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Among the most characteristic of Richard Strauss' pictorial themes are the following two from his portrayal of Cervantes' rueful hero:"Don Quixote"—phantastische Variationen über ein Thema ritterlichen Characters(op. 35, 1897):
No. 20
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No. 21
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(Æsthetics.) Similar to the orchestral works of Wagner, those of Strauss are worthy of exhaustive critical analysis. To carefully examine them all, however, would require an entire volume by itself. It is therefore proposed to select as typical only a few of the most characteristic points from one of the most characteristic of Strauss' orchestral works:"Ein Heldenleben"—Tondichtung(op. 40, 1898).
In order to appreciate the magnitude of his undertakings, let us first see how he maps out and elaborates upon the programmatic theme chosen for musical setting. The nuclear thought of "Ein Heldenleben" is the simultaneous portrayal of a combined mortal and mental hero belonging to both a worldly and a spiritual realm, or as Friedrich Rösch expresses it: "Eine harmonisch gesteigerte Zusammenfassung eines Volks- und Kriegshelden und eines von künstlerischer Schaffensfreude beseelten Übermenschen aus dem Reiche der Phantasie."
The "program" of "Ein Heldenleben" contains six general divisions:
No. I is comprised of two general groups of thematic material. The first group is in reality one single and broadly constructed main theme,—the synthesis of five distinctive motives. The second group is made up of four contrapuntally interwoven and super-imposed secondary themes. After these nine themes have been duly presented, they are subjected to recapitulation and development. A tenth figure, based upon previous material, is also introduced.
The first group of themes, given out by low stringed-instruments, horns, etc., begins as follows:[70]
No. 22
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The first theme of the second group is assigned to divided first violins, beneath which wind-instruments intone the second theme.
No. 23
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No. II contains five sharply contrasted and interwoven themes. (No. 24.) The piercing accents of the wood-wind in their shrillest and most blatant range are here drawn into requisition, and are legitimately suggestive of Wagner's "Beckmesser" orchestration. The section subsequently embodies five modified expositions from the first leading theme of No. I.
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No. III is ushered in by a tender theme for solo violin:
No. 25
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This is followed by an exposition of five themes of intentional similarity, which depict the varying moods of the hero's courtship. These themes are further enhanced by characteristic and contrasted orchestral tone-color.
No. 26
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The section further embodies some six motives that are either reminiscences from former or anticipations of subsequent thematic material. Rösch calls attention to an interesting passage at the close of this section, a passage that cannot be justified by any rules of harmony. He suggests that in modern orchestration many seemingly irreconcilable harmonic combinations become perfectly logical if the auditor train himself to follow the harmonic corollary of complex counterpoint "horizontally" instead of "vertically." The passage in question consists of a protracted chord, G flat major, sustained by muted strings, while various instruments of wood super-impose a number of independent themes whose concentrated effect forms chords entirely foreign to the underlying key of G major. The present writer, however, is inclined to regard this hazy film of string-tone as nothing more than a tonic and dominant organ-point with the third of the triad unobtrusively added.
The "program" of No. IV is symbolic of martial strife, the depictment of which, subdivided into three parts together with an introduction, extends almost to the end of the movement, when a coda in two short divisions portrays victory and embodies a hymn of praise. From a musical standpoint, No. IV may be looked upon as that section of the entire symphonic poem in which the leading themes are subjected to systematic and elaborate musical development. In addition, one finds some ten new themes, such as a striking fanfare for trumpets behind the scenes (No. 27) and other warlike strains, of which Nos.28and29represent the missiles of the enemy.
This fanfare (No. 27) exhibits one of the most remarkable mixtures of three simultaneously combined keys that has ever emanated from the mind of man:
No. 27
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By examining the first trumpet part by itself:
No. 27a
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one discovers a perfectly harmless figure in the key of B flat major. The second trumpet, however, holds tenaciously to the key of G flat major:
No. 27b
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The third trumpet is unquestionably in the key of B flat minor, or, at a pinch, in its relative major—D flat:
No. 27c
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The resultant cross-relation caused by such an amalgamation of otherwise unoriginal figures excites a most remarkable impression.
The next two examples embody characteristic employment of wood-wind instruments:
No. 28
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No. 29
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No. V is primarily noteworthy for the poetic fancy that impelled Strauss to embody no less than twenty-four motives from his preceding symphonic poems, as well as from "Guntram" and from "Traum durch die Dämmerung." These themes are, of course, not presented in a row, but are joined together or subtly interwoven or contrapuntally super-imposed one over the other, and one might again suggest that they must be listened to horizontally and not vertically. Incidentally it might be added that this Division V of "Ein Heldenleben" draws into requisition every single example given above fromNo. 1toNo. 21inclusive, with the exception Nos.16and19. Wagner pointed the way for such a procedure by introducing the opening bars from "Tristan und Isolde" into the "Meistersinger." Strauss, however, went much further, and in the course ofDes Helden Friedenswerkehe has drawn freely upon "Macbeth," "Don Juan," "Tod und Verklärung," "Till Eulenspiegel," "Zarathustra," and "Don Quixote." He further elaborates upon two practically new themes (Nos.30and31), although an anticipation of the second of these themes is already to be found in Division III.
No. 30
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No. 31
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No. VI brings this noble creation to a fitting end. With the exception of an episodic anti-climax, the movement is dominated by calm and majestic peace, as exemplified by themesNo. 32(evolved fromNo. 31) andNo. 33.
No. 32
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No. 33
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Such are the vast dimensions of Richard Strauss' orchestral tableaux! His other works are evolved on similarly broad lines. "Ein Heldenleben," with its six well-defined divisions, includes no less than seventy themes. The score makes demand for one hundred and five instrumentalists:—
16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8 double-basses.2 harps.1 piccolo flute; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn (also as 4th oboe); 1 E flat clarinet; 2 B flat clarinets; 1 bass-clarinet; 3 bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.8 horns; 5 trumpets; 3 trombones; 1 tenor-tuba; 1 bass-tuba.Kettle-drums; bass-drum; side-drum; military drum; cymbals.
16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8 double-basses.
2 harps.
1 piccolo flute; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn (also as 4th oboe); 1 E flat clarinet; 2 B flat clarinets; 1 bass-clarinet; 3 bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.
8 horns; 5 trumpets; 3 trombones; 1 tenor-tuba; 1 bass-tuba.
Kettle-drums; bass-drum; side-drum; military drum; cymbals.
Since composing what might be called the Tetralogy of mighty productions that have been classified together as belonging to the5th Period, Strauss has written two further important works: the opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia Domestica." The latter is still in manuscript,[71]and but recently had a hearing in this country under the composer's personal direction. It is as yet tooearly to suggest a sixth period in Strauss' style of writing.[72]What is more, the two recent offerings have too little in common to justify classifying them together. "Feuersnoth" has shared the fate of its predecessor, "Guntram," in that it has been granted no more than a respectful hearing, and is not to be compared as a work of art with Strauss' symphonic undertakings. As to the "Symphonia Domestica," the very topic chosen for exposition gives rise to some misgivings as to whether it justifies the expenditure of so much vital creative energy. The subject and the elaborate means employed to depict it would appear somewhat incongruous. The sub-title of this paradoxical essay reads: "Ein Tag aus meinem Familienleben," and the orchestra is required to expound upon the charmingly naïve topics of Papa, Mama, and Bébé. Incidentally, one passage introduces the worthy aunts as exclaiming in chorus, "Just like his father"; the uncles, "Just like his mother." The "Symphonia Domestica" is further paradoxical in that the score includes no definite programmatic commentary, and Strauss himself has been quoted as saying emphatically, "This time I wish my music to be listened to purely as music." The work is therefore intended to be accepted not as a symphonic poem but as a symphony "In einem Satz" like Mendelssohn's "Scotch" or Schumann's D minor symphony. In the face of all this we find a program, and a positive one at that, at the root of the matter! In reality, its only claim to the title of "symphony" rests upon the general outlines of its formal structure, which is comprised of three main divisions preceded by an elaborate introduction. But it is assuredly not "absolute" music. On the other hand, its thematic continuity is far more closely knit together than that of the above-mentioned symphonies of Mendelssohn and Schumann.
In the "Symphonia Domestica" we recognize the personal element that asserted itself, though in an unobtrusive manner, in "Ein Heldenleben." Humorous inclinations, characteristic of "Don Quixote," are also in evidence.
The Introduction is an exposition of the three principal themes. The theme for the father is comprised of three contrasted sections (No. 34,a,b,c). The mother is characterized by a lively and perhaps slightly undignified theme (No. 35). For the child's theme (No. 36) Strauss makes use of an oboed'amore. The tone of this practically obsolete member of the wood-wind is veiled and tender, and the instrument found favor with Bach who assigned to it an important rôlein his mass in B minor,—in fact twooboi d'amoreare employed for accompanying the bass solo "Et in Spiritum Sanctum."
No. 34, a
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No. 34, b
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No. 34, c
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No. 35
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No. 36
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The following sportive Scherzo or first main division proper presents a sprightly development of the three primary themes and especially of the child's theme. The movement is finally brought to a restful ending.
The succeeding Adagio enlarges upon the father's theme and pictures him alone as if in a revery. The music is reflective and dreamy, at times restless and impassioned as well.
The Finale embodies a lively double-fugue (No. 37,aandb), of which the principal theme consists of a diminution of the child's theme (No. 36). The close of the work is calm and peaceful.
No. 37, a
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No. 37, b
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By thus analyzing the programmatic foundation of two of Strauss' latest orchestral conceptions one can obtain at least a superficial idea of the somewhat eccentric though intensely original range of his imagination. The philosophical aspect of the "Symphonia Domestica" is, of course, far simpler than that of "Ein Heldenleben" and its companions, nor would it seem to possess the same scope or exert the same fascination that his nobler and more serious works do. The orchestration, however, leaves nothing to be desired. There is no retrogression in the deployment of the instruments whether as solo or in combination. Strauss is in command of an orchestral technique so deep-rooted that it can never fail him. One would have supposed that his works prior to the "Symphonia Domestica" had made requisition for practically every legitimately available instrument in existence, but the addition of an oboe d'amore together with four saxophones proves that Strauss has an insatiable craving for ever novel tonal tints, and whereas "Ein Heldenleben" requires 105 instrumentalists, the symphony demands 108.
Before proceeding to sum up the cardinal features of Strauss' orchestration, it is desired to call attention to his highly commendable foresight in evolving his songs with pianoforte accompaniment on comparatively simple lines, thereby greatly enhancing their effectiveness for vocal utterance as well as their adaptability for extensive rendition. It is a rare attribute of genius to possess the faculty of colossal orchestral language and at the same time of simple and pathetic song-speech.
(Instrumentation.) The marvellous subtleties of Strauss' instrumentation and the irresistible sweep and large contour of his orchestration have already been so thoroughly aired by prominent critics the world over, that there is little further to say beyond epitomizing in a few brief sentences the general consensus of opinion. Founding his art of scoring upon that of Berlioz and Wagner, Strauss evidently has also made a careful study of the means and methods of his eminent contemporary, Saint-Saëns, for the performances of "Samson et Dalila" at the Berlin Royal Opera, when controlled by Strauss' magnetic force, are a source of artistic delectation. The fundamental reason that makes his scoring so effective is his intimate acquaintance with the characteristics of each individual instrument even to the minutest detail of mechanical limitation or latent potentiality. Therefore his instrumentation pure and simple as distinct from orchestrationen masseis unhesitating and authoritative. In thus appreciating the imperative necessity for an exhaustive study of the instruments themselves, Strauss has done no more than to follow the precepts of his illustrious model, Wagner. Strauss would be entitled to but little credit had he not advanced beyond his master, for proportionately, Wagner established a far greater number of unalterable precedents than Strauss has since been able to add to. The criticism has been advanced that Strauss' demands upon the technique of the performers are excessive, and that he is given to force the instruments, and especially those of brass, into unnaturalregisters. Such points, however, would appear to be for the gentlemen of the orchestra to decide, and the enthusiasm and grim determination with which they overcome seemingly insurmountable difficulties at rehearsal, and the suavity and verve with which the performances of his works by first-class orchestras are carried through, may be looked upon as tangible proof that Strauss knows what he is about. The performers may complain of the demands made upon them, but they realize that the page before them bears the impress of a master of instrumentation whose music is written with special regard for the very instrument they are playing,—can and must therefore be played. And they accordingly respect the author of their arduous though fascinating task. Finally, if the now childlike simplicity of Schubert's orchestration proved a stumbling block to the Viennese orchestra only fifty odd years ago (as stated onpage 75), and furthermore Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" shared the same fate at a still more recent date, it will not be difficult to realize that Strauss fifteen years ago taxed the virtuosity of the performers with passages that are already no longer dreaded. As to the details of instrumentation, he has strengthened and elaborated upon the methods of his predecessors, assimilated the procedures of his contemporaries, besides resuscitating various obsolete instruments and initiating numerous novelties of his own.
The flexibility of execution that formerly was expected only of a first violinist is now imposed upon all five sections of the string band, and each member finds before him the pages of what looks like a concerto.[73]To the wood-wind are assigned passages that Wagner would have hesitated to write.[74]What Strauss demands from them, Beethoven might have demanded from the strings. Most prominent of all is the attention bestowed upon the deployment of the brass as initiated by Wagner.[75]The trumpets are treated with unprecedented freedom, and are expected to perform passages either of flowing melody or of rhythmic intricacy in the fastest of tempos. The horns are taught to display the agility of violoncellos. In four-part writing, the fourth horn is much used as a deep bass-instrument absolutely apart from the three upper horns. The trombones are employed as much for unallied melodic utterance as for combined harmonic effects, and the intricacy of their parts constantly necessitates the use of three staves in the partitur. Incidental mention might also be made of such devices for acquiring weird tonal tints as obtained from muted trombones. Similar to Wagner's procedure in the "Meistersinger"Vorspiel, the tubas—and particularly the tenor tuba—are constantly detached from their conventional association with the trombones, for the purpose of giving expression to flowing cantilena. Novelty in the use of instruments of percussion is restricted to rhythmic peculiarities and original combinations with other instruments of more variable pitch; for Wagner's general methods of handling the battery cannot be improved upon.
In a word, the three choirs of the orchestra have respectively advanced one step higher. The string band are graduated to the plane of so many virtuoso soloists. The wood-wind replace the strings and are themselves replaced by the brass. The battery acquire prominence such as the classicists formerly allowed to the trumpets and trombones.
(Orchestration.) The numerical distribution of Strauss' orchestra is, of course, consistent with the modern custom of employing quartets of uniform tone-color. But he advances yet further by making permanent Wagner's occasional incorporation into the orchestra of a second harp, an E flat clarinet, a double quartet of horns, five instead of four trumpets, and a tenor-tuba in addition to the bass-tuba. The occasional addition of unusual instruments such as an oboe d'amore and saxophones has already been referred to.
The sum total of Strauss' orchestration as a whole consists of what has been termed its "exposed" quality, resulting in a "vast piece of chamber music."[76]The extensive range of his imagination reveals itself in constantly novel combinations and kaleidoscopic variety of effects that are unprecedented. His command of dynamics is superb. His synthesis of thematic counterpoint in all the voices of the different choirs is at times so reckless that the euphony of its harmonic corollary is endangered and the resultant effect presents a chaos of cacophony unless the auditor accustom himself to follow the Melos not vertically but horizontally. The orchestration is the most vivid in existence. Realism is accentuated. The tonal tints are scintillating and glowing. Every single instrument in the orchestra has an indispensable rôle assigned to it. The scores abound in clever orchestral devices, in startling contrasts, powerful crescendos and exciting climaxes, and disclose the mind of a master possessed of poetic fancy, natural humor, artistic culture, strong individuality, philosophical insight and intellectual power.
The titanic achievements of Richard Strauss have caused him to appear as the most conspicuous living musician, and in the arrangement of a modern program, his works are at present the accepted companions to those of his models in rich and massive orchestration, Wagner and Liszt; to those of Brahms, conservator of classic models and loftiest ideals; to Saint-Saëns' scintillating and unrivalled tableaux; to Tschaikowsky's sombre tone-pictures, to Dvořák's brilliant and vivacious portrayals, to Grieg's poetic and popular conceptions.
It is high time to bring this fascinating subject of modern German progressiveness to a close; otherwise there is no knowing whither this history might lead us. In these days even a secondary composer is supposed to be thoroughly conversant with every subtlety in the art of orchestration. Germany still leads the van; the number of her eminent masters of modern instrumentation is legion. The ambition of the ultra-modern school is to out-Wagner Wagner. It will suffice to make mention of Max Schillings' "Ingwelde" or of Cyrill Kistler's "Kunihild und der Brautritt auf Kynast" with its poem in alliterative verse in strictly Wagnerian lines by Graf Sporck. The same exaggerated sense of morbidness and pessimism has found its way as well into other fields of German composition as discovered in certain ones of Hugo Wolf's intensely modern and magnificent songs, or in Max Reger's organ works of questionable worth with their atrocious harmonic mixture, their intricacy of contrapuntal treatment, and their extreme difficulty of execution.[77]These restless signs of evolution are perfectly logical and eminently proper. In many instances the results have been highly successful, but again they have not. On the other hand, a number of living German composers could still be cited who are possessed of sufficient poise to accept the spirit of modern progression without allowing their convictions to carry them to extremes. One of the most successful of these is Humperdinck, whose "Hänsel und Gretel" acquires its effectiveness primarily by means of the orchestra. The exceedingly simple vocal parts are founded entirely onVolksmelodien;Leit-motivenadd coherence to the opera as a whole, whereas the scoring is amazingly complicated and elaborate though ever lucid and euphonious.[78]Ludwig Thuille[79]has earned deserved success with his charming "Lobetanz," and Kienzl has captivated the masses with "Der Evangelimann," a work that is both dignified and uplifting in spite of its eclectic appropriations from Meyerbeer, Wagner, Gounod, and even Mascagni. Georg Schumann, also, is to be commended for the "healthy" tendencies of his orchestral works, of which both the symphonic chorale variations and the "Liebesfrühling" overture have been heard in America.[80]
The reader will pardon the appendage of a few final remarks relating to the progress of lighter German music during the nineteenth century, for otherwise these records would not be complete. By retracing a few of our steps we find that the more important successors of Kreutzer (who was mentioned onpage 73ofChapter IX, and lived from 1780 until 1849) were Lortzing, Nicolai, Flotow, Suppé, and Johann Strauss junior. For charming originality and for naturalness of expression Lortzing (1801) stands head and shoulders above the remaining composers of this list. His works show the unmistakable influence of Weber, and just this romantic tendency accounts for the universal popularity of his "Czar und Zimmermann," this tendency being, moreover, still more marked in his best work: "Die beiden Schützen." Nicolai (1810) wrote in the conventional Italian style. "The Merry Wives of Windsor" is still one of the popular comic operas of the day. Flotow (1812) earned notoriety through "Stradella" and "Martha." His aims are not high, neither is his music on a par with that of Lortzing; he displays, none the less, a happy faculty for instilling warmth of sentiment into his works. Suppé (1820) has acquired the nomenclature of "The German Offenbach" by reason of his pleasing operettas and vaudeville. Johann Strauss junior (1825) owes a world reputation to his sprightly "Fledermaus." These are the men who have been instrumental in transplanting the daintiness and refinement of modern light French opera into indigenous German productions. The results have been directly beneficial. Not only has this transplantation of exotic principles tempered the general taste of the German public for an all too heavy and sedate form of melodic and structural treatment, but quite especially has German orchestration reacquired thereby much of that lightness of touch it apparently had lost after the culmination of Mozart's career. French instrumentation, in spite of certain of its superficial tendencies, is assuredly a very important factor in the evolution of orchestral music, and its continued development during the second half of the nineteenth century affords a fruitful topic for discussion as outlined in the next few pages.
(Summaryonpage 176.)
France.It will be recalled thatChapter VIIItreats of the flourishing conditions of musical art in France at the time when it was undergoing a series of metamorphoses that embodied nascent modern tendencies. The standard of sacred music was being elevated by Cherubini; French opera in serious vein as well as French instrumentation had acquired distinctly indigenous characteristics through the efforts of two native composers, Méhul and Lesueur; the development of the lighter lyric style as bequeathed by Grétry lay in the hands of the Frenchmen Boieldieu, Auber, Hérold, Halévy; finally, a renewed interest for grand opera was awakened by the so-called historic school of Spontini, which was followed by the enthusiastic reception of Rossini's melodious and emotional productions, and of Meyerbeer's sensational and spectacular presentations. Of momentous purport was the influence that these three foreigners, Spontini, Rossini, and Meyerbeer exerted upon French orchestration. Meanwhile an absolutely novel aspect of musical activity was being developed by Berlioz, who, as one of the founders of the "New Movement," has already been treated inChapter XIin connection with Liszt and Wagner. In resuming and concluding the topic now under discussion, it would be well to keep the above brief review clearly in mind, in order that the simultaneous evolution of musical art in France and Germany may the better be compared.
With the exception of Berlioz, Félicien David and Gounod, few French writers have, until recently, applied themselves to independent orchestral music as one of the primary objects of their ambition. In France, the operatic stage ever has been and still is the centre of attraction. Even the most recent of her composers can with difficulty be separated into distinct groups that shall represent exclusive devotion to dramatic writing only or to sacred music or to concert works. Nevertheless, the present writer, having attempted to bring order out of the rather heterogeneous array of nineteenth century French composers, has classified them according to that particular branch in which they have been conspicuously successful.
Prominent contributors to instrumental and orchestral music are Onslow, Reber, David, Franck, Lalo, Reyer, Godard, d'Indy.
Onslow (1784) enjoyed an honorable reputation during his lifetime as an exponent of classic models. He was a prolific writer of chamber music, but his style, though correct, was cold, and his three comic operas are of small importance. Reber (1807) may be regarded as the successor of Onslow in that he also restricted himself to traditional forms. He was an excellent contrapuntist as well as one of the most cultured musicians France has produced; as a result, his compositions reflect the refinement of his character. Moreover, his conservative and careful style was modelled after that of the German classicists, and the constitution of his orchestra is like Mozart's. Practically all modern instruments, all instruments of percussion excepting kettle-drums, and even trombones are excluded from most of his orchestral works. He wrote four symphonies, one overture and one suite, besides chamber and salon music in various forms.
Although Félicien David (1810) is best known to the general public on account of his opera "Lalla Rookh," he was at his best as an exponent of graceful and buoyant instrumentation. Not that his orchestration can be regarded as epoch-making when compared with that of his contemporary, Berlioz, for of the two, David was the more faithful to French traditions, and his scoring is more like that of Haydn than any other French composer. On the other hand, David, like Berlioz, introduced certain scenic qualities into his orchestration, which is ever poetic, supple, and varied. Berlioz's aim was to re-echo the thoughts of the grand romantic poets, whereas David waspar excellencea dreamer in the realm of picturesque imagination, of tender love, of ardent passion. In consequence of his extensive journey through the East as an apostle and missionary of Saint-Simonism, David acquired an insight and knowledge of Oriental melodies that caused him to be the first to introduce genuinely Eastern characteristics into Western music, as strikingly displayed in "Lalla Rookh." The effectiveness of this opera is largely due to its fine orchestration, for though the musical contents are clear and simple, the ideas themselves occasionally lack force, whereas the harmonies are somewhat meagre. However, David possessed, in addition to the characteristic feature ofclearness, a highly developed talent for artistic disposition of his plans, for poetic picture-painting, and for rich and descriptive orchestral color. Of especial significance is his aptitude for accompanying a solo voice with daintily embroidered counterpoint. David contributed substantially to the development in France of independent orchestral music, and displayed, among other things, a commendable appreciation for well-marked rhythmic effects. His list of instrumental works includesa symphony in F, twenty-four string quintets, and two nonets for wind instruments.
César Franck (1822) might be compared in two respects with Cherubini. Both of them, though foreigners, are rated as French composers, and the dignity and solidity of their respective styles isolate them both from the more usual methods of their respective eras. Franck differs from his French contemporaries by reason of what might be termed the masculine severity of his inspiration, together with monumental mastery of polyphonic design and exhaustless command of orchestral resources. These attributes have earned him the title of "The French Bach." The opera "Hulda" is a forceful exposition of the gloomy Viking subject, but Franck rose to the height of his creative power in his chamber music, and in the symphonic poem with chorus: "Les béatitudes." That he was influenced by Liszt and Wagner is undeniable. Not only do his productions give evidence of a reserved use of guiding themes, but also his orchestration has affinity to that of "Tristan" so far as intricacy is concerned.
This mention of Wagnerian influence suggests an interesting comparison between the styles of César Franck and of Lalo (1823). The latter was a professed admirer of Wagner, and applied such of his theories as are restricted to "Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin." This is particularly noticeable in the opera: "Le Roi d'Ys." In antithesis to Franck's severe and somewhat solemn style of writing, that of Lalo betrays a fund of spontaneous invention, curious rhythmic effects, charming and sprightly instrumentation, and great aptitude for imbuing his works with the necessary local coloring. Both the violin concerto styled "Symphonie éspagnole" and the "Rhapsodie norvégienne" for orchestra are distinctively characteristic. His chamber music is likewise written with sentient regard for euphonious effects and artistic requirements, but it is conspicuously in the art of orchestration that Lalo displays his individuality to the best advantage.
Reyer (1823) belongs more properly under the heading of operatic composers, since he devoted himself primarily to that branch of musical art. He is nevertheless mentioned at this point in consequence of the interest attached to his ode-symphony "Le Selam," which, though not an imitation of David's "Le Désert," is intended as a sequel to it. He is ranked as a conspicuous representative of the young French romantic school. Reyer's reputation is generally confined to France, whereas Reber's eminent pupil, Godard (1849), has become widely known as a prolific writer possessing marked individuality. This foreign recognition is due to his works in smaller form, being agenreof composition in which he excels. In France, however, Godard has occupied a conspicuous position on the programs of orchestral concert music. His activity in this direction has been indeed prodigious, and the results should command a more extensive acquaintance by virtue of their charming musical ideas and graceful instrumentation. These orchestralworks bring to light the varied range of his imagination, and for this very reason some of the most characteristic titles will bear citation. In addition to a pianoforte concerto and a "Concerto romantique" for violin, Godard has written an orchestral suite: "Scènes poétiques," a "Symphonie-ballet," an "Ouverture dramatique," a "Symphonie gothique," a "Symphonie orientale," a "Symphonie légendaire," the lyric scena: "Diane et Actéon," and the dramatic poem for soli, chorus and orchestra: "Le Tasse." The last named is considered to be his best work. His chamber music also merits just commendation. It is evident, therefore, that Godard's already extensive foreign reputation is overshadowed only by the broader recognition awarded him in France.
An examination of the works of Vincent d'Indy (1852) reintroduces the subject of contemporary musical art in one of its extreme phases. In earnest endeavor and in faithful adherence to high ideals d'Indy has proved himself a worthy successor to his teacher, César Franck, whom he copies in exceedingly complicated development of subject-matter. Not content with incorporating in his works the most advanced tenets of Wagner, he further has explored the pathway opened up by Brahms. Wagnerian tendencies have crept into all modern French music, whereas Brahms has as yet found few imitators among the composers of the Romance nations. Like each and every French writer, d'Indy has tried his hand in operatic lines; his chamber music, too, is surprisingly clever and effective. Nevertheless, he is essentially a symphonist; "Wallenstein" is evolved on broad and dignified lines, and displays a masterful deployment of orchestral resources. "Le Chant de la Cloche," dramatic legend adapted from Schiller, is perhaps the most remarkable of d'Indy's works; it shows marked resemblance to Wagner's later style by reason of its elaboration of detail and intricacy of orchestration.
Before turning from this series of composers, it is again desired to emphasize the peculiar fact that all French writers both past and present have been consistent in first experimenting in the dramatic field before settling down to the exacting requirements of equally arduous and perhaps intellectually higher orchestral and chamber music. That the authorship of a more or less important opera has been conceded to every one of the above-mentioned composers need therefore excite no further comment.
A little coterie of Frenchmen have distinguished themselves by almost exclusive devotion to the lightest of operatic forms. Just as Lortzing and his contemporaries rendered incalculable service to German musical art by clothing their vivacious productions in dainty orchestral raiment, so has France been the gainer through the efforts of Adam, Maillart and Delibes.
Adolphe Adam (1803) was a most productive writer. The distinctive features of his talent are opulence of melody and rhythmic grace. The best known of his works is, of course, the "Postillon de Longjumeau." Maillart (1817), pupil of Halévy, winner of the Prix de Rome, and author of six operas, was, strange to say, most successful in composing a work that appeals especially to the German mind. "Das Glöckchen des Eremiten" still retains its place in the standard repertories of Germany. Delibes (1836), composer of the sprightly comic operas: "Le Roi l'a dit" and "Lakmé," and of the charming ballets: "Sylvia" and "Coppélia," enriched the world with a far higher type of composition than either Adam or Maillart. His music, by virtue of its grace and refinement, is of such intrinsic value as to entitle Delibes to be ranked among the foremost composers of the nineteenth century. Application to lighter forms only by no means excludes sterling musicianship. Delibes' music is typically French, and by its very naïveté, descriptive powers and clever instrumentation overcomes the impediment of a frequently faulty libretto.
It is proposed to classify under one distinctive and decidedly exclusive heading the names of six truly eminent composers, who, as worthy contemporaries and successors of Berlioz, may, with him, be regarded as the foremost French representatives of the nineteenth century. These are Thomas, Gounod, Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Chabrier, and Massenet. All these men have become famous as dramatic writers, but the scope of their genius is such as to entitle them to almost equally high rank as composers of orchestral and chamber music. It is further proposed to single out Saint-Saëns as being undoubtedly the greatest French orchestrator since Berlioz, although the present writer is inclined to believe that Chabrier would have equalled him, had not his career been abruptly ended.[81]At all events, Saint-Saëns and Richard Strauss are at present the undisputed living masters of orchestration.[82]
In order to discover to what extent Saint-Saëns has been aided by his immediate compatriots, one must turn to the sound methods and sterling achievements ofAmbrose Thomas(1811-1896). A worthy exponent of lyric opera, Thomas possessed like Gounod a high degree of musical intelligence. His music contains the essence of polish and refinement, but its very elegance is at times detrimentalto emphatic utterance, to dramatic strength, to intensity of passion. Certain Italian formulae are in evidence. German influence is also apparent. Neither of these characteristics, however, predominates over Thomas' personal individuality and French methods of artistic development. "Mignon" is veiled in a filmy haze of poesy, owing to the delicacy of its orchestration. "Hamlet," which is in reality a grand lyric tragedy, represents an extreme phase of French grand opera. Wagnerian principles are here frankly espoused, whereas the solidity and vigor of the orchestration display an advance upon the scoring of "Mignon" and "Françoise de Rimini." Thomas never overloaded his scores. The orchestration is clear inensemble, ingenious in detail, always interesting, appropriate, varied. Characteristic tone-color and poetically conceived combinations reveal the skilful hand of a competent master.
Gounod(1818-1893) stands as the most illustrious recent representative of lyric opera. Like Thomas, he was strongly influenced by contemporaneous German progression, but in some ways Gounod exhibits greater conservatism and again greater license than Thomas. This composite style of writing is undoubtedly due to the fact that Gounod diligently studied the works of two composers of differentiated views—Berlioz and Schumann, allowed himself further to be influenced by Weber and Wagner, and yet accepted in a measure the prevailing Gallic conventionalities of his day as well as the traditions inherited from Meyerbeer. Compared with Meyerbeer, however, Gounod possessed a far keener insight into those essentials that lead to the construction of a genuine music drama. Not that Gounod's operas embody such essentials to a degree sufficient to dignify them with the title of music dramas, for they lack structural continuity, contain an over-abundance of set arias, are frequently guilty of harboring superficially composed accompaniments, and betray carelessly developed inner details. On the other hand, Gounod displays a rare gift for melody and euphony, his feeling for genuine expression and characterization is sincere, the tone-colors are admirably adapted to the requirements of the situation, and his thematic development toward some ultimate climax is often superb. In a word, Gounod stands midway between the classical and the popular. His music is not quite pure, being tainted by a suggestion of the sentimental and of the chanson style. In the art of orchestration, however, Gounod exhibits the unusual attribute of attaining excellent results without apparent effort. His scoring may not disclose material increase of orchestral resources, since it follows the general path indicated by Auber and Meyerbeer; but it further shows that he possessed a considerable knowledge of the German science of instrumentation which he used to good advantage. The lyric operas "Faust," "La Reine de Saba," "Roméo et Juliette," as well as the oratorios "Mors et Vita" and "The Redemption" abound in interesting instrumental details and clever orchestral devices. Not only are the vocal parts admirably supportedand characterized, but the orchestra also frequently reveals hidden emotions and passions of the stage characters by means of subtle thematic reminiscences from earlier scenes. This suggestive trait is pointedly illustrated in "Faust" when the muted violins break in upon Marguerite's vain attempt to pray, with the dainty waltz theme of her former joyous days. Another striking feature of Gounod's orchestration is its refinement, and as already intimated, few have excelled him in ability to procure rich effects with comparatively simple means. Thus the "Redemption" is scored for but eight instruments of wood, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, kettle-drums, bass-drum, cymbals, together with strings and organ. Even when the organ is silent, the results are remarkably full and sonorous in spite of the absence of triplets of wood instruments, of English horn, of bass-clarinet, of bass-tuba, and of the harp. In all of Gounod's works it will be found that particularly the brasses are made to yield soft harmonies of limpid purity, whereas the instruments of percussion are reserved to reproduce novel and picturesque effects. Incidental mention must further be made of his free use of the harp, as illustrated, for example, by the slow scale for that instrument in the middle of the introduction to "Faust."
Saint-Saëns[83](1835), greatest of living French composers and mightiest of her orchestral exponents after Berlioz, is assuredly a modern composer in the full sense of that expression. Yet the background of his principles differs but slightly from those of Thomas and Gounod. Plainly in evidence are the outlines of Meyerbeer's operatic forms, in spite of Saint-Saëns' obvious desire to break away from recognized models. On the other hand, the suppression of detached numbers and the adherence to representative and guiding themes disclose his involuntary leanings toward the doctrines of the Bayreuth master, notwithstanding his openly avowed avoidance of such intentions beyond the willingness to accept the advanced spirit of the age. But as to this, it has even been claimed that Saint-Saëns was the first French master to apply Wagnerian principles, even though doing so with discretion. Finally, this peerless contemporary seems to have appropriated to himself all the virtues of eclectic orchestration without one mitigating vice, and crowns this achievement with the indelible impress of his own intensely original individuality to an extent that is verily epoch-making in the history of orchestral evolution. The dual aspect of his symphonic works presents a unique contrast, displaying, as it does, their author's versatility. Saint-Saëns has expressed himself both in symphonies and in symphonic poems. There are four of each on record. Of the former, that in C minor may be looked upon as the most interesting. It contains no programmatic idea, and at first sight would appear to embody a departure from classic form in that it is laid out in two grand divisions. Closer scrutiny, however, reveals a faithful adherence to accepted usage, for the first division contains an introduction, an allegro, and an adagio, whereas the formal structure of the second division can be analyzed into what are in reality a scherzo and a finale. Reminiscent themes and episodes from the first division reoccur in the second, in order to give coherence and organic unity to the work as a whole. Another interesting feature of this symphony is the adaptation of Wagner's "Lohengrin" methods for the wood-wind. The score also includes parts for organ as well as for pianoforte. The four symphonic poems are none of them of the same magnitude and significance as those of Liszt; but just as Liszt's form is simpler and more readily to be grasped than that of Berlioz, so Saint-Saëns' formal structure may be regarded as advancing yet further, if clearness and compactness be the desired objective. "Phaéton"[84]and "Le rouet d'Omphale"[85]display marvellous skill in scoring; "La jeunesse d'Hercule"[86]is the most elaborate, whereas the "Danse Macabre"[87]is the most characteristic as well as the most popular. Saint-Saëns' chamber music affords an interesting study in diversity of style between it and that of his eminent contemporary, Brahms. Both styles display a master's touch, but Saint-Saëns' chamber music is conspicuous for its simplicity of treatment and admirable clearness. He has given still further proof of versatility in a series of memorable concertos. Had Saint-Saëns been content to write nothing beyond such sterling instrumental works as just referred to, his reputation would not have suffered. But the full strength of his greatness reveals itself in attainments of still wider significance. In addition to several oratorios, including the so-called Biblical opera "Le Déluge," no less than nine operas must be accredited to his pen, and of these, "Samson et Dalila" looms up as the ideal embodiment of Saint-Saëns' highest creative genius. Lofty imagination, naturalness of expression and dramatic intensity join in making this opera his greatest masterpiece. Unique is the opening chorus for the captive Hebrews in oratorio style, whereas the ballet in the last act presents an effective adaptation of the peculiar Eastern scale. The orchestration is elaborate, rich and varied,—intricate without being obtuse. Saint-Saëns wields his large orchestral forces with unerring judgment; the score abounds in effects now scintillating or impassioned, now melancholy or heroic. The addition to the usual couplets of wood-wind of a third flute, an English horn, a bass-clarinet and a contra-bassoon again demonstrates the indispensability of triplets of related instruments. Opportunity for obtaining pure tone-color in independent harmony from each family of the brass is effected by employing four horns, by the union of two trumpets and two cornets, by adding to the three trombones a bass-tuba, and by making further requisition for two opheicleides, which together with the bass-tuba are capable of independent deployment. The strings are reënforced by two harps. The array of instruments of percussion would appear rather formidable; nevertheless, they are never used aggressively. Thisgroup includes three kettle-drums, a bass-drum, cymbals, tam-tam, a triangle, a Glockenspiel, a tambour de basque, andcrotalesor castagnettes made of wood and iron. May Saint-Saëns live to enthrall the world a second time with a work that shall rival if not surpass in beauty the rare seductive charm of "Samson et Dalila"!
No opera has won greater universal popularity than that which has immortalized the name of its author,Bizet(1838-1875). What is more, this unreserved approval is merited and will endure. An elaborate discussion of his style would be futile; every professional, every amateur is thoroughly familiar with it. The prevalent custom of French composers to build upon French traditions, but to allow German truthfulness of expression and interpretation to dominate their works was consistently followed by Bizet. The complaint has been made that the traditional disconnected forms of "Carmen" hamper the dramatic action of an otherwise perfect creation. Continuity of music might, perhaps, enhance its already unexcelled effectiveness, but such questionable criticisms are indeed paltry in the face of such melodic and harmonic originality, such dramatic intensity, such orchestral color! Bizet's skill in discovering novel traits of instrumentation was little short of marvellous. The orchestra prepares, accompanies, and moralizes upon the action. There is a wealth of rhythm and color; absolutely truthful characterization and the finest of feeling for artistic details are revealed on every page. It is to be regretted that "L'Arlésienne" has not been considered worthy of more frequent performance. Though its libretto cannot be compared with that of "Carmen," Bizet's setting of "L'Arlésienne" is in some respects more artistic than that of his masterpiece. Its orchestration is practically inseparable from the drama itself, whereas a considerable portion of "Carmen" can be given on the concert stage with good effect. Parenthetically it might be added that the former work contains in its prelude a highly ingenious solo for the rarely heard saxophone.
In the repertoire of a few progressive European stages is to be found a work of exceptional genius entitled "Gwendoline" byEmmanuel Chabrier(1841-1894). So highly imaginative and poetical are its attributes as to warrant the assertion that "Gwendoline" is the best recent French opera, if not the most advanced exposition of existing Franco-German music dramas. No less an authority than Reyer, was, in spite of his usually conservative views, moved to criticise this masterpiece in the following favorable terms: "Je me trouve en présence d'une oeuvre extrêmement intérressante, renfermant des pages superbes et qui dans ses parties les moins saillantes, porte quand même la griffe puissante d'un compositeur admirablement doné." Chabrier did not devote himself seriously to music until he was nearly forty years of age. Shortly before deciding to become a professional, he had been quite successful with anopéra-bouffecalled "L'Étoile." "Gwendoline," however, developed at one stroke his dormant creative powers in a manner truly remarkable. (Charming though inconsistent is the adaptation of an Irish melody in one of the most picturesque scenes.) An enthusiast for Wagner, Chabrier nevertheless branched out into a style that is distinctly his own. The libretto of "Gwendoline" may, perhaps, bear some resemblance to "Der Fliegende Holländer" and to "Lohengrin." Gwendoline's recital of her dream in the first act is suggestive of Senta's, whereas in the second act, the love scene after the pagan marriage ceremony recalls the similar episode between Elsa and Lohengrin. Not so with the music. Striking originality, daring harmonic innovations, and above all marvellous skill in orchestral treatment constitute the distinctive features of Chabrier's individuality. The present writer has had opportunity for studying the manuscript score of "Gwendoline" after its revision by the eminent Bayreuth and Munich director, Hermann Levi. Judging from previously heard performances, there had been pictured a monumental accumulation of black notes and an intricate web of interwoven polyphony. These expectations were not justified. Needless to say that the instrumentation is not that of a Mozart, nor are the usual complicated and massive resources of modern orchestration lacking at the necessary moment. On the other hand, the reticence displayed during most of the accompanying polyphony to the vocal parts rivals that of Wagner's highest attainment as embodied in the first act of "Die Walküre." Effects that suggest to the listener the union of peculiar composites of tone-color, resolve themselves on paper to perhaps a few simple chords for flutes in their low range, extending across the entire page; or again to the gentle undulations of muted strings deployed in keys of many signatures, whereby subdued and grayish tints are procured. Chabrier's orchestration suggests a progressive yet peculiar phase of Wagnerism enveloped by a tinge of melancholy and softened by the delicate touch characteristic of the French. Masculine scoring as embraced in the rather brutal overture is the exception rather than the rule. The first act of a second unfinished music drama entitled "Brisëis" was edited a few years ago by Levi, but in spite of its undeniable originality, it proved a disappointment to the present writer. Chabrier further wrote a comic opera: "Le Roi malgré Lui," which, though daintily scored, is also inferior to his masterpiece. The orchestral rhapsody "España" with its wonderful exhibition of skilful instrumentation constitutes his only really popular work, but it is to be hoped that the time may not be far distant when the musical world shall awake to the significance of "Gwendoline."
In marked contrast to the limited appreciation shown for Chabrier's eminent accomplishments is the universal fame enjoyed byMassenet(1842) during his lifetime. Essentially a dramatic writer, the latter has tried his hand at both comic and grand opera. Of the former, "Manon" is a general favorite; of the latter, wide-spread interest has been excited by "Hérodiade," "Le Cid," and"Werther." The music to De Lisle's "Les Erinnyes" deserves notice if for no other reason than the peculiar antique coloring that permeates the orchestration. Massenet possesses above all a highly developed feeling for sensuous charm. His style is distinctly poetic and presents no exception to the prevailing custom of embodying both the guiding theme idea as well as the more general philosophical and orchestral principles of Wagner. Unreserved acceptance of such theorems in their extreme phase reveals itself in the recently presented "Werther." Much of Massenet's harmonic treatment displays undeniable traits of originality, and his scoring is rich and variated. His activity also as a composer for the concert stage has been untiring, but he is at his best as an operatic writer, nor do his orchestral works approach those of Saint-Saëns. As to this, however, neither has any other modern French composer as yet equalled Saint-Saëns, even though several younger writers, and notably Debussy, are successfully demonstrating possibilities quite beyond the scope of Saint-Saëns' achievements. Of Massenet's orchestral works, the most important to be recorded are the two suites, the "Hungarian" and the "Scènes pittoresques," besides the overture to Racine's "Phèdre." This last is undeniably Massenet's representative concert piece, embodying as it does virile force, impassioned sentiment and exceptional orchestration.