LECTURE VIII

THE INSTINCTS OF ANIMALS

The robber-wasp—Statement of the problem—Material basis of instincts—Instincts are not 'inherited habits'—Instinct of self-preservation—Fugitive instinct: death-feigning—Masking of crabs—Nutritive instinct—Monophagous caterpillars—Diverse modes of acquiring food: May-flies, sea-cucumbers, fishes that snare—'Aberration' of instinct—Change of instinct during metamorphosis: Eristalis, Sitaris—Imperfection of adaptation points to origin through natural selection—Instinct and will—Instincts and protective coloration—Leisurely flight of Heliconiidæ—Rapid flight of Papilionidæ—Instincts which act only once in a lifetime—Pupation of butterflies—Pupation of the Longicorns—Pupation of the silk-moth—The emperor moth—The cocoons of Atlas—Oviposition of butterflies.

Wehave hitherto considered animals with especial regard to the variation and re-adaptation of morphological characters, e.g. modifications of form and colour; and we have now to ask whether their behaviour also is to be referred as to its origin, in whole or in part, to the principle of selection. All around us we can see that animals know how to use their parts or organs in a purposeful manner: the duckling swims at once upon the water; the chicken which has just been hatched from the egg pecks at the seeds lying on the ground; the butterfly but newly emerged from the pupa, as soon as its wings have dried and hardened, knows how to use them in flight; and the predatory wasp requires no instruction to recognize her victim, a particular caterpillar, a grasshopper, or some other definite insect; she knows how to attack it, to paralyse it by stings, and then hesitates not a moment as to what she has to do next; she drags it to her nest, deposits it in one of the cells already prepared for her future brood, lays a single egg upon it, and roofs the cell carefully over. It is only because all these complex acts are so precisely performed, as precisely as if the wasp knew why she performed them, that the species is able to maintain its existence, for only thus can the rearing of the next generation be secured. Out of the egg there slips a little larva, which at once makes for the paralysed victim, feeds upon it, and grows thereby, then, within the shelter of the closed cell, passes through the pupa stage and is transformed into a perfect wasp. Many species of these predatory wasps do not lay the egg directly beside or upon their prey, but lest its movements should endanger their offspring,they hang the egg above it by a silken thread. It is thus in security, and the young larva, too, when it appears, can withdraw to its safely swinging resting-place as soon as danger threatens from the convulsive struggles of the unfortunate victim at whose body it is gnawing.

Every animal has a great many such 'instincts,' which lead it, indeed force it, to act appropriately towards an end, without having any consciousness of that end. For how should the butterfly know what flying is, or that it possessed the power of flight at all, or who could have shown the predatory wasp, when she wakened from the pupa sleep to quite a new kind of life, all that she had to do in order to procure food for herself and to secure shelter and nourishment for the brood which was still enclosed within her ovary? Since species have developed from other species, these regulators of the body, the instincts, cannot have been the same in earlier times; they must have evolved out of the instincts of ancestors, and the questions we have to ask are: By what factors? In what way? Has the principle of selection been operative here too, or can we refer instincts to the inherited effects of use and disuse?

Before I enter upon this question it is necessary to consider for a little the physiological basis of instinct. We can distinguish three kinds of actions: purely reflex, purely instinctive, and purely conscious actions. In the case of the first, we see most clearly that they depend on an existing mechanism, for they follow of necessity on a particular stimulus, and cannot always be suppressed. Bright light striking our eye makes the pupil narrower by a contraction of the iris, and in the same way our eyelids close if a finger be thrust suddenly towards them. We know, too, the principle of these reflex mechanisms; they depend on nerve connexions. Sensory nerves are so connected in the nerve-centres with motor nerves, that a stimulus affecting the former at the periphery of the body, as at the eye, is carried to certain nerve-cells of the brain, and from these it excites to activity certain motor centres, so that definite movements are set up. It is rarely only one muscle that is thus excited to activity, there are usually several, and here we have the transition to instinctive action, which consists in a longer or shorter series of actions, that is, of motor combinations. These, too, are originally, at least, set a-going by a sense impression, an external stimulus which affects a sensory nerve exactly in the same way as in the reflex mechanism, and this stimulus is carried to a particular group of sensory nerve-cells in the central nervous organ, and from these transmitted by very fine inter-connexions to motor centres. There are extraordinarily complexinstinctive actions, and in these the completion of one action is obviously the stimulus to the second, the completion of the second to the third, and so on, until the entire chain of inter-dependent movements which make up the whole performance has been completed.

Instincts have thus a material basis in the cells and fibres of the nervous system, and through variations in the connexions and irritability of these nervous parts they too can be modified, like any of the other characters of the body, such as form and colour.

Conscious actions depend directly on the will, and they have a close connexion with instinctive actions in as far as these also can be controlled by the will, that is, can be set a-going or inhibited, and also, on the other hand, in as far as purely voluntary actions may become instinctive through frequent repetition. The first case is illustrated, for instance, when the suckling of a child at the mother's breast is continued into the second year of life, as not infrequently happens in the southern countries of Europe. Such a child knows exactly why it wants the breast, and its action is a conscious one, while the newborn child seeks about with the mouth instinctively, and when it has found what it sought performs the somewhat complex sucking movements automatically. The second case is illustrated, when, for instance, we have made a habit of winding up a watch on going to bed, and do it when we happen to change our clothes through the day, although it is then purposeless and would have been omitted if the action had required a conscious effort of will. One can often observe on oneself in how short a time a conscious action may become instinctive. I once sent my keyless watch to a watchmaker for repairs, and received from him for the time an ordinary watch, which had to be wound with a key, which key I kept for safety in my purse. At the end of eight days I got back my own watch, and on undressing the first night I found myself 'instinctively' taking my purse from my pocket in order to get the key, which, as I very well knew, I no longer needed. And that a long series of complex movements, originally performed only consciously, may be gone through instinctively, is shown by the fact that pieces of music which have been learnt by heart can often be played without mistake from beginning to end while the player is thinking of quite other things. The complex instinctive actions of animals are performed in quite a similar manner.

There is thus no sharp boundary line between reflex and instinctive actions, nor between instinctive and conscious actions, but one passes over into the other, and the thought suggests itself, that inthe phyletic development also transitions from one kind of action to the other must have taken place. As long as one believes the Lamarckian principle to be really operative one can suppose that actions, which were originally dependent on the will, when they were often repeated, became instinctive, or, in other words, that instincts, many of them at least, are inherited habits.

I shall endeavour to show later on that this assumption, plausible as it seems at first sight, cannot be correct; but in the meantime I must confine myself to saying that there are a great number of instincts which must be referred to the process of selection, and that the rest can be similarly interpreted in their essentials at least.

The instinct of self-preservation is universally distributed, and it is exhibited in many animals by flight from their enemies. The hare flees from the fox and from men; the bird flies away at the approach of the cat; the butterfly flies from even the shadow of the net spread to catch it. These might be regarded as purely conscious actions, and in the case of the hare and the bird experience and will have undoubtedly some part in them, but even in these the basis of the action is an organic impulse; this, and not reflection, causes the animal to flee at sight of an enemy. In the butterfly, indeed, this must be purely instinctive, since it is done with the same precision immediately on leaving the pupa state, before the animal has had any experience. But even in the case of the hare and the bird, taking to flight would in most cases come too late if reflection were necessary first; if it is to be effective it must take place as instantaneously as the shutting of the lids when danger threatens the eye.

The hermit-crab (Fig. 34, p. 163), which conceals its soft abdomen in an empty mollusc shell, and drags that about with it on the floor of the sea, withdraws with lightning-like rapidity into its house as soon as any suspicious movement catches its eye, and it is very difficult to grip one of its legs with the forceps in time to draw it out of its shell. The same is the case with the so-called Serpulids, worms of the genusSerpula, and its allies; it is not easy to seize them, because, however quick one is with the forceps, their instinct of fugitive self-preservation acts more quickly still, and they shoot back into their protecting tubes before one has had time to grasp them. But this impulse to flee from enemies, though it seems almost a matter of course, is by no means common to all animals, for in quite a large number the instinct of self-preservation finds expression in an exactly contrary manner, namely, in the so-called 'death-feigning,' that is, remaining absolutely motionless in a definite position precisely prescribed to the animal by its instinct. In speaking of protective colouring,I drew attention to the 'wood-moth' (Xylina), which resembles a broken fragment of half-decayed wood so deceptively, and I pointed out that the colour-resemblance to wood would be in itself of but little use to the insect if it were not combined with the instinct to remain motionless in danger, to 'feign death.' The antennæ and legs are drawn close to the body, so that they rather heighten the disguise, and, instead of running away, the insect does not move a muscle until the danger is past. This instinct must have evolved hand in hand with the resemblance to a piece of wood, and, just as we sought to interpret the latter from the fact that the moths which most resembled the wood had always the best chance of surviving, so we maintain that those moths would profit most by their resemblance which drew in their legs and antennæ closely and lay most perfectly still. Thus the brain-mechanism, which effected the keeping still whenever the senses announced danger, would be more and more firmly established and perfected in the course of selection.

Even nearly related animals may have quite different instincts which secure them against danger. Thus in the group of pocket crabs (Notopoda) there are some species which run away when danger threatens, but others which anticipate the risk of discovery by masking themselves to a certain extent. With the last pair of legs they hold over themselves a large piece of sponge, which then grows till it often leaves only the limbs and frontal region uncovered. Of course there can be no question of consciousness in what the crab does, as is proved by the fact that these crabs will, in case of necessity, take a transparent piece of glass instead of the sponge; but the impulse to cover themselves with something is strong in them, and finds expression not only when they see a really protective substance, but even when they see one which is transparent and therefore wholly useless for the purpose. Crabs from which the sponge has been taken away wander about until they find another; the impulse is thus set up not only by the sight of the sponge or of a stone, but also by the feeling that their back is uncovered. The large spider-crab of the Mediterranean (Maja squinado) effects its disguise in a somewhat different manner. It has peculiar hooked bristles on the back, and on these it hooks little bunches of seaweed, often many of them, so that it is entirely covered and looks like a bunch of wrack rather than like an animal. Here again a bodily variation has gone hand in hand with the development of the instinct to cover itself: the bristles of the back have become hooked. Many instincts are accompanied by structural modifications, and in the crabs which cover themselves with sponge or stone this is the case, for the last pair ofthoracic legs is turned towards the back, instead of being set at the side of the body, as is usual among crabs. They are thus enabled to hold the sponge much better and more permanently, and as this is advantageous we may well ascribe the change to natural selection.

Let us now turn our attention to another category of instincts, the most common and most indispensable of all, those which lead to the seeking and devouring of food.

The chicken just emerged from the egg picks up the seeds thrown to it with no experience of what eating is, or what can be made to serve it as food; its instinct for food expresses itself in picking up, and it is awakened or stimulated to action by sight of the seeds. As Lloyd Morgan in his excellent book onHabit and Instinctwell says, 'It does not pick at the seeds because instinct says to it that this is something to be picked up and tested, but because it cannot do anything else.'

In the same way the instinct to seek for food wakes in the kitten at the sight of a mouse. I once set before a kitten which had never seen a mouse a living one in a trap. The kitten became greatly excited, and when I opened the trap and let the mouse run away she overtook and caught it in a few bounds. The instinct in this case does not express itself as in the chicken by the rapid lowering of the head and seizing the food, but in quite a different combination of movements, in running after and grasping the fleeing victim. But that is not all that is included in the instinctive action in the case of the cat, for there is also the whole wild and gruesome play, the familiar letting go and catching again, the passionate growling of satisfaction which, in its wildness, reminds us much more of a blood-thirsty tiger than of a tame domestic animal.

As the egg-laying instinct of the female butterfly is excited only by the sight and odour of a particular plant, so also is the food instinct of the caterpillar. If we put a silkworm caterpillar (Bombyx mori) just out of the egg upon a mulberry leaf it will soon begin to gnaw at it; but put it on a beech leaf or on that of any other indigenous tree, shrub, or herb and it will not touch it, but simply die of hunger. And yet it could quite well eat many of these leaves, and thrive on them too, but the smell and perhaps also the sight of them is not the appropriate stimulus to liberate the instinct of eating. There are many species of caterpillar which are 'monophagous,' that is to say, restricted to a single species of plant in a country. One may ask how such a restriction of the liberating stimulus to a single species could have been brought about by natural selection, since it could not possibly be advantageous to be so much restricted in food.The answer to this will be found in the following facts. On the Belladonna plant there lives a little beetle whose feeding instinct is aroused by this plant alone. But asAtropa belladonnais avoided entirely by other animals on account of its poisonousness, this beetle is, so to speak, sole proprietor of the Belladonna; no other species disputes its food, and in this there must assuredly be a great advantage, as soon as the other instincts, above all that of egg-laying, are so regulated as to secure that the larva shall have access to its food-plant; and this is the case. The monophagy of many caterpillars is to be understood in the same way; it is an adaptation to a plant otherwise little sought after, and it is combined with a more or less complete loss of sensitiveness to the stimulus of other plants. The establishment of such a specialized food-instinct depends on its utility, and has resulted from the preference given, through natural selection, to those individuals in which the food-instinct responded to the stimulus of the smallest possible number of plants, and at the same time to those which showed themselves best adapted to a plant especially favourable to their kind, whose food-instinct was not only most strongly excited by this one plant, but also whose stomach and general metabolism made the best use of it. So we understand why so many caterpillars live on poisonous plants, not only some of our indigenous Sphingidæ, likeDeilephila euphorbiæ, but whole groups of tropical Papilionidæ, Danaides, Acræides, and Heliconiidæ. With this again is connected the poisonousness or nauseousness of these butterflies.

How diversely the instinct to procure food may be developed in one and the same group of animals is shown by the fact that not infrequently plant-eating, saphrophytic, and flesh-eating animals occur in a single group of organisms, as, for instance, in the order of water-fleas or Daphnidae, or in the class of Infusorians. Many species find their food by making an eddy in the water, which brings a stream towards the mouth, and with it all sorts of vegetable or dead particles; others live by preying upon other animals like themselves.

But even when the food-instinct in all the species of a group is directed towards living prey, the procuring of it may be achieved by means of quite different instincts. Such finer graduations of the food-instinct are found not infrequently within quite small groups of animals, as in the Ephemeridæ or Day-flies. All their larvæ live by preying on other animals, but those of one family, represented by the genusChloëon, seek to secure their victims by agility and speed, while the larvæ of the second family, with the typicalgenusBaëtis, have the instinct to press their smooth broad bodies, with large-eyed head, close to the brook pebbles on which they sit. They are exactly like these in colour, and thus they lurk almost invisible, until a victim comes within their reach, when they throw themselves upon it with a bound. The third group, with the typical genusEphemera, follows its instinct to dig deep tubes in the mud at the bottom of the water, and to lurk in these for their prey. We have thus within this small group of Day-flies three distinct modifications of the food-instinct, which differ essentially from one another, are made up of quite different combinations of actions, and, consequently, must have their foundation in essentially different directive brain-mechanisms. All these cases have only one feature in common; the animals all throw themselves upon their prey as soon as they are near enough.

Fig. 31.Sea-cucumber (Cucumaria), withexpanded tentacles (a), and protrudedtube-feet (b); after Ludwig.

But even this common feature is not everywhere part of the food-instinct. The sea-cucumber (Cucumaria) (Fig. 31), according to the observations made on it by Eisig in the Aquarium of the Zoological Station at Naples, gets its food in the following manner. The animal sits half or entirely erect on a projecting piece of rock and unfolds its ten tree-like tentacles which surround the mouth. These are branched, and have quite the effect of little tufts of seaweed. They are probably taken for such by many minute animals; for larvæ of all kinds, Infusorians, Rotifers and worms settle down on them. But the sea-cucumber bends inwards first one tentacle and then another, so slowly as barely to be noticeable, brings the point to its mouth, lets it glide gradually deeper into the gullet, until the whole tentacle is within, and after a time draws it out again equally slowly and unfolds it anew. Obviously it wipes the tentacle inside the gullet, and retains everything living that was upon it. This performance is repeated continually, day and night, and it is usually the only externally visible sign of life which the animal displays.

This remarkable instinct is associated with a structural peculiarity, for without the arborescent tentacles the fishing would not be nearly so successful. Other sea-cucumbers or Holothurians have different tentacles, and use them in quite a different manner, filling the mouth with mud by means of them.

Very frequently, indeed, there are visible structural changes associated with the modified food-instinct. Most predatory fishes chase their prey, like the pike, the perch, and the shark, but there are also lurkers, and these show in addition to the lurking instinct certain definite bodily adaptations, without which this instinct could not have such full play.

Thus in a marine fish known as the 'star-gazer' (Uranoscopus) the eyes are situated not on the sides but on the top of the head, and the mouth is also directed upwards. Its instinct leads it to bury itself in the sand so that only the eyes are uncovered. It lies in wait in this way until a suitable victim comes within reach, and then snaps at it with a sudden movement. But it also possesses a decoying organ, a soft worm-shaped flap, which it protrudes from the mouth as soon as little fishes draw near. They make for this bait, and are thus caught.

Such ingenious fishing, which is quite suggestive of the human method of catching trout with artificial bait, occurs in many predatory fishes; but in every case the fish acts instinctively, without reflection, on becoming aware of approaching prey. The suitability of the action to the end does not depend upon consciousness of the end, or upon reflection, but is a purely mechanical action, performed in response to the stimulus of a sense-impression.

This is best shown by the fact that the instincts may lead their possessors astray, which always happens when an animal is transferred to an unnatural situation, to which its instincts are not adapted, so to speak. The mole-cricket, which is in the habit of escaping pursuit by burrowing in the earth, makes violent motions with the forelegs, even if it be placed upon a plate of glass into which it could not possibly burrow; an ant-lion (Myrmeleo), whose instinct impels it to bore into loose sand by pushing backwards with the abdomen, goes backwards on a plate of glass as soon as danger threatens, and endeavours, with the utmost exertions, to bore into it. It knows no other mode of flight, and its intellect is much too weak to suggest any novel mode. Even the mode of escape most universal among animals, that of simply running away, does not occur to it; it acts as it must in accordance with its inborn instinct; it cannot do otherwise.

The change of instincts in the different stages of development ofone and the same animal have always seemed to me very remarkable; for instance, the change of the food-instinct in the caterpillar and the butterfly, where the food-instinct is liberated in the caterpillar by the leaf of a particular plant, but in the butterfly by the sight and fragrance of a flower, the nectar of which it sucks. In this case everything is different in the two stages of development, the whole apparatus for seeking and taking food, as well as the nerve-mechanism which determines these modes of action. And how far apart often are the stimuli which liberate the instinct! The larva of the flower-visiting, honey-suckingEristalis tenaxis the ugly, white, so-called rat-tailed larva, well described by Réaumur, which lives swimming in liquid manure, and feeds on that! What complete and far-reaching changes, not only in the visible structure, but also in the finer nervous mechanisms, which we cannot yet verify, must have taken place in the vicissitudes of time and circumstance during the life-history of this insect!

Fig. 32.Metamorphosis ofSitaris humeralis, an oil-beetle, after Fabre.a, first larval form, much enlarged.b, second larval form.c, resting stage of this larva (so-called 'pseudo-pupa').d, third larval form.e, pupa.

Not the food-instinct alone, but the instinct of self-preservation, of mode of motion, in short, every kind of instinct, may vary in the course of an individual life. Let us follow the somewhat complex life-history of a beetle of the family of the Blister-beetles or Cantharides, as we learnt it first from Fabre. The female of the red-shouldered bee-beetle (Sitaris humeralis) lays its eggs on the ground in the neighbourhood of the underground nest of a honey-gathering burrowing-bee (Anthophora). The larvæ, when they emerge, are agile, six-legged, and furnished with a horny head and biting mouth-parts, as well as with a tail-fork for springing (Fig. 32,a).The little animals have at first no food-instinct, or at least none manifests itself, but they run about, and as soon as they see a bee of the genusAnthophorathey spring upon it and hide themselves in its thick, hairy coat. If they have been fortunate the bee is a female, who founds a new colony and builds cells, in each of which she deposits some honey and lays an egg upon it. As soon as this has been done theSitarislarva leaves its hiding-place, bites the egg of the bee open, and gradually eats up the contents. Then it moults, and takes the form of a grub with minute feet and imperfect masticating organs; the tail-fork, too, is lost, for all these parts are now useless, since it can obtain liquid nourishment without further change of place, from the honey in the cell, in exactly the quantity necessary to its growth. Then it spends the winter in a hardened, pupa-like skin, and it is not till the next year (the third), after another short larval stage (d) and subsequent true pupahood (e), that the fully-formed beetle emerges. This again possesses biting mouth-parts, and eats leaves, and has legs to run with and wings to fly with.

In this beetle, then, the food-instinct changes three times in the course of its life; first the egg of the bee is the liberating stimulus, then the honey, and finally leaves. The instinct of moving about varies likewise, expressing itself first in running and jumping and in catching on, then in lying still within the cell, and, lastly, in flying and running about on bushes and trees.

We can well understand that, in the course of innumerable generations and species of insects, the various stages of development would, by means of selection, become more and more different from each other, both structurally and in their instincts, as they adapted themselves better to different conditions of life; and thus ultimately instincts frequently and markedly divergent have been developed in the successive stages of life. No other interpretation is possible; through natural selection alone can we understand even the principle of such adaptations. An animal can thus very well be compared to a machine which is so arranged that it works correctly under all ordinary circumstances, that is to say, it performs all the actions necessary to the preservation of the individual and of its kind. The parts of the machine are fitted together in the best possible way, and work on each other so ingeniously that, under normal circumstances, a result suited to the end is achieved. We have seen how precisely the liberating stimulus for an action may be defined, and this secures a far-reaching specialization of instincts. But as every machine can work only with the material for which it was constructed, so the instinct can only call forth an actioneffectively adjusted to its end when the animal is under natural conditions. Its specialization has its limits, and in this lies the reason of its limited purposiveness. For instance, if the larva ofSitariswere not impelled by the sight of every bee to spring on it and cling to it, but only by thefemales, then many of them would be saved from the fate that awaits them if they attach themselves to male bees, which make no nest, or even to other flying insects, in which case also there is no possibility of further development. But both these things happen, although the latter has not yet, to my knowledge, been recorded ofSitaris, but only of its relative, the larva ofMelöe.

'Instinct goes astray,' it is often said; but in truth it does not go astray, but is only not so highly specialized in relation to the liberating stimulus of the action as seems to us necessary for perfect purposiveness. But in this very imperfection there lies, as it seems to me, another proof that we have to do with the results of a process of selection, for it is of the very nature of these never to be perfect, but only relatively perfect, that is to say, just as perfect as is necessary to the maintenance of the species. At the moment at which this grade of perfection is reached every possibility of a further increase in the effectiveness of adjustment to the end ceases, because it would then no longer directly further the end. Why, for instance, should the liberating stimulus in this case be more highly specialized, since enough of theSitarislarvæ already succeed in attaching themselves to female bees? It is not for nothing that the beetles of this family are so prolific; what is lacking in the perfection of the instinct is made up for by the multitude of young larvæ. A single female of the oil-beetle (Melöe) lays several hundred eggs.

In speaking of the animal as a machine, it must be added that it is a machine which can be altered in varying degrees, which can be regulated to work at high or low pressure, slowly or quickly, finely or roughly. This regulating is the work of the intelligence, the limited 'thinking-power,' which must be ascribed to the higher animals in a very considerable degree, but which in the lower animals becomes less and less apparent, until finally it is unrecognizable. That instinctive actions can be modified or inhibited by intelligence and will is proved by any trained beast of prey which masters its hunger and the impulse to snap at the piece of flesh held before it, because it knows that if it does not control itself painful blows will be the consequence. In a later lecture I shall return to the connexion between will and instinct; all that concerns us here is to regard instincts as the outcome of the processes of selection, and as an indirect proof of the reality of these.

From what I have already said at least so much must be clear, that nothing, in principle, stands in the way of referring instincts to selection, since their very essence is their adaptation to an end, and such purposive changes are precisely those that are preserved in the struggle for existence. It might, however, be supposed that in all this the principle of use and disuse also had a share, and that without it no changes in instincts could have come about.

There are, however, numerous instincts in considering which this can be entirely excluded.

At an earlier stage we discussed in detail the protective colourings which secure insects, and especially butterflies, from extermination by their numerous enemies, and it was mentioned that this was always accompanied by corresponding instincts, without which the protective colouring and the deceptive form would have profited nothing, or at any rate not nearly so much. If the caterpillar of theCatocala sponsa, which resembles the bark of an oak so deceptively, did not possess at the same time the instinct to creep away from the leaves and hide in the clefts of the bark on the trunk of the oak-tree, its disguise would be of very little use to it; and if the predatory and grass-coloured praying mantis was not impelled by instinct to lie in wait among the grass for its prey, instead of pursuing it, it would rarely succeed in seizing any of its victims, because of its somewhat leisurely mode of movement. This adaptation of the instincts to the protective colouring is carried into the most minute and apparently trifling details. Thus different observers have established the fact that the nauseous, sometimes even poisonous, butterflies, which are distinguished by their glaring or sharply contrasted colour-pattern, are all slow fliers. This is the case with the Danaides and Euplœides of the Old World and the Heliconiides of the New; many of their mimetic imitators also fly slowly.

If we inquire how this instinct of fluttering, careless flight has come to be, we may leave habit asprimum movensout of the question altogether, for there are no external conditions which could have induced the butterfly to take to slower flight than its ancestors exhibited. That it is now advantageous for it—since it acts as a signal of its nauseousness—to be as clearly seen and recognized as possible can exercise no direct influence on its manner of flight, since it knows nothing about it. Even if we assume that individual variations cropped up which had an instinct for slower flight, there would still, without selection, be no reason why this variation in particular should multiply, still less why the originally slight slowing of the flight should become more marked in the course of generations. Onthe contrary, the butterflies fly a great deal, just as all other diurnal butterflies do; they exert their power of flight as long as the sun shines, and if the exercise of one generation influences the next, they ought to become gradually more capable of rapid flight. In this case exactly the opposite takes place to what is ascribed to the Lamarckian principle; more constant use must here have brought about a diminution of the activity of the relevant parts. It is quite otherwise when we look at it from the point of view of selection. The variants which cropped up by chance with slower flight survived because they were most easily recognized and avoided; they are the most frequent survivors; they leave descendants which inherit the slower flight-instinct, and this goes on increasing in them as long as the increase carries any advantage with it. As soon as this ceases to be the case the variation comes to a standstill, for it is adapted to the average of the conditions at a given time.

We may picture to ourselves the thousand kinds of regulations of animal movements through instinct as having come about in a similar way; in the majority of cases wemustpicture it thus. For it is only in the case of those with high intelligence that we can ask whether the animal did not by deliberation help in establishing the purposive variation in its movements. Among insects in any case this could only be taken into account to a very limited extent, although I do not dispute that the more intelligent among them may learn, and may make experiments, and can modify their actions accordingly. But in fleeing from an enemy experience has nothing to do with it, for the first time it is caught it pays the penalty with its life. Without care, and with no idea of the dangers surrounding them on all sides, the butterflies float about, guided only by their instinct, which, however, is so exactly adapted to the conditions of their life that a sufficient number of them to preserve the species always happily escapes all the many dangers. I may remind you of Hahnel's case of the butterfly, already mentioned, which escaped the agile lizard by flying rapidly up from the sweet bait, but settled again upon it without fear immediately afterwards, to fly from the lizard as before, and did so several times in succession. We usually judge such actions far too much from the human standpoint; the butterfly does not wish to escape the death which threatens it; it knows nothing about death; it is not with it as it was with Dr. Hahnel himself, who when he was once in danger from a jaguar in a thicket was so affected by the thought of the death he had happily escaped that he never cared to pass the place again, but made a long circuit to his home. The butterfly does not act according to reflection and imagination; it fliesup with lightning-like rapidity when the lizard rushes at it, because this rapid movement, which itsees, acts as the stimulus which liberates the flight-instinct, and this works so promptly that in most cases the insect is rescued from danger. Its disposition, however, is not otherwise affected by its narrow escape, and it obeys anew the food-instinct which impels it to settle again on the bait, until the flight-instinct is again set a-going by the visual impression of the re-advance of the lizard. It is the plaything of its instincts, a machine which works exactly as it must. That it is only sense-impressions and not conceptions which here liberate the actions can be well seen in the case of shy species of butterfly like our purple emperor (Apatura iris), which flies up like lightning from the moist wood-paths on which it loves to settle as soon as any rapidly moving visual image, even if it be only a shadow, strikes its eyes. For this reason the collector tries to approach it so as not to throw his shadow before him, for then the insect lets the advancing enemy get quite close, and only flies up when the net is quickly thrust towards it. In all probability the eye of this insect is particularly well adapted for perceiving movements, and certainly the flight-instinct reacts very promptly to such visual impressions, and we can understand that it must have been so regulated if, as we assume, the regulation came about through processes of selection, for the enemies of the butterflies, such as birds, dragon-flies, and lizards shoot quickly out on their prey, and therefore those butterflies must always have survived whose instinct impelled them to take to flight most quickly.

In this, then, as in a thousand other cases, the instinct of flight, or indeed any other mode of movement, cannot be interpreted as an 'inherited habit,' because there is no evidence of the possession of that degree of intelligence which could have induced the variation in the previous habit, that is, in manner of movement. The same is true of animals of low intelligence in regard to all the other instincts, which otherwise might seem to be explicable in terms of the Lamarckian principle.

In addition, there is a whole large group of instincts in regard to which the idea of the Lamarckian principle cannot be entertained, as I showed years ago, and it consists of all those instincts which are only exercised once in the course of a lifetime. These cannot possibly depend on practice in an individual lifetime, and transmission of the results of this exercise to the following generation; they can therefore only be interpreted in terms of selection, unless we are to give up all attempts at a scientific interpretation, and simply accept them as 'marvels.'

To this class belong all the diverse instincts by which insects protect themselves against attack during the pupa stage. Even the way in which the caterpillars of many diurnal butterflies hang themselves up in pupation is not by any means a very simple instinctive action. The caterpillar first spins, in a suitable place, a small round disk of silk threads, to which it then attaches the posterior end of its body, so securely that it cannot be easily torn away. More complicated still is the securing of the pupa when it does not hang freely, but is to remain pressed against a wall or a tree, as is the case in the Papilionidæ and the Pieridæ. In this case the caterpillar must, in addition to the usual cradle, spin a thread of silk, in an ingenious way, diagonally across the thorax, so that it may cross about the middle of the wing rudiments, and not be too loose, lest the pupa fall out, yet not too tight, lest the thread cut too deeply into the wing rudiments and hinder their development. When one remembers that it is the caterpillar that does all this, before it has taken the form of the pupa, and that it must all be adapted to the pupa's form, we are amazed at the extraordinary exactness with which instinct prescribes all the individual movements which make the whole of the complex performance effective. And yet, as each caterpillar only accomplishes this performance once in its life, it could at no time in the development of the species have become a habit in the case of any individual caterpillar, and it cannot therefore be an 'inherited habit.'

But however diverse are the methods of securing the safety of the pupæ in the different families of butterflies, they must all be referred back to a single root, if the butterfly pedigree can be traced back to a single ancestral group. The caterpillar of the Sphingidæ does not creep up walls and trees when it is ready to enter on the pupa stage, as so many of the caterpillars of the diurnal butterflies do, but instead its instinct compels it to run about on the ground until it has found a spot which seems to it suited for boring into the earth, or, to speak less metaphorically, until it comes to a place which, from its nature, acts as a liberating stimulus to the instinct to burrow. Then it penetrates more or less deeply, according to the species, and makes a small chamber, which it lines with silken threads to prevent it collapsing; this done, it moults, and enters on the pupa stage. The exactness with which the individual movements are prescribed by instinct is seen in the way in which the size of the chamber is regulated so as to be exactly as large as is necessary to give the pupa room enough without leaving any superfluous free space. This is not so simple as it seems, and is not directly conditioned by the size of theanimal, for the caterpillar is longer and altogether of greater volume than the pupa. The same thing is seen in the stag-beetle (Lucanus cervus), the largest of our indigenous beetles, which gets its name from the powerful antler-like jaws which distinguish the male. It also undergoes its pupal metamorphosis in the earth, and makes a large hard ball of clay, hollow inside, and as smooth as if polished, and its cavity is exactly the size of the future pupa, or to speak more precisely, of the fully-formed beetle. For, as Rösel von Rosenhof in his day 'observed with amazement,' the balls in which the males lie have a much longer cavity than those built by the females, and for this reason, that when the fully-formed beetle emerges from the pupa it must, if it is a male, have room to stretch out its horns, which have till then lain upon the breast. 'For the beetles do not leave their dwelling-place until all their parts are sufficiently strong and properly hardened, and till the season has arrived in which they are wont to fly about.' The male larva thus makes a much longer pupa-house than the female larva, in anticipation, so to speak, of the enormous size of the jaws which will grow out later!

Here the instinct has two modes of expression, according as the bodily parts are male or female. Here we have to do with an action which is performed once in a lifetime, and thus the possibility of any other explanation of the origin of this instinct than through natural selection is excluded.

Not less significant is the case of the silk-cocoons. The cocoons spun by the silkworm are egg-shaped, and consist of a single thread many thousand yards in length, which is wound round the spinning caterpillar so that not a space is left uncovered. The web is firm, tough, and very difficult to tear; therefore we must grant that the pupa resting within will enjoy a very considerable degree of security against injury. But the moth must be able to get out, and that this may be possible the caterpillar is impelled by instinct to make its spinning movements such that the cocoon is eventually looser at the anterior end, so that the insect, when it is ready to emerge, can tear it asunder with its feet and make a way out for itself. For this very reason, because the silk must be torn and spoilt by the emerging insect, silk-breeders kill the pupating insect before it begins to make its way out.

But there are species whose cocoons are provided from the very start with an outlet, for the caterpillar spins the silk round itself in such a way that a round opening is left. But this opening would be not only a convenient door for the butterfly to emerge by, but an equally convenient entrance for all its enemies. It is, therefore, closedup. In the case of the 'emperor moth' (Saturnia carpini) this is effected by means of a circle of stiff bristles of silk on the inside (Fig. 33), the points of which bend outwards like those of a weir-basket (r); from the inside the emerging moth can easily push aside the bristles, while the threatening enemy from without is scared off by the stiff points of the bristles.

Fig. 33.Cocoon of the Emperor Moth(Saturnia carpini), after Rösel.A, enclosedpupa.B, emerging moth.r, hedge of bristles.fl, wings.

Such a cocoon is comparable to a work of art in which every part harmonizes with the rest, and all together are adapted as well as possible to their purpose. And yet it is all accomplished without the caterpillar having the remotest conception of what it is aiming at when it winds the endless silken thread about itself in the artistic and precisely prescribed coils. Nor has it any time for trying experiments or for learning; it must make all the complex bendings and turnings of the head which spins the thread, and of the anterior part of the body which guides the thread, quite exactly and correctly the first time if a good cocoon is to be produced. Here every possibility of interpreting this instinct as 'an inherited habit' is excluded, for each caterpillar becomes a pupa only once; and it is just as impossible to suppose that it can be directed by intelligence, since it can neither know that it is about to become a pupa, nor that, in the pupa stage, it will be in danger from enemies which will attempt to force their way into the cocoon, nor that the hedge of bristles will protect it from such enemies. Our only clue to an interpretation is in the slow process by which minute useful variations in the primitive instinct of spinning are accumulated through selection; and it is wonderful to see how exactly these spinning powers are adapted to the particular life-conditions of individual species.

Thus there are several of the Saturnides whose enormous caterpillars live on large-leaved trees, and these make use of the large leaves to form a shelter for the pupa stage, spinning them together so that the cocoon is for the most part surrounded by leaf. But as the leaf might easily fall off with the weight of the pupa, they make the leaf-stalk fast to the twig from which it grows by binding the two firmly together with a broad, strong, closely-apposed silken band.Seitz relates of the largest of all these spinners, the ChineseAttacus atlas, that this silk sheath 'is continued to the nearest strong branch, so that it is impossible with the hand to detach the leaves that conceal an Atlas-pupa from the tree.' To be sure, this pupa weighs about eleven grammes!

Since instincts vary, as well as the visible parts of an animal, a fulcrum is afforded by means of which selection can bring about all these very special adaptations to given conditions, since it always preserves for breeding the best suited variations of an already existing instinct. Any other interpretation is once more excluded.

The same may be said of insects and their egg-laying. This, too, is in many cases only performed once in a lifetime, and the insect dies before it has seen the fruit of its labour. Yet egg-laying is performed in the most effective manner, and with the most perfect security of result. It seems as if the insect knew, so to speak, exactly where, in what numbers, and how it should lay its eggs. Many Mayflies (Ephemeridæ) let their eggs fall all at once into the water in which the larvæ live; many Lepidoptera, such asMacroglossa stellatarum, lay their eggs singly, and on definite plants—the humming-bird hawk-moth, just referred to, onGalium mollugo; others, likeMelitæa cinxia, lay their eggs in heaps on the leaves of the way-bread (Plantago media), or, likeAglia tau, on the bark of a large beech-tree. Nothing in these different modes of egg-laying is due to chance or caprice; all is determined and regulated by instinct, and all, as far as we can see, is as well adapted to its purpose as possible. When, for instance,Macroglossa stellatarumlays her eggs singly, or in twos or threes, on the green leaves of the food-plant, it thereby obviates the danger of scarcity of food for the comparatively large caterpillars, since not many of them could subsist together on a single plant of Galium, whileAglia taucan place several hundred eggs on the same beech-tree trunk without having to fear that its caterpillars will not find abundant nourishment. The precision with which the egg-laying instinct works is even greater in other species in which there are more special requirements, e.g. when the eggs have to be laid on the under side of the leaves, as inVanessa prorsa, or where they have to be cemented together in a little pillar, so that they bear a deceptive resemblance to the green flower-buds of the food-plant (the stinging-nettle).

It is certainly astonishing how exactly the stimulus in these cases is specialized to the liberation of the instinct. In general the smell of the food-plant of the caterpillar is enough for most butterflies, and this attracts the female ready to deposit its eggs, butcomplete liberation of the instinct is only effected by the visual impression of the under side of the leaf. We cannot but be astonished that there is room for such finely graded nerve-mechanisms in the little brain of a butterfly, and yet it would be easy enough to adduce still more complex instincts connected with oviposition in insects. The large water-beetle,Hydrophilus piceus, lays its eggs on a floating raft made by itself; the gall-wasps must first pierce with their ovipositor into a particular part of a particular plant to be able to lay the eggs in the proper place, and this in no haphazard way but with great carefulness and in a perfectly definite manner. But there is no necessity to refer here to many or to the most complicated cases of egg-laying; I only wish to show that, even in the simple cases, such as that of the butterflies just referred to, there is a precisely regulated combination of actions which is executed mechanically, and which cannot be interpreted as inherited habit, because it never was a habit in any individual of any generation.

It is thus placed beyond the possibility of doubt that very many instincts, at least, must depend on selection, and it would be useless to go further in this direction by extending our survey to other groups of instincts. I shall, however, return later on to the study of instincts, and, after we have become acquainted with the main features of the laws of inheritance, it will then be seen that, even among higher animals, instincts can never be interpreted in terms of the Lamarckian principle.

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