We have now traced the wonderful growth of orchestration through the entire eighteenth century and well into the nineteenth. And the contributions thereto by the great Italian and French masters are by no means to be underestimated even though the German classicists tower above them. A final summing up of their general methods of instrumentation will properly conclude this chapter.
The classic symphony realizes its principal effects from the dialogue of instruments rather than from their collective forces. The primary object was clearness of polyphonic design, and since clearness of detail does not admit of great force, the first and second orchestral groups were rarely united other than infortepassages.
When examining the scores of the classics, it is important to keep in mind that in their day the numerical distribution of the string band was limited. Therefore force and volume of tone could only be obtained by keeping the intermediate and lower parts constantly in motion. Particularly the violas were inadequately represented, and it will be found that any important viola melody was almost invariably doubled by some other instrument.
The classic use of the flute fortuttiswas generally like that of a four-foot organ stop. Many of the earlier functions of the oboe gradually passed to the more responsive clarinet. But the frequent employment of divided violas as auxiliary to the wind was due to the former absence of adequate contralto wind instruments.
The larger symphonic orchestra of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven added two trumpets to the third group, acquiring thereby a feminine metallic diapason capable of masculine energy. In the exposition of their symphonies, the classicists usually gave the first theme to the strings, the second to the wood. The brass was reserved for climaxes, and the trumpets entered last. But the limitation of the "natural" trumpet was detrimental for employing it with invariable symmetry in the recurrence of thematic design. In employing the full orchestra, held chords were assigned to the second group as a support to the strings, whereas the third group added short rhythmic chords.
Operatic effects are obtained by contrast of collective forces rather than by detail of polyphony. The earlier Italian composers made frequent use of loud-voiced instruments. Their successors, however, learned to rely more and more upon the strings, so that not until the advent of Spontini and Rossini were the proper functions of the brass or even of the wood again sufficiently recognized in Italy.
From Philidor to Boieldieu, French orchestration was still somewhat heavy, though of dramatic effectiveness. The scoring of Méhul and Lesueur was powerful and dignified, that of Boieldieu, Berton, Grétry, supple and dramatic. Finally, in the first part of the nineteenth century French orchestration became still more varied and rich.
It is now time to turn our attention to the rise of the Romantic Movement, and with this subject thenext chapterproperly begins.
(Summaryonpage 69.)
Bach'sorchestration was essentially polyphonic. He contrasted his differentiated groups of instrumentsen masse, and laid the foundation for effective orchestral solo writing.
Händelrepresents solidity and sonority, and obtained the best results when employing the orchestra for massed effects in conjunction with the chorus.
Bach's contemporaries in Italy were engaged in composing church music and in writing operas that should satisfy the existing demands for vocal virtuosity. With few exceptions, they did little to advance the standard of instrumentation, although Pergolesi's writing for string orchestra was progressive.
In Germany, regard for Italian opera was fostered by establishing a permanent home for it at Hamburg; but the evolution of orchestration was but little benefited thereby. Em. Bach did good service for the cause of independent instrumental music. Credit is due to Hasse for his efforts in behalf of the Dresden orchestra, and Graun added his mite to the development of symphonic form.
After Lulli, and before the advent of Gluck, Rameau stands as the exponent of French opera, from which French orchestration was then inseparable. Rameau's reputation rests upon his harmonic innovations, the enhanced effectiveness of his chorus, and his improved orchestration. Impelled by the enthusiasm of the philosopher, Rousseau, a number of composers paved the way for Grétry by departing from tradition and inaugurating a lighter style, since known as theopéra comique.
Gluck, engrossed in resuscitating and furthering the principles promulgated by Peri and Lulli, used the orchestra primarily as a dramatic interpreter, and his scoring is conspicuous for the use of suitable instrumentation, and for the portrayal of genuine pathos.
At about the time that Gluck captured the Parisian stage, native French music received a powerful impulse from Grétry, who establishedopéra comiqueupon a permanent basis. In spite of this achievement, his contributions to orchestration are not important. Meanwhile, Italy remained true to her traditions, both as to form and contents of opera, as well as instrumentation. An exception is to be found in the scores of Jomelli. An adaptation of theopéra comiquein the garb of the Singspiel soon sprang up in Germany.
The growth of independent orchestral music was aided by such composers and directors as Sammartini, Gossec, Grétry, Stamitz, and Cannabich, being, moreover, fostered by such organizations as the "Concerts des Amateurs," the "Concerts spirituels," the Electoral band at Mannheim, the Leipzig Gewandhaus, and the Dresden orchestra.
Haydnwas the third great orchestral innovator in historic evolution, and from him date the beginnings of modern orchestration, just as Bach represents organ and Protestant Church music, Händel the oratorio, and Gluck the drama. Monteverde established the precedent of a nucleus of strings, Scarlatti adjusted their tonal balance, but Haydn readjusted the equilibriumof the suppletory segments of the orchestra as a concrete entity. His symphonies were the outcome of the earlierconcerto grosso, and thus, having remained true to the traditions of his great predecessors, he became in turn the pioneer for Mozart and Beethoven. In his scoring, the wood-wind acquired freedom and individuality as solo instruments, and, together with the brass, were led also to sustain and knit together the harmonic progressions, rather than merely to support the resonance of the strings. He emphasized the consistent use of wind instruments in pairs. Again, by exploring further their caloric capabilities, he discovered effective means for descriptive music, and his oratorios bear the seed of programmatic writing.
Mozartexplored the resources of the orchestra as opened up by Gluck and Haydn. He combined and interchanged polyphonic and monophonic style of writing to a most felicitous degree. He wrote for the strings in such a manner as to insure absolute independence and stability. The wood-wind gained in freedom of solo expression, and acquired that individuality of treatment which was its own by right. Especially the clarinet owes its absorption into the orchestra to Mozart, and from him dates the genuine origin of varied and contrasted tone-coloring.
The universal genius ofBeethoven, prompted by the depth of his nature and the nobility of his purpose, led him to combine the legacy of his predecessors with a more sensitive regard for inner details, thematic unity, emotional expression, and greater freedom and subordination of form, leading to expansion and programmatic music. Greatest of classic orchestral masters, he brought the symphonic orchestra to its highest development, discovered the utmost capabilities of each and every instrument, increased the efficiency of both strings and wood-wind, and incidentally discerned the genuine worth of the violoncellos, bassoons, and kettle-drums. The functions of the horns likewise acquired wider significance, and the trombones were reserved for the portrayal of noble dignity and ornamentation.
During the development of Beethoven's mighty conquests, Paris continued to attract aspirants to fame in operatic lines, whereas modern church music found a worthy representative in Cherubini; his orchestration is sonorous, flexible, varied and vivid. Two native composers of opera in serious vein, Méhul and Lesueur, contributed essentially to the development of French instrumentation. That of Méhul was still somewhat heavy, but embodied sonority, novel combinations, and at times a certain melancholy coloring. Lesueur was one of the pioneers in the use of grand and majestic combinations. The most prominent followers of Grétry in the lyricgenrewere Boieldieu, whose instrumentation is conspicuous for its daintiness, variety and contrast; Auber, master of clear yet effervescent scoring; Hérold, whose orchestra is compact and well balanced; finally, Halévy, an exponent of both varied and massed effects. Italian instrumentation was advanced especially by Spontini and to a certain extent by Rossini; the former inaugurated the practice of doubling and redoubling the harmonies in massed combination. French opera was also greatly influenced by Meyerbeer, who imparted to the orchestra massed effects, novel and rich detail, characteristic individuality.
Credit for the development and perfection of symphonic form and orchestration is due to the great German classicists alone; but the evolution of the genuinely dramatic resources of the orchestra rests largely in the hands of the French composers preceding the ascendency of the Romantic Movement.
A convenientclassification of the great German composers of the nineteenth century is to be found in "Famous Composers and their Works," a classification which will be followed in these chapters. It consists of three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The Classical Romanticists," and "The New Movement." As has been already stated, the basis of the Romantic School was simply a further development of Beethoven's descriptive writing, which created a powerful impression upon the so-called founders of the school, Spohr and Weber; they in turn were followed by Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and their disciples. The Classical Romanticists accepted the substance of romanticism in music, but remained more or less true to classical form. Raff stands at the head of this classification, Brahms as its chief exponent. The New Movement dates from the tumultuous upheavals in the musical world caused by the innovations of Berlioz in France, Liszt and Wagner in Germany. The evolution of these three movements will now be reviewed in logical sequence; but it should be borne in mind that this evolution had already begun during the later development of French and Italian opera as discussed in theprevious chapter.
Spohr(1784-1859). The fruits of Spohr's activity as a composer present a rather peculiar mixture of progressive zeal and conventional mannerism. He was not alive to the true greatness of Beethoven's genius, neither can he be compared with Weber as a dramatic writer. On the other hand, Spohr was instrumental in awakening a keener interest for the supernatural, and he aimed to illustrate certain definite ideas by means of musical expression. This trait is especially conspicuous in his symphonies; and these entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders of programmatic orchestral music. Again, Spohr was one of the greatest violinists of his day, and as the natural result, his writing for strings was highly effective. Consequently his double string quartets, his octets, nonets, etc., are especially valued in musical literature. Spohr contributed to theevolution of orchestration proper but little that was actually new. But here again the development of violin technique stimulated at least a freer and more elaborate manner of employing the strings. Prout suggests that his orchestration resembles to some extent that of Mendelssohn, in that the equilibrium is admirably adjusted; and the general color-scheme is further enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass. In minor details of instrumentation, Spohr made some interesting experiments similar to those of Berlioz, such as the introduction of a number of kettle-drums into the orchestra. Prout also refers to the earthquake chorus in "Calvary" where six drums are played upon by two performers, and rolls in seconds, thirds, and fifths for two drums together are to be found. But as a whole, his reputation is due chiefly to his great achievements as a violinist and to the incentive he gave to romanticism in music.
Weber[37](1786-1826). Spohr's efforts in behalf of programmatic music are by no means to be undervalued; at the same time it must be borne in mind that even his finest works are eclipsed by those of Weber by virtue of the latter's marvellous imagination, unerring judgment in the choice of appropriate means of expression, and huge technique in orchestration. Weber began his career during what might be called the transition period in modern art. It would be here out of place to enlarge upon the general conditions attendant upon the awakening of the so-called "storm and stress" agitation in Germany. Weber's artistic development was, however, so inseparably allied with this movement that at least a brief review thereof would appear indispensable before proceeding to an examination of his orchestral works.
Langhans sums up the mental and emotional conditions of this transition period by saying that "in place of the general subject-matter with which the lyric poetry of the preceding century had been satisfied, the subjective feelings of the poet now came to the front, and the essential nature of lyric poetry, a boundless submersion into the innermost life of the soul, could under these circumstances attain full prominence." Germany was at this time greatly interested in the writings of Byron and of Jean Paul Richter. Romantic poetry in turn began to influence both dramatic and lyric music. Indications of departure from the elevated and reflective style of the great classical composers were apparent. Time-honored rules and traditions began to be neglected. Individualism asserted itself. The general tendency of the epoch embodied a certain mystical element—a return to the chivalrous atmosphere of mediæval romance. And this tendency was in harmony with the very nature of Weber's imaginativetrend. In turn, this unfettered realm of imagination, peopled with sylphs, nymphs, fairies, contained latent and most propitious possibilities for progressive orchestration. Weber's instrumentation was founded upon that of Beethoven, but it was none the less distinctive and original. It was above all dramatic. His true greatness lay in the power of orchestral portrayal in the more vivid scenes of his operas, and in his operatic overtures. His two symphonies are comparatively weak. Though deficient in artistic education, Weber's romantic disposition and rare appreciation for instrumental effects enabled him to become one of the greatest modern orchestral writers, and his scoring is a model for all later composers. He stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with him a new period began. Moreover, he was the creator of modern German romantic opera. As Kapellmeister at Dresden he was instrumental in counteracting the influence of Italian music which was still in vogue at the Court, and he helped to mould the tastes of the public in favor of native dramatic and orchestral music. "Der Freischütz" is the representative of ideal national opera. Here the orchestration is admirably adapted to depict and intensify the scenes and situations. It abounds in striking contrasts that are ever consistent with the demands of what has been called the "local" coloring. Episodes requiring sombre and mysterious tonal tints are again offset by the purest of lyrics and by powerful dramatic climaxes. "Oberon," on the other hand, abounds in more peaceful melodic and harmonic fancies, poetic revery, and dainty scoring. Though the effectiveness of "Euryanthe" is marred by reason of its insipid libretto, it is nevertheless the most important of Weber's operas, considered from a musical standpoint. Its continuous music and the interweaving of recitative and melody directly point the way to Wagner. Weber displayed superb power in the development of his overtures. In the second volume of his "Music and Musicians," Wagner declared that Weber might be said to have originated a novel form of overture or "dramatic fantasy," of which Wagner considered the "Oberon" overture to be the best example.
In turning to the details of Weber's instrumentation it is found that no new instruments were introduced. Beauty and novelty were attained rather by inherent regard for suitable application of tonal color and by the discovery of new combinations. Although Weber, like Spohr, did not venerate Beethoven as he should have done, it was not possible for him to improve upon the great master's string writing. Of course certain novel effects are to be found, such as the subdivision of the violinssoliinto numerous parts, the viola accompaniment to Annette's ballad,[38]and the use of the same instrument as bass to "Leise, leise"[39]in "Der Freischütz."
But perhaps no other composer contributed more to the independence of the wood-wind.[40]Weber was exceedingly modern in the use of small combinations.In order to obtain a rare and fairy-like effect in "Oberon," the first flute and first clarinet give out the melody; the second flute plays arpeggios as does likewise the second clarinet, though in contrary motion; a solo horn is employed as bass. The opening bars of Annette's song in "Der Freischütz" may be cited as containing a good example for the oboe as does also the accompaniment to Kilian's song for the bassoon. But it was quite particularly the clarinet for which Weber showed especial predilection. Beautiful phrases for the clarinet are to be found in the Allegro of the overture to "Der Freischütz"[41]as well as in the overture to "Oberon"; and the characteristics of the instrument in its entire range are effectively displayed in the introduction to Adolar's aria in the second act of "Euryanthe." Moreover, he was the first to discover the tragic possibilities of the chalumeau range,[42]as exemplified by the held notes in the lowest part of the instrument accompanying the entries of Zamiel in "Der Freischütz."
Next to the clarinet, the horns[43]received especial consideration from Weber, and acquired greater freedom and individuality, being brought into requisition not alone for mellowcantileneand sustained harmonies, but also as the exponents of jubilant outbursts or of gloomy whisperings. Many admirable illustrations will readily be recalled, such as the passages for hornssoliin the introduction of the "Freischütz" overture,[44]the trio for horns in the Romance in "Preciosa," and the horn accompaniment to the Mermaid's Song in "Oberon." With Weber, the use of four horns and three trombones became the rule, whereas with Beethoven it had been the exception.
All things considered, it is evident that modern opera and modern orchestration are immensely indebted to Weber, and his influence has made itself more or less felt upon the writings of all subsequent dramatic and orchestral composers.
Two contemporaries of Weber who followed in his footsteps as composers of romantic opera were Konradin Kreutzer (1780) and Marschner (1795). Kreutzer's "Nachtlager von Granada" has become widely known, but of the two men, Marschner is by far the more important. He is popularly known as the heir of Weber, and has been called the connecting link between Weber and Wagner. Himself stimulated and influenced by his friend, Weber, he in turn helped to mould the earlier works of Wagner. His masterpiece, "Hans Heiling," abounds in natural melodic expression, truthful interpretation and dramatic energy. Neither Kreutzer nor Marschner can be cited as having contributed anything substantially new to instrumentation, but they at least helped to strengthen the foundations of modern orchestration as initiated by Weber.
The two greatest representatives of the early Romantic School were Weber andSchubert(1797-1828), indeed, the latter is to be regarded as the ideal exponent of the romantic poets. He was the first to raise the Lied from comparative obscurity to such prominence as to bring the lyric element on a par with that of the dramatic and epic. His nature was contemplative rather than dramatic. Nevertheless some of his greatest masterpieces, such as the "Erlkönig," embody not only dramatic but epic characterization as well. He was above all the master of exquisite melody, and both his songs and his instrumental works are further conspicuous for their daring harmonies, animated and varied rhythm. He opened up a new pathway in the field of accompaniment which acquired not only greater importance in intensifying emotional expression, but came also to be the faithful ally of the vocal part as interpreter of the poem. The use of little motives in the accompaniment to his songs might be looked upon as an anticipation in the miniature of Wagner's thematic treatment of his "Leit-motiven."
Schubert's mode of life was in some respects similar to that of Beethoven in that he lived apart from the public. Spurred on by the example of Beethoven, he added to his series of youthful symphonies two masterpieces which are next in importance to those of his illustrious model. Both the C major and the unfinished B minor symphonies display rare skill in the handling of orchestral instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. An intimate acquaintance with their respective characteristics was afforded him during his early training, and every bar reveals the hand of a master who without hesitation knew what effects he desired and how to obtain them. Although his orchestral works lack that depth of conception that only Beethoven possessed, Schubert nevertheless supplied the deficiency by means of beautiful melody, tender expression, forceful harmonic progressions, and, as just intimated, a perfect command of orchestral resources. Schubert enlarged the scope of practical instrumentation by discovering two exceedingly valuable and effective modes of expression that were entirely new so far as manner of treatment is concerned. No composer before him had elicited from the trombones such impressive utterance as is to be found, for instance, in the first movement of the symphony in C where the trombonespianissimointone the melody. The first innovation consisted, therefore, of employing the trombones freely as solo instruments, or again as independent factors in three-part harmony,pianissimo, or in unison,forte. The second innovation was the felicitous manner in which he contrasted solo instruments of the wood-wind group, or what Prout calls "a kind of dialogue between them."As an admirable illustration well-known to all, he calls attention to the charming dialogue between the flute, oboe, and clarinet in the two Ballet airs and in the Entr'-act in B flat of the music to "Rosamunde." Many other interesting details of instrumentation could be cited such as the effective use of the trumpet in the slow movement of the symphony in G; his chamber music, also, furnishes admirable examples of string writing. Among the most prominent are the trio in E flat, the quartet in D minor, and the quintet in C.
Only in recent years has the influence of Schubert's orchestral works made itself prominently felt, for until the middle of the last century most of them had remained in manuscript. Moreover as recently as fifty odd years ago one of his symphonies was considered excessively difficult by the principal orchestra of Vienna. Grove says that "though the whole work was announced, such had been the difficulties at rehearsal that only the first two movements were given, and they were carried off by an interpolation of an air from 'Lucia' between them."
Mendelssohn[45](1809-1847). Concurrent with the advent of Mendelssohn and Schumann, the fascination that Rossini had exercised in Germany lost its hold, and the public learned to appreciate more and more the sterling qualities of its own native music. But not only did the efforts of the German composers of the nineteenth century begin to win due recognition, but also there was rekindled a veneration for the creations of the great classicists. This was in a large manner due to Mendelssohn's untiring efforts. Possessed of broad culture, wealth, and attractive personality, he combined the spirit of romanticism with the structural forms of classicism; this conservatism helped to balance the restless tendencies that were at that time dominating music and poetry. His compositions are imbued with beauty and sweetness of melody, with varied harmonies, buoyant orchestration; his choral writing is the most fluent since Bach's and surpasses in this respect that of Händel. Melody is emphasized; tragic depth is lacking. He excelled as a writer of "representative" music, but even here his refined sense for euphony never deserted him. He was successful in all forms excepting opera. "St. Paul" and "Elijah" are the most important oratorios since those of Haydn; his violin concerto comes next to Beethoven's as a favorite; his symphonies are characteristic, romantic, and abound in "local" coloring. His style may be divided into two distinct classes: the lyric, as typified in the "Songs without Words," and the fantastic and imaginative as exposed in the Scherzo of the "Midsummer Night's Dream."
Mendelssohn's contributions to the details of instrumentation were bothoriginal and varied. Already in "Midsummer Night's Dream," of which the Overture was written when he was but seventeen years old, are to be found marvellous effects that are indeed fairy-like in their daintiness.[46]In fact it might be justly claimed that this is Mendelssohn's best orchestral work, taking into consideration its polished form, transparent and perfectly balanced instrumentation. Noteworthy for their novelty are the rapid staccato passages for the wood-wind in the Scherzo.[47]In none other of his works has the flute been treated in a more charming manner.[48]Familiar to all is the romantic and extended employment of the horns in the Notturno,[49]as well as the ludicrous utterances of the opheicleide in the Overture.
As a composer of oratorio, Mendelssohn's choruses, recitatives and German chorale melodies plainly show the influence of Bach's "Passion Music." This is particularly noticeable in "St. Paul." Mendelssohn's mightiest creation is undoubtedly "Elijah." It satisfies every demand by reason of its expressive recitative, its dramatic and descriptive choruses, its beauty of lyric episodes and the appropriateness of its structural form. The orchestral score of "Elijah" is one of Mendelssohn's best. Among minor details, the violas are brought into prominence as in the accompaniment to "Lord God of Abraham" where they are given the highest part. A well-known phrase is the 'cello accompaniment in thirds to the baritone solo. The brass is again reënforced by an opheicleide. The opening of the chorus, "O be gracious, ye immortals," in "St. Paul" is accompanied by divided violas and 'cellos, and parts for the serpent are to be found in the same work.
Both the subject-matter and the orchestration of Mendelssohn's symphonies show exceptional originality, and the "Scotch," No. 2 in A minor, as well as the "Italian," No. 3 in A major, are worthy companions to the "Midsummer Night's Dream." His symphonies are full of freshness and vigor. Though classic purity of form is strictly adhered to, Beethoven's polyphony and Weber's picturesque portrayal are skilfully combined. Like Beethoven, he embodied in his symphonies certain dramatic characteristics. Rapid passages for the wood-wind, similar to those in the "Midsummer Night's Dream," are again to be met with in the Scherzo of the "Scotch" symphony. Mendelssohn was conservative in employing the brass; of all the early romanticists he remained the most faithful to traditional usage of the third group, although trombones were now incorporated as habitual members thereof. Among other novel combinations, divided violas, reënforced by clarinets, intone the second subject in the first movement of the "Lobgesang" symphony. In connection with Mendelssohn it is interesting to recall the fact that as late as 1829 the pianoforte was still sometimes employedas a means for conducting, since in that year he directed his C minor symphony in that way in London.
Mendelssohn's overtures are more pronounced in their modern romantic tendencies than his symphonies. They are distinctly programmatic, even though in structure they are moulded on classic forms. From them dates the development of the modern romantic concert overture. Mendelssohn's merits and defects have led to much violent discussion, but the suavity of his melody, the purity of his form and the delicacy of his orchestration have been excelled by none.
The most prominent associates and disciples of Mendelssohn were F. Hiller, Rietz, the Englishman, Bennett, and the Dane, Gade.
Ferdinand Hiller (1811) was a celebrated and prolific composer, being in his day considered the most notable musician in West Germany. It was his rare privilege to be personally acquainted with no less than seven of the greatest composers the world has ever produced—Cherubini, Beethoven, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin and Liszt. He was, moreover, a fine pianist and conductor, and was particularly happy as an interpreter of Beethoven. His compositions are pleasing and well-rounded in form; but they were modelled after those of Mendelssohn and are now comparatively forgotten in consequence of their lack of individuality.
Julius Rietz (1812) was closely associated with Mendelssohn whom he eventually succeeded as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts. He is primarily to be remembered for having edited Beethoven's symphonies as well as the entire works of Mendelssohn.
Sterndale Bennett (1816) was one of England's greatest composers, the most gifted, in fact, after Purcell. He was a friend both of Mendelssohn and of Schumann, and their enthusiasm encouraged and stimulated him to further develop his own talents. Although the influence more particularly of Mendelssohn is plainly to be found in his works, he retained his individuality and displayed numerous traits that are undeniably original. His most important works are an oratorio "The Woman of Samaria"; a cantata "The May Queen"; a symphony in G minor; four overtures, and four pianoforte concertos. He has been called the founder of a new "English School."
Since the substance of Gade's music is nominally Scandinavian in character, it will again be referred to later on in connection with the Northern countries.
Schumann(1810-1856). In spite of the depth of thought and feeling, the brilliancy of ideas, and the programmatic tendencies that signalize Schumann's monumental productions, he unfortunately holds the unique position of being one of the few great masters who did not excel in orchestration. Nevertheless, such is the importance of his orchestral works that they have won for themselves an exalted and permanent place in musical literature. Schumann's relation to the Romantic Movement may be tersely stated as in one of Dickinson's condensed reviews: "The romantic ideal attains self-consciousness in Schumann. Weber and Schubert never called themselves romanticists and were not wholly aware of the tendencies of their work. Schumann, a critical thinker and self-analyst, not only moulded and colored his music in accord with certain definite poetic conceptions imbibed from the romantic writers, but also became the literary champion of romanticism in music, and aimed directly at fixed radical principles in the critical and creative thought of his time. He, therefore, not only marks the beginning of a new era in musical art, but is also the type of the modern liberally cultured and reflective musician." With Schumann, the subject-matter and treatment of design are of all importance. His compositions contain the quintessence of the poetic and romantic. Every little melody is a miniature poem in tones, tinged by a certain melancholy and even gloomy coloring. He was, like Mendelssohn, an ardent disciple of Bach, but his harmonies are freer and bolder than Mendelssohn's, and his pianoforte compositions show the influence more especially of Chopin. The chief characteristics of these works arecantabileexpression, intricacy, and the predominance of harmony and rhythm over melody. A multitude of ideas are frequently crowded into the space of a few bars. As a song writer Schumann rivalled and perhaps even excelled Schubert. The songs of these two peers, together with those of Franz (1815), represent the highest ideal of the German Lied, for the exquisite taste and sentiment of Franz appeal strongly to the cultivated musician. Although Schubert's influence upon Schumann's songs is plainly to be seen, Schumann enhanced the functions of the accompaniment and frequently assigned but a secondary rôle to the vocal part. Novelty of form and style characterize his works for soli, chorus and orchestra; portions of "Scenes from Faust," "Paradise and the Peri," "Manfred," represent his highest attainment and contain also some effective scoring. The instrumentation of his chamber music betrays more regard for sonority than for classic counterpoint. Of surpassing beauty are the quartets in A and in A minor, and the greatest of all, the quintet in E flat.
Schumann's four symphonies rank next in importance to those of Beethovenand Schubert, and in depth of sentiment and emotional power he proved himself a worthy successor to Beethoven. His symphonies are stamped with distinctive individuality, traditional form being subjected to certain modifications that were in keeping with the progressive tendencies of his nature. Thus the D minor symphony is intended to be played entire without a pause, and subject-matter from one movement reasserts itself in another. It would be a waste of time to analyze Schumann's instrumentation too closely. He followed but could not equal that of Mendelssohn. Artistic feeling for orchestral effects and occasional good scoring are to be found, but much of the latter is thick and heavy. He was apt to follow Rossini's more or less trivial methods of employing the third enlarged orchestral group. Even Schubert was not entirely exempt from this mannerism. Such incongruities as the employment of a bassoon as a bass to trombones could also be cited. Of material advantage, however, was his introduction into German orchestras of valve-horns and valve-trumpets. But in a word, it is the substantial worth of the music itself, not the instrumentation, that has made Schumann's orchestral works immortal.
Among the prominent associates and disciples of Schumann should be mentioned Volkmann, Reinecke, Bargiel, and Jensen.
The compositions of Volkmann (1815) show affinity to Schumann's. His pianoforte works bear fanciful titles, and his symphonies and quartets are massive and musicianly. But like most satellites, he was not possessed of sufficient spontaneity to acquire wide-spread or enduring recognition. The compositions of Carl Reinecke (1824), who held the honorable position of director of the Gewandhaus Concerts from 1860 until 1895, show the influence more especially of Schumann, although that of Mendelssohn as well as of Wagner and Brahms is also apparent. He owes his reputation as a composer largely to his smaller works, in which the tastes of a refined pianist are much in evidence. Few could be compared with him as an interpreter of Mozart, and his activity not alone as a composer of merit but also as a prominent pianist and distinguished conductor has won him universal fame. Bargiel (1828) was one of the foremost disciples of Schumann whose principles he zealously disseminated, both in his capacity as a fine teacher and as composer. His symphonies, chamber music and quite especially his psalms for chorus and orchestra show considerable originality and fine musicianship. Likewise Jensen (1837) took Schumann unreservedly as his model in spite of being in sympathetic accord with Gade. His songs and pianoforte pieces in the lyricgenreare imbued with true feeling and rare sensuous charm.
In a general sense, all modern composers belong to the Romantic School, but for the sake of consistency in this general classification, Lachner, Jadassohn and Moszkowski should be mentioned as direct followers of both Mendelssohn and Schumann.
Franz Lachner (1803) was prominently connected with the musical life of Munich prior to the rise of Wagner worship in 1865. In spite of his untiring activity as a conductor, he was one of the most prolific and at the same time most popular composers of South Germany. His style betrays the mind of a learned man. The harmonies are modern, but his works are none the less imbued with a certain tinge of classicism. Lachner wrote several operas and oratorios, eight symphonies, and much chamber and church music; but of greatest importance are the suites for grand orchestra of which he wrote eight. They are magnificent specimens of contrapuntal knowledge. Some condemn his writings as being "Kapellmeistermusik" and as containing nothing truly original or great. Riemann's views are radically different:—"Lachner is at his best in his orchestral suites, which, as a kind of modern continuation of Bach-Händel orchestral movements, occupy a distinctive place in musical literature. Sovereign command of contrapuntal devices combined with nobility of invention will secure for them in the future greater appreciation than is accorded them at the present day."
Jadassohn (1831) holds an important position in the history of instrumentation, not so much, perhaps, as a result of his own composition as for the excellence of his teaching and of his theoretical works, which include the valuable "Lehrbuch der Instrumentation." A prominent feature of many of his works is the facility with which canonic writing is applied. Among the best-known and most popular of his orchestral compositions is the Serenade, opus 35.
Moszkowski (1854) is one of the younger composers whose writings are imbued with the spirit of Mendelssohn and Schumann rather than with the local coloring of Poland as might have been expected since his father was a native of that country. The most popular of his works are the "Spanische Tänze" for pianoforte, whereas the most important in orchestral form is the symphonic poem "Jeanne d'Arc." The style is dignified and musicianly, but lacks the true greatness of originality.
The list of faithful adherents to the pure romanticism of the early school is herewith properly concluded. Only an imaginary line, however, separates Spohr and Weber from Raff and Brahms; so thefollowing chapteris nothing more than a continuation of the present discussion.
(Summaryonpage 175.)
Therepresentatives of classical romanticism are Raff, Rubinstein, Goldmark, Brahms, Bruch, Rheinberger. The influence that Raff and Brahms had upon orchestration requires especial consideration. Rubinstein will be referred to again in connection with Russian composers. And a brief analysis will be sufficient to discover the respective characteristics that distinguish Goldmark's highly colored orchestration, that of Bruch in accompaniment to noble choral works, and Rheinberger's conservative yet finished instrumentation for sacred composition.
Raff(1822-1882). To begin with Raff, it is by no means easy to determine the precise value of his compositions. Masterpieces must be arraigned side by side with works of decided inferiority. He adapted Beethoven's calorific polyphony together with the charmingly picturesque style of Weber, but did not approach his eminent contemporary, Brahms, either in depth of thought or in originality of ideas. He was, however, superior to Brahms as an orchestral colorist. Encouraged by the sympathy and practical help of such men as Mendelssohn, Liszt, von Bülow, he became in his younger days a sturdy advocate of the modern German tendencies, and even wrote a pamphlet entitled "Die Wagnerfrage"; but in spite of his affiliation with the Weimar coterie, Raff eventually developed into a composer more especially of chamber music and symphonies. "Im Walde" and "Lenore" are the best known of the orchestral works,—indeed, the first named is without doubt his most important production. Raff was essentially a romanticist; what is more, he went so far as to write descriptive program music. Nevertheless, his style bears but little relation to that of Wagner or Liszt; it displays, in fact, a decided reserve in that he employed traditional forms and Beethoven's symphonic orchestra. Notwithstanding Raff's descriptive faculties, his works betray unquestionable lyric tendencies. Occasional approach to thesalonstyle is also in evidence, nor do the larger works reveal that breadth of style and invariable loftiness of purpose that signalize those of Beethoven and Brahms. He possessed great facility, but this very attributeendangered the quality of his conceptions and was conducive to carelessness and loss of fine feeling.
Striking insignia of absolutely original scoring are not conspicuous, although the entire character of the orchestration gives evidence of fertile imagination and sound judgment. Some of Wagner's full and rich effects found their way also into Raff's symphonic pages. The latter was particularly happy in the use of horns, wrote almost exclusively for valve-horns and valve-trumpets, and established a precedent by selecting those in F for regular practice.
In view of the fact that Raff's style is a compound of classicism and romanticism, together with yet more advanced tendencies so far as the "program" element is concerned, his title as pioneer of the classical-romanticists has been applied with good judgment. The succeeding luminaries of this school revealed similar tendencies. Rubinstein, Goldmark and Bruch are all to a more or less degree exponents of the programmatic idea. Even so conservative a composer as Rheinberger, whom some are tempted to call even a reactionist, was at times subjugated by its fascination. This is borne out by his "Wallenstein" symphony. Brahms stands forth in his solitary grandeur as the one exception to the rule. Towering above his fellow classical-romanticists, he attained the exaltation of his fame by a path they could not tread. It is to him that we now must turn.
Brahms(1833-1897). In the April number, 1895, of the magazine entitled "Music" are to be found the following remarkable assertions in an otherwise admirable article by Mr. W.S.B. Matthews:—"Händel is antiquated; Bach still lives, but we can enjoy his works only as exceptions to our current diet; Haydn symphonies sound like string quartets played a trifle large and seasoned with a few notes of trumpets and wood-wind. Mozart in feminine phrase is 'too sweet for any use,' and Mendelssohn has departed to the place where good boys go. We have left to us the over-worked immortal nine of Beethoven (now rather shrunk to five) and two of Schubert; we tolerate Schumann for the sake of his ideas. We hear Tschaikowsky because he is a master in his way. But the greatest of tone-poets now living, and the greatest since Beethoven, appears to be Brahms."
These broad assertions may be looked upon as revealing in all good faith the convictions of the author himself; again, Mr. Matthews may have aimed to be facetious; or else these assertions were intended merely to expose the tenets of the ultra-enthusiasts for one of the latest phases of art. It would appear to the present writer that, irrespective of motives,suchcomparisons are entirely superfluous. Brahms occupies an isolated and lofty pinnacle by himself. Calm andself-contained in the midst of the restless and feverish impetuosity that characterizes the "Sturm und Drang" period, he preferred the seclusion and intellectuality of a reflective student's life, and moulded his creations in accordance therewith. The only comparison that would appear at all relevant is the unshaken faith in an ideal that he shared with Wagner. Beyond this their views diverged when it came to the question of what this ideal should be or how it should be attained. Brahms was a strenuous opponent of the "New German School." The intellectual and tragic aspect of modern absolute music washisideal. The leading theme was the germ for synthetical treatment. Orchestral coloring or dramatic effect was of secondary consideration. Brahms accepted as his model Bach's austerely noble methods and strict logical process of thematic development, whereas the exterior forms of Beethoven and Schumann were virtually sufficient for his needs. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that his conservative formal structure was but a slavish imitation of theirs. Many of his works, such as the Rhapsodies andKlavierstücke, are certainly not in strict sonata form, nor are they lacking in distinctive individuality. Brahms is the ideal exponent of purity, strength, profundity, nobility, greatness of expression and novelty of treatment. His aims differed from those of the earlier classicists in that his subject-matter embodies beauty of thought rather than external beauty in music. The prevalence in many of his works of a certain heaviness of spirit and the reflex even of asceticism have been pointed out by more than one of his biographers.
It is not surprising to find that in the terms in which Rheinberger once expressed himself to the present writer, the background of Brahms' orchestral canvas is of a grayish hue. Nor can his scoring be cited as a model for felicitous instrumentation or glowing orchestral colors. In listening to his symphonies, one is occasionally disturbed by a certain heaviness or what can be better expressed as "muddiness." This defect is primarily due to the low distribution of parts for violas as well as for basses. Vagueness of detail in melodic delineation of inner voices is the more conspicuous since Brahms attached great importance to the functions of the viola, in addition to which he frequently divided them. Certain conventionalities in writing for the wood-wind are also apparent. Passages in thirds and sixths are analogous to those in Beethoven's earlier works; other passages recall certain ones of Schubert. But we can verily afford to overlook such minor details. Let us rather turn to a consideration of those essentials of Brahms' symphonic and other orchestral writings that have caused him to be justly regarded as the worthy apostle of Beethoven and direct successor to Schumann.
The most striking feature of his symphonies is their colossal structure. They are evolved without apparent effort. There is no retrogression, no episodic mediocrity. Brahms had no theories to promulgate, no gorgeous tableaux toportray. Nevertheless, his orchestration, though conservative, bears the impress of distinctive individuality, is replete with variety and characteristic tone-color, and abounds in peculiar and interesting combinations. A few examples, drawn from four distinctive types of composition, will be sufficient to illustrate the fertility of his imagination. Prout calls special attention in one of his articles on the orchestra to the second Serenade in A, the Symphony in D, and the "Deutsches Requiem." We will add to these the "Variations on a theme by Haydn." The Serenade, opus 16, is one of the earlier works. It is scored for the usual wood-wind in pairs, besides horns and strings, but there are no violins throughout the entire piece. It presents a phase of instrumentation foreign to the usually heavy style of Brahms, and abounds in variated shades of coloring. The symphony embodies the highest attainment of orchestral development and "solid" instrumentation. The nine variations suggest novel aspects in the field of independent orchestral music. But on the whole, perhaps the finest orchestral effects are to be found in the "Deutsches Requiem," and it is possible that some of the tonal tints employed therein were suggested by Cherubini's Requiem in C minor. The reader may recall the citation onpage 60of Cherubini's choice of instruments for the purpose of accompanying the opening chorus. There the required sombre tone-color is obtained by employing divided violas and violoncellos with double-basses, bassoons, horns, and muffled kettle-drums. The solemn and appropriate color that pervades the opening chorus of the German Requiem—"Blessed are they that mourn"—is due to the expressive powers of the string band without violins. The violas and violoncellos are again divided, and the general subdued effect is further enhanced by means of sustained notes for the horns. It is not intended to convey the idea that these two requiems could in any way be suggestive one of the other beyond a certain similarity of tonal color in the opening choruses of both. In all other respects they are radically different. The treatment of musical subject-matter proper as well as the exposition of sacred words show diametrically opposed points of view. The funeral march which ushers in the following chorus "For all flesh is as grass" affords another proof of Brahms' versatility when searching for further religious effects that shall nevertheless embody sufficient contrast so as to avoid monotony in two consecutive movements. The violins and violas are not only divided into six parts, but are muted as well. The string parts are redoubled by the wood-wind, while the kettle-drums lend distinctive character to the passage by means of a prominent though subdued rhythmic figure.
The question may well be asked why Brahms should not be regarded as the seventh of the great classicists rather than as a classical-romanticist. The answer is not hard to find. His treatment of form and instrumentation is distinctly classic. His method of harmonization contains modern characteristics. Thecomplex rhythms that are conspicuous in many of his earlier works together with their rather obtrusive syncopations and cross accents are suggestive of Schumann; but whereas Schumann adhered to some marked rhythm that was consistently carried out in order to acquire variety and to knit together the organic structure as a whole, Brahms gradually branched out into broader fields, so that eventually the relegation of rhythm to a comparatively subordinate relationship to the general architectural scheme reverts once more to Beethoven's methods of procedure. Thus Brahms displayed a progressive spirit when employing doctrines of the classic school, which was tempered withal by extreme caution in the acceptance of modern tendencies. The amalgamation is felicitous to a high degree, and has had a most salutary effect upon the ever increasing inclination of the ultra-modern school to enslave music in the throes of what has been called "a thrice-intensifiedWeltschmerz." Even as Wagner stands supreme as the representative dramatic and orchestral writer of the nineteenth century, so Brahms may be regarded as a peer without rival in the art of thematic development, as the noblest exponent since Beethoven of large proportions and great breadth, and as the most prominent symphonic writer since Schumann, whose superior he was in the technics of orchestration.
The fact thatGoldmark(1830) was born in Hungary does not entitle him to recognition as a composer of decisively indigenous characteristics,—indeed, the scenes of three of his most important works are all laid in the Far East. Neither can it be said that his strength lies in spontaneity of musical thought or freedom of thematic treatment. He owes his reputation primarily to his gifts as an orchestral writer. Like Berlioz, he lacks the geniality of musical inspiration, but atones for this by vivid orchestral color and mastery of material effects. The fortunes of divers Oriental queens have evidently aroused Goldmark's most lively sympathy! But this peculiar circumstance is felicitous to a high degree, for what a wealth of glowing color surrounds his dramatization of the queen of Sheba, how picturesque is the presentation of the Amazon queen in the overture "Penthesilea," what power of imagination is revealed in the unfolding of Kalidasa's poetic love story! Goldmark could have found no finer opportunity for rare contrasts and telling effects than in this portrayal of Dushyanta, the Rajah—chivalrous, though unfaithful, of Śakuntalá—tender and guileless, yet queenly. Goldmark succeeded admirably, and this world-renowned overture is, by virtue of its orchestration, a faithful interpretation of Dushyanta's wooing, the secret marriage, his forgetfulness of Śakuntalá and her womanly fortitude during the years of unrecognition, her solicitous watchfulness over the welfare of Sarva-Damana, their child, and the final touching reunion and retribution. Although "Die Königin von Saba" has won wide-spread popularity, Goldmark is, on the whole, at his best in purely instrumental forms. The opening up of his career is largely due to "Śakuntalá" and to a Scherzo for orchestra, opus 19, both of which precede the above-named opera. His pleasing symphony "Die ländliche Hochzeit" may not embody the warmth and passion that characterize the Oriental subjects, but it is orchestrated with rare skill, contains some daring harmonic progressions, and reveals sentient appreciation for rich and glowing colors. But this symphony and that in E flat again prove that Goldmark holds the attention of his audience not so much by originality of themes and elaborate development as by the sterling qualities of his instrumentation.
Antithetical to Goldmark's dependency upon the orchestra for effect is the euphonious choral style ofBruch(1838). Here are to be found naturalness of invention, graceful and flowing melody, simplicity, and above all beauty of harmonic structure. Bruch exhibits extraordinary power in handling large vocal forces, and displays, moreover, marked predilection for Greek and Scandinavian subjects. The cantatas "Odysseus" and "Arminius," for soli, mixed chorus and orchestra, are counted among his most important works and embody the most favorable phase of his orchestration. "Salamis," a cantata for male chorus, is an inspiring song of victory, and "Frithjof," likewise written for men's voices, is an intensely dramatic exposition of six scenes chosen from the Frithjof Saga of Tegner. Best known is perhaps the "Lied von der Glocke," whereas the grave and earnest accents of the Hebraic "Kol Nidrei," together with the tragic intensity and passionate nature of the violin concerto in G minor, opus 26, show what Bruch could do when employing the orchestra to throw a solo instrument into relief. His independent orchestral works are not sufficiently spontaneous, whereas his accompaniments embody perfect taste, genuine expression and an abundance of energetic force. The very nature of his themes is such as to require either vocal forces or a solo stringed instrument to present them in the most favorable light. Bruch possesses supreme mastery of modern orchestral resources, but is at his best in the art of accompaniment.
No composer has ever taken his art more to heart thanRheinberger(1839). Composition was for him a serious, even sacred avocation. It was not to be approached in a spirit of levity, nor could it assume for him so humble amission as merely to amuse and entertain. This loftiness of purpose is visible even in his rather infrequent efforts in lighter vein. Although he was, to a degree, unconsciously swept along on the irresistible tidal wave of the epoch, nevertheless his conceptions found utterance in a but mild form of romanticism, and his works are seasoned with a certain spice of classic severity. It may be fearlessly asserted that Rheinberger is the greatest of all composers for the organ after Bach and Mendelssohn. His organ works are rich in color and of masterful effect. They combine free harmonic treatment, freely developed counterpoint and freedom of form. These attributes are particularly noticeable in the first organ concerto. His genius further reveals itself in the religious fervor that pervades his mighty series of sacred works. These two forms of composition—organ and church music, together with part-songs of rare beauty, are the most notable accomplishments of this versatile master. On the other hand, neither his operas nor his orchestral works can be regarded in the light of important contributions to musical literature. Strange, therefore, that Rheinberger should have first won general recognition through his "Symphonische Tongemälde Wallenstein." What is more, this is the work for which its author was led to essay the programmatic style of writing. Had he continued to develop his talents along similar lines, the world might have been impoverished to the extent of divers organ and sacred works, but Rheinberger himself must have risen to far greater eminence. It is to be admitted that his subsequent Florentine symphony, as also the oratorio "Christoforus" and the opera "Thürmers Töchterlein," are none of them equal to the Wallenstein symphony, but according to Rheinberger's own confession he became disheartened by neglect at the time when Wagner stormed the portals of the Munich Opera House. Thenceforth he turned for relief to other fields of composition and became, as he grew older, more and more conservative—one is almost obliged to say bigoted.
The instrumentation of his purely orchestral works is pointedly restricted to Beethovian procedure and reverts even to that of Mozart in the use of trumpets and kettle-drums. Its general effect is one of great refinement; it is marvellously smooth and perfectly rounded in every detail; but the essential elements of individuality and novelty do not enter into the orchestral scheme to any appreciable extent.
Rheinberger's last years were saddened by family affliction and embittered by physical suffering. He displayed an heroic fortitude, but his assumed cheerfulness concealed the loneliness, the sadness, the melancholy even to morbidness that were constantly preying upon his soul. His life became more and more that of a recluse and an ascetic. Meanwhile his compositions continued even to the end to reflect unswerving faith, serenity, loyalty of heart and nobility of mind. The greater his honor for thus excluding the "ego" from his final offerings to theworld! A certain melancholy coloring does assert itself in his unfinished mass in A minor, but unaffected simplicity and touching pathos were wonderfully appropriate for what proved to be his "Schwanengesang."[50]
It is now time to leave the peaceful haven of the classical-romanticists, and embark upon the restless seas of advanced thought as set forth in thenext chapter.
(Summaryonpage 175.)