priests, who eventually, by means of fanaticism, organization, and union with the state raised the power of theKhalsato the formidable height from which it has so lately fallen.Truthis the great abstraction of the Sikh creeds; and the extent to which it is at once intolerant and eclectic may be seen from the following extracts.[48]They certainly present the doctrine in a favourable light.

[172]

The true name is God; without fear, without enmity; the Being without death; the Giver of salvation; the Gooroo and Grace.Remember the primal truth; truth which was before the world began.Truth which is, and truth, O Nânuk! which will remain.By reflection it cannot be attained, how much soever the attention be fixed.A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one accompanies the dead.How can truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled?O Nânuk! by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.

II.

Time is the only God; the First and the Last, the Endless Being; the Creator, the Destroyer; He who can make and unmake.God who created angels and demons, who created the East and the West, the North and the South; How can He be expressed by words?

III.

Numerous Mahomets have there been, and multitudes of Bruhmas, Vishnoos, and Sivas.Thousands of Peers and Prophets, and tens of thousands of saints and holy men:But the chief of Lords is the one Lord, the true name of God.O Nânuk! of God, His qualities, without end, beyond reckoning, who can understand?

IV.[173]

Many Bruhmas wearied themselves with the study of the Veds, but found not the value of an oil seed.Holy men and saints are sought about anxiously, but they were deceived by Maya.There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent Owtârs, and the wondrous Muhadeo.Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not find Thee.

He who speaks of me as the Lord, him will I sink into the pit of hell!Consider me as the slave of God; of that have no doubt in thy mind.I am but the slave of the Lord, come to behold the wonders of creation.

VI.

Dwell thou in flames uninjured,Remain unharmed amid ice eternal,Make blocks of stone thy daily food,Spurn the earth before thee with thy foot,Weigh the heavens in a balance,And then ask of me to perform miracles.

VII.

Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in his eyes.Ram and Ruheem, the Poorans, and the Koran, have many votaries, but neither does he regard.Simruts, Shasters, and Veds, differ in many things; not one does he heed.[174]O God! under Thy favour has all been done, nought is of myself.

VIII.

All say that there are four races,But all are of the seed of Bruhm.The world is but clay,And of similar clay many pots are made.Nânuk says man will be judged by his actions,And that without finding God there will be no salvation.The body of man is composed of five elements;Who can say that one is high and another low?

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