NOTE TO CHAPTER V.

"Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher,Ce n'est que l'éclat qui fait le crime."

"Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher,

Ce n'est que l'éclat qui fait le crime."

Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast very difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must not swallow any liquid; yet asa rule the lower classes observe it strictly.[225]In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. In such circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then the Iftár can be commenced. The month of Ramazán brings with it other duties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter.

4.Zakát.—There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first is Zakát (literally, "purification") or the legal alms due, with certain exceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the feast day known as 'Íd-ul-Fitr, or alms in general.[226]It is the first of these that has now to be considered.

On the authority of the Qurán and the Ijmá'-i-Ummat it is declared to be a farz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, to give the Zakát on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficient for his subsistence and is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb, or one who possesses an income equivalent to about £5 per annum. The Qurán says: "Observe prayer (Salát) and the legal impost (Zakát)." (Súra ii. 40). The Khalíf 'Umr Ibn 'Abd-ul-'Azíz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting brings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission." The three conditions without which Zakát would not be compulsory are Islám,Hurriat(freedom) and Nisáb (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakát is said to be a fundamental part of 'Ibádat (worship), and that, as the Infidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do with Zakát. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold noproperty. Nisáb is required, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisáb is required for daily use the zakát is not taken from it; such as a slave retained for personal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household furniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one Tradition records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another given on the authority of Bukhárí states that for slaves employed in domestic service only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227]should be given. If a person owes a debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his property and the Zakát given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God, such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the neglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the property on which Zakát is due.

The amount of gold which constitutes a Nisáb is 20 miskats, or of silver 200 dirhems (=£5 4s.). Whether these metals are in coin or not, one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments are exempt, but Imám Sháfa'í does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Dáúd the following Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy golden bracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakát had been given for them. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for God in the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' The girl then took them off and said: 'These are for the service of God and of His Prophet.'" On all treasure known as rikáz, that is, buried treasure found by any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the value must be paid, whether the land be Khárijí, rented at its proper market value; or 'Usharí possessed by the payment of a tithe. If the rikáz is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the whole belongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimedland he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of a Musalmán Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and return them to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after having given one-fifth as Zakát, he may retain four-fifths for himself.

Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the Prophet said: "There is no Zakát for stones."

As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep and goats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must give one for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep.

For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep or goat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel (bint-i-mukház); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel (bint-i-labún); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah); from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, two bint-i-labún; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either a bint-i-labún for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses follow this scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead. For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, a two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every ten cows.

Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come down (from heaven) to me about them."

If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisáb (£5 4s.), Zakát must be given on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half per cent. The Hanífites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Sháfa'ítes count such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakát to be paid on it.

Honey, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camelloads,[228]must according to Imám Abu Hanífa pay one-tenth; but the Sáhibain and Imám Sháfa'í say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakát is required. The Prophet said: "If produced on land naturally watered one-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth." As he said nothing about the quantity, the Hanífites adduce the fact of the omission as a proof on their side.

The Zakát should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the following verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to those who collect them,and to those whose hearts are won to Islám, and for ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for the wayfarer." (Súra ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the Tafsír-i-Husainí, are now cancelled (mansúkh). The reference is to the Arab Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A.H.8). This victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Súra. "God hath helped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr abolished this giving of Zakát to converts, and the Khalíf Omar said to these or similar persons: "This Zakát was given to incline your hearts toward Islám. Now God has prospered Islám. If you be converted it is well; if not, a sword is between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the Ijmá'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy motives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that a reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the ground of the triumphant nature of Islám which now needs no such support. Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the change.

In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakát may be given to assist a Mukátib, or slavewho is working in order to purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihád or to make the Hajj must be assisted.

The Zakát must not be given for building mosques,[229]for funeral expenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, or to purchase a slave in order to set him free. It is not lawful to give the Zakát to parents or grand-parents, children or grandchildren; or for a husband to give it to his wife, or a wife to her husband; or a master to his slave. The Sáhibain[230]maintain that a wife can apply the Zakát to her husband's wants and quote this Tradition: "A woman asked the Prophet if she could give the Zakát to her husband. He answered 'give; such an act has two rewards, one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of the duties of relationship.'" It should not be given to a rich man, nor to his son, nor to his slave. The descendants of Hásham and the descendants of the Prophet should not be the recipients of the Zakát. The Prophet said: "O Ahl-i-Beit (men of the house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakát, for you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty." So some say that Syeds are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not now get a portion of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakát must not be given to a Zimmí (a non-muslim subject).

In Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect the Zakát; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. Whilst there is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be given for the care which Musalmáns take of their poor.

The Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this subject. A full account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter which treats of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr.

5.The Hajj.—The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a farz duty, and he who denies this fact is considered to be an infidel. "The pilgrimage to the temple is a service due to God from those who are able to journey thither: and as to him who believeth not—verily God can afford to dispense with all creatures." (Súra iii. 91, 92.) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbás the following Tradition has been handed down. "The Prophet said: 'God has made the Hajj farz.' Then Aqra' bin Hábis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is it to be made every year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say—yes, it will be a wájib duty to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj is necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca in addition is nafl.'"

The Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and of full age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after duly providing for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, or a child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and the latter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whose residence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca, goes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near relative. Imám As Sháfa'í denies the necessity of such attendance, stating that the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His objection is, however, met as usual by a Tradition. "A certain man came to the Prophet and said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am called to go on a warlike expedition.' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from the war and accompany thy wife in the Hajj.'" Imám Abu Yúsuf considered that a man who possessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if he delayed more than a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imám Muhammad, and most others think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, but if death should overtake the man before he has madethe pilgrimage, he will be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that delay is dangerous.

Connected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and five which are wájib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz requisites are: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihrám,[231]two seamless wrappers, one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the shoulder; (2) to stand in 'Arfát; (3) to make the Tawáf, that is to go round the K'aba seven times.

The wájib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalífah; (2) to run between Mount Safá and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Ramí-ul-Jamár, or the casting of the pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an extra Tawáf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over.

The Hajj must be made at the appointed season. "Let the pilgrimage (Hajj) be made in the months already known." (Súra ii. 193). These months are Shawwál, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual Hajj must be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the niyyat, or intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. The 'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year except on the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of the various roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five or six miles from the city stages called Míqát. The following are the names. On the Madína road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on the 'Iráq road, Zát-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, Qarn; on the Yaman road, Yalamlam.[232]

The Hájís from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary and worn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their ordinary clothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namáz of two nafl rak'ats they put on the Ihrám. The Hájí, having now really entered upon the Hajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and says: "O God, I purpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me and accept it from me." He then says the Talbíyah[233]: "Here I am! O Alláh! Here I am! Here I am! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom are to Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!"

The persons who reside permanently in any of these Míqát can assume the pilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city itself; whilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihrám in the precincts of the temple.

The Hájí having assumed the Ihrám must now abstain from worldly affairs, and devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not allowed to hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. "O Believers, kill no game while ye are on pilgrimage." (Súra v. 96). The Prophet also said: "He who shows the place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who kills it." The Hájí must not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair be uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub himself with the open palm of his hand.[234]The face and head must be left uncovered, the hair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. "Shave not your heads until theoffering reach the place of sacrifice." (Súra ii, 192). On arriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on meeting any one, on entering the city of Mecca or the Musjid-ul-Harám[235]the Hájí should continually repeat the word "Labbaik, Labbaik."

As soon as he sees the K'aba[236]he must say the Takbír and the Tahlíl. The Traditionist 'Atá says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift up his hands and pray.

On entering the enclosure, the Hájí says the Labbaik, Takbír and the Tahlíl, then a Du'á. A Namáz of two rak'ats is then said at the station of one of the four great Imáms. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black stone) the Hájí again says the Takbír and the Tahlíl, after which he kisses the stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough to do this, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that with which he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: "O Alláh, (I do this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pursuance of Thy Prophet's example—may Alláh bless and preserve him. O accept Thou my supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciously grant me Thy pardon." Then he again repeats the Takbír and theTahlíl, the Darúd and the Tahríf (prayer for, and praise of Muhammad). He then encompasses the K'aba seven times, in accordance with the niyyat he had made, thus: "In the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Omnipotent! I purpose to make the circuit seven times."[237]This is called the Tawáf. The Hájí runs round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and four times he proceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca will not perform the Tawáf. The Hájí then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek against the portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, and raising up his arms on high says: "O Alláh, Lord of the Ancient House, free my neck from hell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; make me contented with that daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless me in all Thou hast granted!" He then says the Istigfár—"I beg pardon of Alláh, the Most High, the Living, the Eternal, and to Him I repent."

The Hájí next proceeds to the Maqám-i-Ibráhím[238](place of Abraham) and then recites two rak'ats[239]called Sunnat-ut-Tawáf. Some water from the sacred well Zemzem is then drunk, after which the Hájí returns to the Hajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses it.

Hájí Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:—

"We began the prayer 'O Alláh (I do this) in Thy belief and in verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Alláh bless and preserve him!' till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Alláh, Thou hast rights, so pardon my transgressing them.' Opposite the door we repeated, 'O Alláh, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thysafeguard, and this is the place of Him who flees to Thee from (hell) fire.' At the building called Maqám-i-Ibráhím, we said: 'O Alláh, verily this is the place of Abraham, who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny my flesh and blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we paced slowly round the north or Irák corner of the K'aba we exclaimed, 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and disobedience, and hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts concerning family, and property and progeny.' When we passed from the Mízáb, or spout, we repeated the words, 'O Alláh, verily I beg of Thee faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not perish, and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad—may Alláh bless and preserve him! O Alláh, shadow me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no shadow by Thy shadow; and cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet Muhammad—may Alláh bless and preserve him—that pleasant draught, after which is no thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.' Turning to the west corner, or the Rukn el Shámí, we exclaimed: 'O Alláh, make it an acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and a laudable endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemaní, or southern corner, where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, where our circuit would be completed, we said: 'O Alláh, verily I take refuge with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and from the tortures of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death. And I fly to Thee from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore Thy pardon for the present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the punishment of fire.'"

The next important step is the running between the Mounts Safá and Marwah. Starting from the former, the Hájí runs seven times between the two summits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldiers charging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel Meccans mocked the Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate of Madína had made them weak. This bold way of running was adopted to disprove thecalumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The prayer to be said during the S'ai (running) is: "O my Lord, pardon and pity, and pass over that (sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and verily Thou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us in both worlds prosperity, and save us from fire." The Hájí should also quote passages from the Qurán. This S'ai must be done after an important Tawáf, either the first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imám must preach in Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preaches again on the ninth and eleventh days.

On the eighth day, (Rúz-i-Tarwiáh), the Hájí goes to Miná, a place three miles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hájís he says the usual Namáz, and there spends the night.[240]This is a sunnat observance. On the morning of the ninth day, starting after the Salát-ul-Fajr, the Hájí goes to 'Arifát.[241]On arriving there he says: "O God, I turn to Thee, I put my trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy to me, supply my need in 'Arifát, Thou art powerful over all." He then says Labbaik, the Takbír and the Tahlíl.

The noontide, and the afternoon Namáz are said together there: they are thus shortened.[242]This done he should stand upon the mountain, if possible at or near the place the Prophetis said to have occupied. This is called the Wukúf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He must also listen to the sermon delivered by the Imám, explaining what still remains of the ritual of the Hajj,i.e., how the Hájís are to stand in Muzdalífah, to throw the stones in Miná, to make the sacrifice, &c.

All the time the Hájí should constantly shout out the Talbíyah, and the Tahlíl, and weep bitterly.

The Hájí then proceeds to Muzdalífah, a place situated about half-way between Miná and 'Arifát, where he should pass a portion of the night. After a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Harám, he should collect seven pebbles and proceed to Miná.

When the morning of the tenth day, the 'Íd-ul-Azhá arrives, he again goes to Miná, where there are three different pillars, called respectively the Jamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabír[243](great devil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. Holding the jamár, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, the Hájí throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says: "In the name of Alláh, and Alláh is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of the Fiend and to his shame." The remaining six stones are thrown in like manner. The object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there. The stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt. Before each stone is thrown the Takbír must be said. This ceremony is called Ramí-ul-Jamár, the throwing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It is said that this ceremony has been performed since the time of Abraham, and that the stones are miraculously removed. Ibn 'Abbás, a Companion, says that if the pilgrimage of a Hájí is approved of by God, the stones are secretly removed. Mujáhid, a well known Traditionist,says that he put a mark on his stones and afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim then returns to Miná, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Íd-ul-Azhá. An account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictly speaking, concludes the Hajj. The Hájí can now shave his head, pare his nails and remove the Ihrám.

The remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are called the Aiyám-ut-Tashríq "days of drying flesh" because now the pilgrims prepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices from the victims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Hájí should spend this time at Miná, and each day throw seven pebbles at each of the pillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and makes the Tawáf-ul-Widá' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some water from the well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabriel stamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is now the far-famed well Zemzem. Finally, the Hájí kisses the threshold, and then, with hands uplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, he prays most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart from a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring backwards, he makes his exit and the Hajj is complete.[244]The Umráh or little pilgrimage can be made at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of Zu'l-Hajja. It is usually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its ceremonies differ but slightly from the Hajj. The Ihrám mustbe put on, and the obligations of abstinence which it entails must be observed.

The usual course is then to make the Ziárat, or visit to the tomb of the Prophet at Madína. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title of Hájí and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among the community in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, though it is esteemed a 'good work,' if someone who can afford it, sends a pilgrim who otherwise could not go.

This account of the Irkán-i-dín, or five pillars of religion, must now draw to a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of Islám, whilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and practice, as an authority for many of the details, shows how largely Islám is based on the Sunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which the great Imáms hold on some of the details, it is most difficult to decide which side holds the correct view. Such opinions are always based on some Tradition, the value of which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it is a weak (z'aif) Tradition—a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to disprove. It is sometimes said in praise of Musalmáns that they are not priest-ridden; but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if one may use such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is broken there can be no progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so broken Islám will cease to be Islám, for this foundation of the Faith and the edifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of the one will be the fall of the other.

NOTE TO CHAPTER V.The following Fatvá was publicly given in the Great Mosque, Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880.In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.QUESTION."O 'Ulamá of the religion, and Muftís of the enlightened Law, what is your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Qurán into the Hindustani language has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic editions; such as—toí, qif, jím, lá, mím, andcircle with dot.[245]At the end of the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanúd, Saná, Ta'awwuz, Tasmí, Tashibát, rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that all these must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions as to the ritual of the Namáz, and has stated that to those who do not know Arabic, it is a wájib and a farz duty to recite the translation; otherwise they commit sin and the Namáz is vain. As regards the past, he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the 'Ulamá of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not telling the people to use translations of the Qurán. Further, in support of his views he adduces a Hadís-i-Sahíh, according to which the Prophet said to a Companion, Salmán-i-Farsí: "Read a translation of the Qurán in the Namáz." He claims, as on his side, the four great Imáms. He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namáz in Hindustani and influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India.Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person, and what is the decree in the case of those who followhim, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made to be the Holy Qurán, or who teach it to their children? O learned men, state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward."THE ANSWER."After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander. His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the four Imáms is utterly false, because according to Imám Sháfa'í, Imám Málik, and Imám Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Qurán when saying the Namáz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or not. Thus Imám Navarí, a disciple of Sháfa'í says: "It is unlawful in any case to use Persian[246]in the Namáz." Faqí 'Alí, a disciple of Málik says: "Persian is unlawful." To these opinions Káfí, a disciple of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To recite in the Namáz from a translation of the Qurán is unlawful." Moreover from the Qurán itself, the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz). The term Qurán, too, means an Arabic Qurán, for God speaks of it as a revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much of the Qurán as may be easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words "an Arabic Qurán have we sent it down" show that the Qurán to be used is an Arabic one. Imám Abu Hanífa and his disciples, the Sáhibain (Imám Muhammad and Imám Abu Yúsuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation. If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people." Until he learns this he may use a translation.[247]In the Tanwír-ul-Absár it is written: "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart is farz-i-'ain" (i.e., incumbent on all). In the Masíh-ul-Azhar it is written: "If a person says the Namáz in a language other than Arabic, he is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the statement made by Imám Abu Hanífa that a person might use for atime a translation, it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulmán-i-Farsí is not correct. In the Niháyáh (commentary on the Hidáyah) it is written that some Persians wrote to Sulmán, and requested him to send them a Persian translation of Súrat-ul-Fátiha. He complied with their request and they used it in the Namáz,until they could pronounce Arabic properly. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark. This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be remembered, a translation may be used. No Imám has ever allowed that to read a translation is farz or wájib. So if the person referred to says that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Káfir, for he tries to make out that the 'Ulamá of all preceding ages who have instructed the people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the Namáz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the Namáz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'á-i-qunút, Saná, and the Tasbíhát of the rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that these translations should be used in the Namáz. Thus, it is plain that he wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a course would be that soon a number of different translations would be circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injíl would be corrupted. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí it is written: "Whosoever considers that the unlawful is lawful orvice versâis a Káfir." "If any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulamá, his orthodoxy is doubtful." "A man who after committing a fault declines to repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel." In the Tahqíq-i-Sharh-i-Husainí it is written; "To translate the Qurán into Persian and to read that is unlawful." In the Fatáwá-i-Matlúb-ul-Múminín it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the Qurán in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqán it is written: "According to Ijmá', it is wrong to speak of the Qurán as having rhymes."[248]In the Fatáwá-i-Tátár Khánía it is said: "To translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity."Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalmáncemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, according to the rule laid down in the Miftáh-us-S'ádat. To doubt of the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs of the law here adduced, the 'Ulamá have declared such a person to be an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is unlawful. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí in the chapter entitled Murtád it is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the future punishment of such an one is an infidel." God says in the Qurán: "Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God." (Súra v. 3). In another place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a person should say that the recital of the Arabic Qurán in the Namáz is not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of it is incumbent (farz)."Our duty is to give information to Musalmáns, and God is the best Knower."This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other leading Moulvies of the city of Madras.This Fatvá, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islám is to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown, precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islám. It further demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to the statements made by the four chief Imáms, and the fact that the Fatvá is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvás in which their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they are regarded as the Mujtahidín of Islám. The Fatvá is thus manifestly orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first chapter on the "Foundations of Islám."

The following Fatvá was publicly given in the Great Mosque, Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

QUESTION.

"O 'Ulamá of the religion, and Muftís of the enlightened Law, what is your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Qurán into the Hindustani language has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic editions; such as—toí, qif, jím, lá, mím, andcircle with dot.[245]At the end of the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanúd, Saná, Ta'awwuz, Tasmí, Tashibát, rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that all these must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions as to the ritual of the Namáz, and has stated that to those who do not know Arabic, it is a wájib and a farz duty to recite the translation; otherwise they commit sin and the Namáz is vain. As regards the past, he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the 'Ulamá of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not telling the people to use translations of the Qurán. Further, in support of his views he adduces a Hadís-i-Sahíh, according to which the Prophet said to a Companion, Salmán-i-Farsí: "Read a translation of the Qurán in the Namáz." He claims, as on his side, the four great Imáms. He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namáz in Hindustani and influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India.

Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person, and what is the decree in the case of those who followhim, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made to be the Holy Qurán, or who teach it to their children? O learned men, state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward."

THE ANSWER.

"After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander. His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the four Imáms is utterly false, because according to Imám Sháfa'í, Imám Málik, and Imám Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Qurán when saying the Namáz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or not. Thus Imám Navarí, a disciple of Sháfa'í says: "It is unlawful in any case to use Persian[246]in the Namáz." Faqí 'Alí, a disciple of Málik says: "Persian is unlawful." To these opinions Káfí, a disciple of Hanbal adds his testimony: "To recite in the Namáz from a translation of the Qurán is unlawful." Moreover from the Qurán itself, the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz). The term Qurán, too, means an Arabic Qurán, for God speaks of it as a revelation in Arabic. The words "recite so much of the Qurán as may be easy to you" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words "an Arabic Qurán have we sent it down" show that the Qurán to be used is an Arabic one. Imám Abu Hanífa and his disciples, the Sáhibain (Imám Muhammad and Imám Abu Yúsuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation. If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a sentence as "Praise be to God, Lord of the people." Until he learns this he may use a translation.[247]In the Tanwír-ul-Absár it is written: "It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart is farz-i-'ain" (i.e., incumbent on all). In the Masíh-ul-Azhar it is written: "If a person says the Namáz in a language other than Arabic, he is a madman or an atheist." With regard to the statement made by Imám Abu Hanífa that a person might use for atime a translation, it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulmán-i-Farsí is not correct. In the Niháyáh (commentary on the Hidáyah) it is written that some Persians wrote to Sulmán, and requested him to send them a Persian translation of Súrat-ul-Fátiha. He complied with their request and they used it in the Namáz,until they could pronounce Arabic properly. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark. This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be remembered, a translation may be used. No Imám has ever allowed that to read a translation is farz or wájib. So if the person referred to says that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Káfir, for he tries to make out that the 'Ulamá of all preceding ages who have instructed the people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the Namáz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the Namáz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'á-i-qunút, Saná, and the Tasbíhát of the rukú' and Sujúd, and has said that these translations should be used in the Namáz. Thus, it is plain that he wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a course would be that soon a number of different translations would be circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injíl would be corrupted. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí it is written: "Whosoever considers that the unlawful is lawful orvice versâis a Káfir." "If any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulamá, his orthodoxy is doubtful." "A man who after committing a fault declines to repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel." In the Tahqíq-i-Sharh-i-Husainí it is written; "To translate the Qurán into Persian and to read that is unlawful." In the Fatáwá-i-Matlúb-ul-Múminín it is said: "Whosoever intends to write the Qurán in Persian must be strictly forbidden." In the Itqán it is written: "According to Ijmá', it is wrong to speak of the Qurán as having rhymes."[248]In the Fatáwá-i-Tátár Khánía it is said: "To translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity."

Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalmáncemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty, according to the rule laid down in the Miftáh-us-S'ádat. To doubt of the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs of the law here adduced, the 'Ulamá have declared such a person to be an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is unlawful. In the Fatáwá-i-'Álamgírí in the chapter entitled Murtád it is written: "Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the future punishment of such an one is an infidel." God says in the Qurán: "Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God." (Súra v. 3). In another place God says: "Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an infidel." Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a person should say that the recital of the Arabic Qurán in the Namáz is not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of it is incumbent (farz).

"Our duty is to give information to Musalmáns, and God is the best Knower."

This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other leading Moulvies of the city of Madras.

This Fatvá, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islám is to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown, precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islám. It further demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to the statements made by the four chief Imáms, and the fact that the Fatvá is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvás in which their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they are regarded as the Mujtahidín of Islám. The Fatvá is thus manifestly orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first chapter on the "Foundations of Islám."

1.Muharram.—Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year, has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by the Shía'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Alí and of his two sons Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already described in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an account of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in different countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram.

Some days previous to the feast, the 'Áshúr Khána (literally, ten-day house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather together in the various 'Áshúr Khánas, and offer a Fátiha over some sherbet or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fátiha concludes thus: "O God, grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The sherbet and sugar are then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Alláwa, or hole for the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires are kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: "'Alí! Noble Husain! Noble Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c." These words they repeat hundreds of times.

In some parts of the country they erect an Imám Bára (Imám-house). This is often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for the founder and his family. In South India the 'Áshúr Khána only is known. This is generally a temporary structure, orsome large hall fitted up for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered with texts of the Qurán written in a large and elegant style. The place is brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Tázíahs or Tábúts—structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely ornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the plains of Karbalá over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Tázíah is constructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madína. Large sums of money are spent on these Tázíahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant appearance. At the back of the Tázíahs are laid the several articles similar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbalá,—a turban of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is so placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which are commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of silver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the family of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shía'hs. These standards have many different names, such as—the standard of the palm of 'Alí, the Lady Fátima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to represent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to mention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the scene.

Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Áshúr Khánas. In the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain! Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved for a later ceremony.

This over, the Wáqi'a Khán (literally, narrator of events) ascends the Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Áshúr Khána. "The first Wáqi'a Khán was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from the adjoining Zanána was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their bodies to and fro, calling out 'Alí! 'Alí! Husain! Husain! Each one then began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures."

In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over again in some other 'Áshúr Khána. A devout person will visit several each evening. During the day some pious Shía'hs recite the Qurán.

During this season women who can read, visit the Zanánas and chant Marsiyas to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated with great earnestness.

For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on theseventh day the 'Alam-i-Qásím is taken out in public procession. This is to represent the marriage of Qásím, the son of Hasan, to the favourite daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now commemorated by the bearing of Qásím's standard in procession. It is usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out: Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, the people bring the standard back to its own 'Áshúr Khána. As the standard which represents Qásím is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down, covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fátiha is said, after which the standard is again set up in its own place.

The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to remembrance the fact that Yezíd caused Husain's head to be thus carried about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sáhib (literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should I through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your procession." If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the Na'l Sáhib.

If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they are made to touch. Fátiha is then said and the respective processions pass on their way. The Buráq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. p.159) is also taken out.

On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tázías and the 'Alams are taken out inprocession. It is a scene of great confusion, for men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the carnival of the Musalmán year.

On the following day, the 'Áshúrá, they kindle the fires in the Alláwas, and say a Fátiha in each 'Áshúr Khána. After this the 'Alams and the Tázías are taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain of Karbalá. Another Fátiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken off the Tázías, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water.[249]Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds the people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only the 'Alams, not the Buráqs nor the Na'l Sáhibs, are immersed. The people then burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fátiha over the 'Alams, Buráqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night reading the Qurán, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On the 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fátiha has been said over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shía'hs celebrate the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according to some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is known as the 'Íd-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast).

The Sunnís do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns 'Alí and his family. The three first Khalífs are often well abused, and that no Sunní can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunní and the Shía'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends to keep alive the distinction.

The tenth day—the 'Áshúrá is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is observed by all Sunnís. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death.

The Sunnís about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet and khichrí—a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified butter and spices. A Fátiha in the name of Husain and of those who were martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such cases. A Namáz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'á is added. On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and say Fátiha over the graves of their friends.

Indian Musalmáns have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The procession of the Tázías, and the casting of them into the water is very similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,[250]when on the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers.

The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart; consequently the Musalmán festivals have borrowed from it a variety of pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done much to add to the superstition of the Musalmáns in India, it has no doubt softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnís consider the Shía'h observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The fact that the British Government punishes all who breakthe peace may have something to do with this. Still the Sunní and the Shía'h in India live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalmán poets, indeed, are both Sunnís and Shía'hs. Thus Wálí, begins his poem with a brief encomium on the four first Khalífs, and then bestows an eulogy on 'Alí and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls "Imáms of the world."

The following is a prayer used in a Fátiha for 'Alí:—

I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihráb[251]of the faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory, the Imám of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men, the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imám of the Faithful, 'Alí, son of Abu Tálib, 'Alí the victorious lion of the Most High. I pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalíf may favourably hear the vows which I offer to Him."

The following prayer occurs in a Fátiha said for Hasan and Husain:—

I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imáms, the martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Alláh Al-Husain, and for the twelve Imáms, and the fourteen[252]pure ones, and for the seventy-two martyrs of the plain of Karbalá."

2.Akhir-i-Chár Shamba.—This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the month Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fátihas in the name of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom is the drinking of the seven Saláms. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a piece of paper is taken to a Mullá, or a religious teacher, who writes seven short sentences from the Qurán upon it. The writing whilst still wet is washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Saláms are: (1) "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord." (Súra xxxvi. 58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds." (Súra xxxvii. 77). (3) "Peace be on Abraham." (Súra xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses and Aaron." (Súra xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias." (Súra xxxvii. 130). (6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise." (Súra xxxix. 73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn." (Súra xcvii. 5). The Shía'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "Chár Shamba-i-Súrí."—The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the trumpet of the last day. The Sunnís, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem it an excellent and auspicious season.

3.Bárá Wafát.—This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month Rabí'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bárá, twelve and wafát, death, because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a well-known Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout the world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to God their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul." Others, however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fátihaevery day, from the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast as Bárá Wafát observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Íd-gáh,[253]or to the place where Fátiha will be said. It is then distributed to the people. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a Saint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be made in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Qurán is read in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fátihas are said.

Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasúl, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the Qurán are read and the Darúd is said.[254]

In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day, not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the "'Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharíf," the "Feast of the noble birth." The practical duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasúl, the Ásár-i-Sharíf is exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possessthe miraculous property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Ásár Khána, or house in which this hair is kept Fátihas, Darúds, &c., are repeated.

The observance of this festival is neither wájib nor sunnat, but mustahab. It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does not believe in the miraculous growth of the Ásár-i-Sharíf.

4.Shab Barát.—This feast, the name of which signifies the "night of the record," is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'abán. The 'Arfa, or vigil is kept on the preceding day.[255]It is commonly but erroneously called Shab-i-Barát.

The word Barát signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this night registers in the Barát all the actions men are to perform during the ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a Fátiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. When all in the house are assembled, the Súrat-ul-Fátiha is read once, the Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times, the Áyat-ul-Kursí once, and then the Darúd. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family. This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the Mosque and after the Namáz-i-'Ishá they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats. This over, the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín is read three times. It must be done with the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper may have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be increased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil.The Súra-i-Dukhán (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other portions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the various cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards strewn on the graves. A Fátiha is then said. If the worshipper has no relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the Arwáh-i-Qubúr, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the whole night in going from one cemetery to another.

These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawáfil, (sing. nafl), works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they are esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent innovation." The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islám. Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on this feast than at any other.

The following prayer occurs in the Fátiha: "O our God, by the merits of the Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of eternal felicity."

5.Ramazán and 'Íd-ul-Fitr—It is one of the five pillars of the practical religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazán. The subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with the religious observance of this month.

From the earliest days of Islám this month has been held in the greatest esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazán should be kept as a fast. "As to the monthRamazán, in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra ii. 181).

The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashúrá, the tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on the tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of this seventh month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c." (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, when Muhammad first went to Madína he had great hopes of winning over the Jews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making Islám differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the Qibla was changed (Ante. p.60), and that in the second year of his residence at Madína the fast of Ramazán was appointed. The reasons assigned by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazán God gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, and that in this month the Qurán was sent down from the Secret Tablet in the seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily we have caused it (Qurán) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a thousand nights." (Súra xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this month the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open, and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg." "Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven called Rayyán." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their past venial sins."[256]

In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night,Muhammad doubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort." (Súra ii. 181).

The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazán are the Taráwíh Namáz and 'Itikáf (retirement). The Taráwíh prayers have been described already (p.205). Each night in Ramazán one-thirtieth part (sípára) of the Qurán is recited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikáf is a Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes 'Itikáf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there meditate. Bukhárí says that the Prophet made 'Itikáf the last ten days of each Ramazán, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between the twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazán. If his meditation is disturbed by any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imám Muhammad says: "The least legal time is one hour." Some theologians hold that 'Itikáf is farz-i-kifáya, that is, if one person of a community does it the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes a vow in Ramazán, then 'Itikáf is considered wájib. 'Itikáf can be performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazán, but then it is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the Sháfa'ítes hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and for making the legal wazú and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat, drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him to read the Qurán in an audible voice. By such an act he becomesa man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.[257]

When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called Iftár, and the first day on which food is taken is called the 'Íd-ul-Fitr—the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day the Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namáz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If any one neglects to give these alms before the Namáz is said, he will not merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this is that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namáz. The Sadqa are given for the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and female—Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife or elder children.

In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God is great! God is great!' The Namáz is like that of a Friday, except that only two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namáz is sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and is itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves.

A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr which is preached in Arabic is as follows:—

SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR.In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful."Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. Itis of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurán to our Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa.[258]O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the Qurán. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazán gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramazán is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down in the month of Ramazán." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!" and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, theHoly King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement."[259]

SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

"Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. Itis of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurán to our Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa.[258]O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the Qurán. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazán gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramazán is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down in the month of Ramazán." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!" and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, theHoly King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement."[259]

"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Íd are marked by all the amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The Zanána rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy day of 'Íd, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others."[260]

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