[1]There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihád is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter'sOur Indian Musalmáns.[2]"Let none touch it but the purified." (Súra lvi. 78.)[3]"It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring down the whole Korán at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the earth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section III.)[4]Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77.[5]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195.[6]"The grandeur of the Qurán consists, its contents apart, in its diction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their crowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root—which they envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move around the anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 122.[7]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194.[8]Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called Asháb (Companions); their disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); their disciples are known as Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers)."[9]"Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of Cadesia (A.H.14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the Corán." Muir, vol. i. p. 5.[10]Muavia.[11]The twelve Imáms.[12]Al-Mahdí is still supposed to be alive.[13]These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did. (2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that which he said should be practised. (3) Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was done in his presence and which he did not forbid.[14]Risála-i-Berkeví.[15]The great Wahhábí preacher Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account will be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Imán:—"The best of all ways is to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God andof His Apostle; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own opinion to be exercised."[16]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195.[17]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16.[18]Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285.[19]"Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de conformer ses actions à ce qui est indiqué dans les traditions attribuées au Prophète," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465.[20]In June 1827,A.D., Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting against interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs of which are conducted upon the principles ofsacred legislation, and all the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of religion." These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatvá given by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-dín's proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or Law.[21]"The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost idolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354.[22]Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009.[23]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469.[24]Journal Asiatique 4me série, tom. xii.[25]Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs, p. 29.[26]Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594.[27]Ibid., p. 546.[28]Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548.[29]In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the faith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper for one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling.Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the 'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is.[30]"Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and this we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four (Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, as if they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none of these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with a knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat; (4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the reign of the Sunnat-followers.—Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. 374. 378.[31]Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír 'Alí, p. 289.[32]The Muslim 'Ulamá are certainly much fettered by their religion in the pursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269.[33]The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but the Turk—wherever his scymitar reached—degraded, defiled, and defamed; blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two hundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler,C.B., inGood Wordsfor September 1880.[34]"The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his belief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid disorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earth which he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is that in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which pervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in ways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with the power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection; the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."—British Quarterly, No.cxxx.[35]A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in his religious duties.[36]Commentators on the Qurán.[37]The Traditionists.[38]Plural of Faqíh, a theologian.[39]I have given the dates of their death.[40]Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs p. 72.[41]Dabistán, p. 214.[42]pp. 508-510.[43]"It (the Qurán) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii. 104).[44]Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, 111.[45]The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Qurán to be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of God."[46]Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16.[47]"Were we to examine the Qurán by the rules of rhetoric and criticism as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge that it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very book."—Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary.[48]There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al Khattáb said; "I accorded with my cherisher (i.e., God) in three things. One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O messenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see that it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking honey; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his Majesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said."'Áyesha said:—"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this shall be no crime in thee.' (Súra xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in which your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He doeth.'"[49]Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459.[50]This includes even the orthography, for:—"La génération suivante, je veux dire les Tábis (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du Prophète et se fit un mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées par ceux qui, après Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui avaient recu de lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vive voix." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397.[51]This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any other.[52]Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:—"Rien de tout cela n'a pu se connaître que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460.[53]Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for learning in the sixth centuryA.H.), remarked on these letters as follows:—They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to such a degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to express their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined."On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of the passage as:—"God has placed these letters in several Súras as a sort of defiance; as if He had said:—'Voilà les éléments dont se compose le Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale par le style.'" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68.[54]The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilful leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, will God be indulgent, merciful." (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206.[55]The arrangement made by Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte des Quráns" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's English version of the Qurán is, with some exceptions, an example of this order.[56]On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is the one generally repeated.[57]Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216.[58]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 131.[59]Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad,C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.'[60]Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250.[61]Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679.[62]"He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680.[63]The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad,A.H.329. The Man-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí,A.H.381. The Tahzíb and the Istibsár by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad,A.H.466. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat by Sayyud RazíA.H.406.[64]If the Isnád is good, internal improbability carries with it little weight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to this effect:—"A relation made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and by him on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is really the golden chain."[65]Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5.[66]A full account of these will be found in the preface to the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqáyah.[67]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 123.[68]Kisas-ul-Anbiya,—"Lives of the Prophets."[69]Hyát-un-Nafís.[70]The Shía'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms are more logical than the Romanists, thus:—"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say, it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone'sGleanings, vol. iii. p. 260.[71]It is a common Musalmán belief that the body of a prophet casts no shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the Last Minstrel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "had learned the art that none might name," he says:—"His form no darkening shadow tracedUpon the sunny wall."It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the Musalmán belief regarding the shadows of prophets.[72]The Sunnís esteem and respect the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit—men of the House, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly appointed Khalífs.[73]The names are 'Alí, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr, Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí, Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or Imám Mahdí).[74]Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Alí.[75]For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islám under the Arabs, pp. 168-184.[76]Islám under the Khalífs, p. 139.[77]Miskát-ul-Musábih.[78]Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah.[79]Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by the Council of the 'Ulamá in July 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform, which would have placed the Sultán in the position of a constitutional sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:— "The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him a power superior to his own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern as master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, which should be the guide ofallthe actions of the Khalíf, to transfer the supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil." This, the latest and most important decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with all that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible that so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any attempt to set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform.[80]It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the Súfí idea of absorption into the Divine Being."That each who seems a separate wholeShould move his rounds, and fusing allThe skirts of self again, should fallRemerging in the general soul,Is faith as vague as all unsweet:Eternal form shall still divideThe eternal soul from all beside;And I shall know him when we meet."Tennyson's "In Memoriam."[81]"Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du matérialisme, lui est en réalité identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas plus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus élevee et plus poétique." Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2.[82]Kaf—a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth.[83]'Anka—the Phœnix.[84]"Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de l'extérieur, pour lezáhir parast, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le sofi qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13.[85]The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, is of Persian origin. It is derived from 'dar,' a door, and 'wíz' the root of the verb 'awíkhtan,' to hang; hence the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh' and the word becomes 'Darwísh.' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like this idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl, and "wísh," like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl.' The wísh is from wásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express similitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, called Imála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the more probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives both derivations.[86]For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51.[87]La Poésie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 7.[88]Súfí doctrines of the Moollá Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique 6me Série, tom. 13.[89]"That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm; and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islám, was the thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who might cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters." Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point of contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian Literature"—Calcutta Review, No. lix.[90]The following are the names of the Wahhábí chiefs:—Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, diedA.D.1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz, died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830; Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221.[91]Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10.[92]According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras Presidency, where the total Musalmán population is about 2,000,000.[93]Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149.[94]Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369.[95]Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.[96]Ibid, p. 372.[97]Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, with the prayer—"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at and Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictly submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábís do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress through their influence.[98]"Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire," has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. In no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief (taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one common creed of the Qurán and its author."—Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 10.[99]Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of Islám,' as the subject of it is technically called Imán, or faith. The Kalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one God, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual sense of a body of dogmas.[100]Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa tasdíqun bil janáni.[101]Amantu billáhi kama hua bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'a ahkámihi.[102]Amantu billáhi wa maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi wal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'álá wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti.[103]He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmane le plus estimé et le plus répandu en Turquie," p. 154.[104]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 27.[105]The above statements form the substance of several pages in the "Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following: "Cela n'est pas toutefois un motif pour déprécier notre intelligence et nos facultés perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste: elle nous fournit des résultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent à l'unité de Dieu, à la vie future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritable caractère des attributs divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé. Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdité." Vol. iii. p. 45.[106]"Telle fut la règle suivie par les anciens musulmans à l'égard des verses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genre qui se présentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la même source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67.This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and origin of the Qurán and the Sunnat.[107]Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565.[108]"The Musulmán Authors distinguish between the earlier and later Mutakallimán. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely religious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320.[109]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.[110]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.[111]Dabistán, p. 218.[112]Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343.[113]"C'etait l'époque de la plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empire des Arabes, où leur pouvoir, et en même temps leur culture intellectuelle et littáraire, atteignirent leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me Série, Tome xii. p. 104.[114]To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took place, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the Khalífs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can be found in Osborn's "Khalífs of Baghdád." A short review of the latter will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.[115]Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669.[116]Ibid, p. 228.[117]Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur la raison) fut adopté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur traités, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour arriver à la découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de la démonstration, la connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Les scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de confirmer la vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers Musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs avaient émises." Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169.[118]Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 63[119]"Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Súra vii. 179.)[120]"The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3.[121]Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394.[122]"The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were destroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict between Free-thought and the spirit of Islám were obliterated." Osborn's Khalífs of Baghdád, p. 148.[123]Súra xxxix, 68, 69.[124]L'Islamisme d'après le Coran, p. 135.[125]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 112.[126]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 187.[127]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 58.[128]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19.[129]"From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge—indeed, the boundary of the world itself."—Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. 48.[130]See also Súra xxxviii. 89.[131]Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 140.[132]Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kih nákardah Qurán darust, kutub khána-i-chand millat bashust."—"The Perfect one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the library of all the peoples' creeds."[133]Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan,i.e.abrogated both as regards reading and writing—entirely abrogated. AlsoTakmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián ast.—"His religion abrogates all religions."[134]Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad,C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit (Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. We hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a liberal Musalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text which, literally translated, is as follows:—"Now it should be considered that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the Taurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming of the Injíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogatedon account of the idea that there is any defect in themare utterly mistaken, &c."The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text; but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the Syed says in effect: "The booksare abrogatedbut not because they were imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns is, in this instance, at least, as conservative as the most bigoted.[135]Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22.[136]Ibid, p. 31.[137]There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. publication—The Korán—by Sir W. Muir.[138]Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad,C.S.I., vol. i. pp. 64-95.[139]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.[140]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.[141]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65.[142]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205.[143]"That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is maintained on the authority of:—"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Súra x. 63.)[144]Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 125.[145]Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18.[146]This is an orthodox blow at the Shía'h practices in the month of Muharram. Shía'hs consider this a good act.[147]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18.[148]It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled; and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship," would not have been fulfilled.[149]That is, according to the commentator Beidawí,—"Thy remissness in propagating Islám."[150]Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 332.[151]On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than a man, an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles were confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, was for all ages. He needed no other sign than this.[152]"Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Súra xciv. 1). Tradition relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a black drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event.[153]Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí.[154]Tafsír-i-Husainí. p. 362[155]For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112.[156]"All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that the Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is not, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he denies the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies the ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings preserved in the Traditions is a "fásiq," (sinner), though he remains a Muslim.[157]Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Qurán.[158]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 183.[159]According to Búkhárí and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of those who perspire.[160]"That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their whiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces."[161]For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55.[162]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47.[163]Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. i. p. 397.[164]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 25.[165]Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book xxiii. ch. 12.[166]"Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73.[167]This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as that on which the Qurán is written. In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are said to be written in "the clear book of our decrees." This is called the Imám-ul-Mubín, the clear prototype.[168]"The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant and the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I was created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'"[169]Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness against themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we witness it.'" (Súra vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men, also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers,viz., the Jews, the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into several parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of the Takwiyat-ul-Imán.[170]The orthodox Commentator 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to the decree,e.g.'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom He wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. ii. page 9.[171]Mélanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458.[172]Thus the poet Faizí says: "Before thou and I were thought of, our free will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both worlds settled our affairs long before we were made."[173]The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad, was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman residing in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common Prayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the kind has been done.[174]Journal Asiatique 4me Série, tome 17, p. 582[175]This is the Sháfa'íte form which the Hanifites consider wrong.[176]Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160.[177]Les Prairies D'or, tome sixième, p. 368.[178]Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315.[179]For a statement of the Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131.[180]Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim philosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was an Arab.[181]Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429.[182]"Aprés lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe véritablement digne de ce nom." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 458.[183]Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a Muhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36.[184]"There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, which arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian; the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii. p. 34.[185]The Persian term for this is Namáz, a word in commoner use in India than Sulát. Both terms will henceforth be employed.[186]There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him who says the name of God when making wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says it not, only the part washed will be pure."[187]Before commencing the wazú, say: "I am going to purify myself from all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace to be Muslims. Islám is a truth and infidelity a falsehood."When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of judgment."When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume me with the odours of Paradise."When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, place the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with favour."When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrection the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are said at each act.[188]From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namáz expresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary sense is 'Du'á.'[189]It is taken from the Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33.[190]As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people to prayers.[191]"God is Great."[192]The followers of Imám As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place the hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women stand with the feet close together.[193]The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at the first rak'at.[194]A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán, which portion is then called a rukú'. (Ante. p.57.)[195]In a mosque the Imám says the first sentences alone; the people the second.[196]Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it is sufficient.[197]Here the Shía'hs say:—"I rise and sit by the power of God."[198]This is said at the close of every two rak'ats.[199]The Shía'hs stop here and omit the rest.[200]The Shía'hs omit the Du'á and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous servants."[201]The Fatvá, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.[202]I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent table.[203]The Musallí may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven.[204]Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. 155.[205]In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed.[206]One who says, "Alláhu Akbar—God is Great."[207]A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) when they fled from Mecca to Madína. See Súra ix. 40.[208]Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153.[209]Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40.[210]Qíám is one of the positions in a Namáz and is here used by synecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with reference to this Tradition the Salát-ul-Qíámíah.[211]Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141.[212]That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State on payment of a special tax.[213]The Sháfa'ítes raise the hands at the recital of each of the four Takbírs; the other sects do so only at the first.[214]If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:—"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an intercessor for us."[215]The Imám makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper makes the Niyyat that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, on his fellow worshippers and on the Imám.[216]i.e., the deceased's.[217]Death, resurrection, judgment; &c.[218]This contradicts verse 254 of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. We accept all prophets and as regardsfaithin them make no difference, though as regardsdignitywe recognize the distinction indicated in the 254th verse.[219]That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial observance is taklilíf, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from these "loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious man—a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing religious duties.[220]In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in.[221]The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue of women.[222]The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person on whose behalf it is made.[223]Súra ii. 256.[224]There are others who maintain that this is amukhamstatement and cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30. Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120.[225]Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was in Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should be the consequence.[226]"The former are called Zakát, either because they increase a man's store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are called Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv.[227]That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor person.[228]The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' is equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one camel, is about 480 lb.[229]Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque.[230]The two famous disciples of Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad.[231]This ceremony is called Al-Ihrám (i.e., making unlawful), because now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlál (i.e., making lawful), for now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the world.[232]This statement of names is taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, and that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of Al Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there that he assumed the Ihrám. The explanation probably is that a Hájí must not approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihrám than the places named in the text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one of the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act.[233]Talbíyah means the repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I am here." The Talbíyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is preferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik![234]"The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may be kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain,viz., a crow, a kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton).[235]The Musjid-ul-Harám is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba.[236]It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred a place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind (to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)—Blessed and a salvation to human beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and he who entereth is safe.' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of the black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not eat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids recover their health by rubbing themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats made of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle.[237]The whole seven are one Usbú'.[238]The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a small building, supported, by six pillars about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left open; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba.[239]In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in the second, Súra cxii.[240]"Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during the afternoon of the eighth day" (Burton).[241]The following legend is current about 'Arifát. "When our parents forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán, the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam at Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his foot—which was large—a town arose; between the strides will always be country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till death took place." (Burton).[242]The Sháfa'í rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a night and day to reduce the five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafí code allows the shortened form only on this day.[243]"The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones." (Burton).[244]Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, the shaving of the head, the going to Safá and Marwah, the throwing of the stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably have been extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held in superstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt about retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the Prophet, "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if he go round about them both." (Súra ii. 153).[245]These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when to pause. Thus toí stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím for já,íz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím for la'zim (necessary to pause),circle with dotis a full stop.[246]Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were brought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other language.[247]A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of speech could learn these words in a very short time.[248]This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity to human compositions.[249]During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of the martyrs, but now being empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames and can be destroyed, Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146.[250]This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown into a tank.[251]The Mihráb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of Mecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the expression in the prayer means that 'Alí is to be the object toward which the faithful look.[252]The twelve Imáms, Muhammad and Fátima.[253]The 'Íd-gáh is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There is a Mihráb in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh.[254]Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say eighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152.[255]The Baqr-'Íd is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa.[256]Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book vii. ch. 1.[257]That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p. 170.[258]This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty.[259]Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104.[260]"Observations on the Musalmáns of India." Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p. 192."[261]The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.[262]Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said that, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat as much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for something which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 60.[263]According to the Imáms Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up the sacrifice until the Imám who has officiated at the previous Namáz has slain his victim. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.[264]Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. 144.
[1]There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihád is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter'sOur Indian Musalmáns.
[2]"Let none touch it but the purified." (Súra lvi. 78.)
[3]"It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring down the whole Korán at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the earth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section III.)
[4]Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77.
[5]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195.
[6]"The grandeur of the Qurán consists, its contents apart, in its diction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their crowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root—which they envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move around the anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 122.
[7]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194.
[8]Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called Asháb (Companions); their disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); their disciples are known as Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers)."
[9]"Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of Cadesia (A.H.14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the Corán." Muir, vol. i. p. 5.
[10]Muavia.
[11]The twelve Imáms.
[12]Al-Mahdí is still supposed to be alive.
[13]These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did. (2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that which he said should be practised. (3) Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was done in his presence and which he did not forbid.
[14]Risála-i-Berkeví.
[15]The great Wahhábí preacher Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account will be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Imán:—"The best of all ways is to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God andof His Apostle; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own opinion to be exercised."
[16]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195.
[17]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16.
[18]Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285.
[19]"Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de conformer ses actions à ce qui est indiqué dans les traditions attribuées au Prophète," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465.
[20]In June 1827,A.D., Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting against interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs of which are conducted upon the principles ofsacred legislation, and all the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of religion." These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatvá given by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-dín's proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or Law.
[21]"The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost idolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354.
[22]Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009.
[23]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469.
[24]Journal Asiatique 4me série, tom. xii.
[25]Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs, p. 29.
[26]Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594.
[27]Ibid., p. 546.
[28]Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548.
[29]In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the faith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper for one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling.
Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the 'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is.
[30]"Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and this we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four (Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, as if they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none of these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with a knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat; (4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the reign of the Sunnat-followers.—Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. 374. 378.
[31]Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír 'Alí, p. 289.
[32]The Muslim 'Ulamá are certainly much fettered by their religion in the pursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269.
[33]The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but the Turk—wherever his scymitar reached—degraded, defiled, and defamed; blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two hundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler,C.B., inGood Wordsfor September 1880.
[34]"The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his belief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid disorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earth which he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is that in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which pervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in ways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with the power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection; the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."—British Quarterly, No.cxxx.
[35]A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in his religious duties.
[36]Commentators on the Qurán.
[37]The Traditionists.
[38]Plural of Faqíh, a theologian.
[39]I have given the dates of their death.
[40]Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs p. 72.
[41]Dabistán, p. 214.
[42]pp. 508-510.
[43]"It (the Qurán) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii. 104).
[44]Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, 111.
[45]The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Qurán to be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of God."
[46]Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16.
[47]"Were we to examine the Qurán by the rules of rhetoric and criticism as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge that it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very book."—Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary.
[48]There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al Khattáb said; "I accorded with my cherisher (i.e., God) in three things. One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O messenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see that it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking honey; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his Majesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said."
'Áyesha said:—"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this shall be no crime in thee.' (Súra xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in which your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He doeth.'"
[49]Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459.
[50]This includes even the orthography, for:—"La génération suivante, je veux dire les Tábis (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du Prophète et se fit un mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées par ceux qui, après Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui avaient recu de lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vive voix." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397.
[51]This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any other.
[52]Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:—"Rien de tout cela n'a pu se connaître que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460.
[53]Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for learning in the sixth centuryA.H.), remarked on these letters as follows:—They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to such a degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to express their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined."
On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of the passage as:—"God has placed these letters in several Súras as a sort of defiance; as if He had said:—'Voilà les éléments dont se compose le Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale par le style.'" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68.
[54]The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilful leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, will God be indulgent, merciful." (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206.
[55]The arrangement made by Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte des Quráns" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's English version of the Qurán is, with some exceptions, an example of this order.
[56]On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is the one generally repeated.
[57]Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216.
[58]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 131.
[59]Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad,C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.'
[60]Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250.
[61]Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679.
[62]"He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680.
[63]The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad,A.H.329. The Man-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí,A.H.381. The Tahzíb and the Istibsár by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad,A.H.466. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat by Sayyud RazíA.H.406.
[64]If the Isnád is good, internal improbability carries with it little weight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to this effect:—"A relation made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and by him on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is really the golden chain."
[65]Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5.
[66]A full account of these will be found in the preface to the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqáyah.
[67]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 123.
[68]Kisas-ul-Anbiya,—"Lives of the Prophets."
[69]Hyát-un-Nafís.
[70]The Shía'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms are more logical than the Romanists, thus:—
"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say, it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone'sGleanings, vol. iii. p. 260.
[71]It is a common Musalmán belief that the body of a prophet casts no shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the Last Minstrel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "had learned the art that none might name," he says:—
"His form no darkening shadow tracedUpon the sunny wall."
"His form no darkening shadow tracedUpon the sunny wall."
"His form no darkening shadow traced
Upon the sunny wall."
It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the Musalmán belief regarding the shadows of prophets.
[72]The Sunnís esteem and respect the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit—men of the House, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly appointed Khalífs.
[73]The names are 'Alí, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr, Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí, Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or Imám Mahdí).
[74]Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Alí.
[75]For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islám under the Arabs, pp. 168-184.
[76]Islám under the Khalífs, p. 139.
[77]Miskát-ul-Musábih.
[78]Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah.
[79]Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by the Council of the 'Ulamá in July 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform, which would have placed the Sultán in the position of a constitutional sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:— "The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him a power superior to his own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern as master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, which should be the guide ofallthe actions of the Khalíf, to transfer the supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil." This, the latest and most important decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with all that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible that so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any attempt to set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform.
[80]It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the Súfí idea of absorption into the Divine Being.
"That each who seems a separate wholeShould move his rounds, and fusing allThe skirts of self again, should fallRemerging in the general soul,Is faith as vague as all unsweet:Eternal form shall still divideThe eternal soul from all beside;And I shall know him when we meet."Tennyson's "In Memoriam."
"That each who seems a separate wholeShould move his rounds, and fusing allThe skirts of self again, should fallRemerging in the general soul,
"That each who seems a separate whole
Should move his rounds, and fusing all
The skirts of self again, should fall
Remerging in the general soul,
Is faith as vague as all unsweet:Eternal form shall still divideThe eternal soul from all beside;And I shall know him when we meet."Tennyson's "In Memoriam."
Is faith as vague as all unsweet:
Eternal form shall still divide
The eternal soul from all beside;
And I shall know him when we meet."
Tennyson's "In Memoriam."
[81]"Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du matérialisme, lui est en réalité identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas plus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus élevee et plus poétique." Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2.
[82]Kaf—a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth.
[83]'Anka—the Phœnix.
[84]"Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de l'extérieur, pour lezáhir parast, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le sofi qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13.
[85]The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, is of Persian origin. It is derived from 'dar,' a door, and 'wíz' the root of the verb 'awíkhtan,' to hang; hence the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh' and the word becomes 'Darwísh.' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like this idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl, and "wísh," like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl.' The wísh is from wásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express similitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, called Imála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the more probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives both derivations.
[86]For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51.
[87]La Poésie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 7.
[88]Súfí doctrines of the Moollá Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique 6me Série, tom. 13.
[89]"That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm; and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islám, was the thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who might cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters." Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point of contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian Literature"—Calcutta Review, No. lix.
[90]The following are the names of the Wahhábí chiefs:—Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, diedA.D.1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz, died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830; Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221.
[91]Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10.
[92]According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras Presidency, where the total Musalmán population is about 2,000,000.
[93]Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149.
[94]Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369.
[95]Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.
[96]Ibid, p. 372.
[97]Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, with the prayer—"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at and Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictly submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábís do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress through their influence.
[98]"Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire," has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. In no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief (taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one common creed of the Qurán and its author."—Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 10.
[99]Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of Islám,' as the subject of it is technically called Imán, or faith. The Kalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one God, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual sense of a body of dogmas.
[100]Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa tasdíqun bil janáni.
[101]Amantu billáhi kama hua bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'a ahkámihi.
[102]Amantu billáhi wa maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi wal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'álá wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti.
[103]He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmane le plus estimé et le plus répandu en Turquie," p. 154.
[104]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 27.
[105]The above statements form the substance of several pages in the "Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following: "Cela n'est pas toutefois un motif pour déprécier notre intelligence et nos facultés perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste: elle nous fournit des résultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent à l'unité de Dieu, à la vie future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritable caractère des attributs divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé. Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdité." Vol. iii. p. 45.
[106]"Telle fut la règle suivie par les anciens musulmans à l'égard des verses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genre qui se présentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la même source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67.
This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and origin of the Qurán and the Sunnat.
[107]Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565.
[108]"The Musulmán Authors distinguish between the earlier and later Mutakallimán. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely religious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320.
[109]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.
[110]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.
[111]Dabistán, p. 218.
[112]Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343.
[113]"C'etait l'époque de la plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empire des Arabes, où leur pouvoir, et en même temps leur culture intellectuelle et littáraire, atteignirent leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me Série, Tome xii. p. 104.
[114]To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took place, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the Khalífs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can be found in Osborn's "Khalífs of Baghdád." A short review of the latter will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.
[115]Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669.
[116]Ibid, p. 228.
[117]Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur la raison) fut adopté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur traités, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour arriver à la découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de la démonstration, la connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Les scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de confirmer la vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers Musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs avaient émises." Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169.
[118]Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 63
[119]"Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Súra vii. 179.)
[120]"The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3.
[121]Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394.
[122]"The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were destroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict between Free-thought and the spirit of Islám were obliterated." Osborn's Khalífs of Baghdád, p. 148.
[123]Súra xxxix, 68, 69.
[124]L'Islamisme d'après le Coran, p. 135.
[125]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 112.
[126]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 187.
[127]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 58.
[128]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19.
[129]"From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge—indeed, the boundary of the world itself."—Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. 48.
[130]See also Súra xxxviii. 89.
[131]Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 140.
[132]Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kih nákardah Qurán darust, kutub khána-i-chand millat bashust."—"The Perfect one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the library of all the peoples' creeds."
[133]Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan,i.e.abrogated both as regards reading and writing—entirely abrogated. AlsoTakmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián ast.—"His religion abrogates all religions."
[134]Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad,C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit (Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. We hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a liberal Musalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text which, literally translated, is as follows:—"Now it should be considered that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the Taurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming of the Injíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogatedon account of the idea that there is any defect in themare utterly mistaken, &c."
The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text; but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the Syed says in effect: "The booksare abrogatedbut not because they were imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns is, in this instance, at least, as conservative as the most bigoted.
[135]Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22.
[136]Ibid, p. 31.
[137]There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. publication—The Korán—by Sir W. Muir.
[138]Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad,C.S.I., vol. i. pp. 64-95.
[139]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.
[140]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.
[141]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65.
[142]Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205.
[143]"That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is maintained on the authority of:—"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Súra x. 63.)
[144]Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 125.
[145]Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18.
[146]This is an orthodox blow at the Shía'h practices in the month of Muharram. Shía'hs consider this a good act.
[147]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18.
[148]It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled; and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship," would not have been fulfilled.
[149]That is, according to the commentator Beidawí,—"Thy remissness in propagating Islám."
[150]Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 332.
[151]On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than a man, an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles were confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, was for all ages. He needed no other sign than this.
[152]"Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Súra xciv. 1). Tradition relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a black drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event.
[153]Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí.
[154]Tafsír-i-Husainí. p. 362
[155]For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112.
[156]"All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that the Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is not, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he denies the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies the ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings preserved in the Traditions is a "fásiq," (sinner), though he remains a Muslim.
[157]Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Qurán.
[158]Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 183.
[159]According to Búkhárí and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of those who perspire.
[160]"That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their whiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces."
[161]For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55.
[162]Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47.
[163]Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. i. p. 397.
[164]Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 25.
[165]Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book xxiii. ch. 12.
[166]"Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73.
[167]This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as that on which the Qurán is written. In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are said to be written in "the clear book of our decrees." This is called the Imám-ul-Mubín, the clear prototype.
[168]"The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant and the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I was created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'"
[169]Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness against themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we witness it.'" (Súra vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men, also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers,viz., the Jews, the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into several parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of the Takwiyat-ul-Imán.
[170]The orthodox Commentator 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to the decree,e.g.'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom He wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. ii. page 9.
[171]Mélanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458.
[172]Thus the poet Faizí says: "Before thou and I were thought of, our free will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both worlds settled our affairs long before we were made."
[173]The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad, was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman residing in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common Prayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the kind has been done.
[174]Journal Asiatique 4me Série, tome 17, p. 582
[175]This is the Sháfa'íte form which the Hanifites consider wrong.
[176]Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160.
[177]Les Prairies D'or, tome sixième, p. 368.
[178]Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315.
[179]For a statement of the Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131.
[180]Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim philosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was an Arab.
[181]Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429.
[182]"Aprés lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe véritablement digne de ce nom." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 458.
[183]Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a Muhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36.
[184]"There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, which arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian; the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii. p. 34.
[185]The Persian term for this is Namáz, a word in commoner use in India than Sulát. Both terms will henceforth be employed.
[186]There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him who says the name of God when making wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says it not, only the part washed will be pure."
[187]Before commencing the wazú, say: "I am going to purify myself from all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace to be Muslims. Islám is a truth and infidelity a falsehood."
When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of judgment."
When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume me with the odours of Paradise."
When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, place the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with favour."
When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrection the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are said at each act.
[188]From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namáz expresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary sense is 'Du'á.'
[189]It is taken from the Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33.
[190]As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people to prayers.
[191]"God is Great."
[192]The followers of Imám As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place the hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women stand with the feet close together.
[193]The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at the first rak'at.
[194]A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán, which portion is then called a rukú'. (Ante. p.57.)
[195]In a mosque the Imám says the first sentences alone; the people the second.
[196]Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it is sufficient.
[197]Here the Shía'hs say:—"I rise and sit by the power of God."
[198]This is said at the close of every two rak'ats.
[199]The Shía'hs stop here and omit the rest.
[200]The Shía'hs omit the Du'á and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous servants."
[201]The Fatvá, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.
[202]I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent table.
[203]The Musallí may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven.
[204]Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. 155.
[205]In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed.
[206]One who says, "Alláhu Akbar—God is Great."
[207]A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) when they fled from Mecca to Madína. See Súra ix. 40.
[208]Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153.
[209]Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40.
[210]Qíám is one of the positions in a Namáz and is here used by synecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with reference to this Tradition the Salát-ul-Qíámíah.
[211]Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141.
[212]That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State on payment of a special tax.
[213]The Sháfa'ítes raise the hands at the recital of each of the four Takbírs; the other sects do so only at the first.
[214]If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:—
"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an intercessor for us."
[215]The Imám makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper makes the Niyyat that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, on his fellow worshippers and on the Imám.
[216]i.e., the deceased's.
[217]Death, resurrection, judgment; &c.
[218]This contradicts verse 254 of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. We accept all prophets and as regardsfaithin them make no difference, though as regardsdignitywe recognize the distinction indicated in the 254th verse.
[219]That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial observance is taklilíf, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from these "loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious man—a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing religious duties.
[220]In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in.
[221]The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue of women.
[222]The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person on whose behalf it is made.
[223]Súra ii. 256.
[224]There are others who maintain that this is amukhamstatement and cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30. Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120.
[225]Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was in Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should be the consequence.
[226]"The former are called Zakát, either because they increase a man's store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are called Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv.
[227]That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor person.
[228]The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' is equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one camel, is about 480 lb.
[229]Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque.
[230]The two famous disciples of Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad.
[231]This ceremony is called Al-Ihrám (i.e., making unlawful), because now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlál (i.e., making lawful), for now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the world.
[232]This statement of names is taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, and that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of Al Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there that he assumed the Ihrám. The explanation probably is that a Hájí must not approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihrám than the places named in the text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one of the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act.
[233]Talbíyah means the repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I am here." The Talbíyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is preferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik!
[234]"The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may be kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain,viz., a crow, a kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton).
[235]The Musjid-ul-Harám is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba.
[236]It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred a place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind (to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)—Blessed and a salvation to human beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and he who entereth is safe.' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of the black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not eat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids recover their health by rubbing themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats made of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle.
[237]The whole seven are one Usbú'.
[238]The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a small building, supported, by six pillars about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left open; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba.
[239]In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in the second, Súra cxii.
[240]"Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during the afternoon of the eighth day" (Burton).
[241]The following legend is current about 'Arifát. "When our parents forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán, the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam at Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his foot—which was large—a town arose; between the strides will always be country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till death took place." (Burton).
[242]The Sháfa'í rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a night and day to reduce the five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafí code allows the shortened form only on this day.
[243]"The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones." (Burton).
[244]Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, the shaving of the head, the going to Safá and Marwah, the throwing of the stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably have been extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held in superstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt about retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the Prophet, "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if he go round about them both." (Súra ii. 153).
[245]These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when to pause. Thus toí stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím for já,íz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím for la'zim (necessary to pause),circle with dotis a full stop.
[246]Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were brought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other language.
[247]A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of speech could learn these words in a very short time.
[248]This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity to human compositions.
[249]During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of the martyrs, but now being empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames and can be destroyed, Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146.
[250]This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown into a tank.
[251]The Mihráb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of Mecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the expression in the prayer means that 'Alí is to be the object toward which the faithful look.
[252]The twelve Imáms, Muhammad and Fátima.
[253]The 'Íd-gáh is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There is a Mihráb in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh.
[254]Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say eighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152.
[255]The Baqr-'Íd is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa.
[256]Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book vii. ch. 1.
[257]That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p. 170.
[258]This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty.
[259]Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104.
[260]"Observations on the Musalmáns of India." Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p. 192."
[261]The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.
[262]Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said that, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat as much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for something which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 60.
[263]According to the Imáms Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up the sacrifice until the Imám who has officiated at the previous Namáz has slain his victim. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.
[264]Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. 144.