Raven or Great Corbie Crow.(Corvus Corax,Linn.;Le Corbeau,Buff.)—This is the largest of this kind; its length is above two feet; breadth four. Its bill is strong and very thick at the base; it measures somewhat more than two inches and a half in length, and is covered with strong hairs or bristles, which extend above half its length, covering the nostrils: the general colour of the upper parts is a fine glossy black, reflecting a blue tint in particular lights; the under parts are duller, and of a dusky hue.
The raven is well known in all parts of the world, and in times of ignorance and superstition, was considered as ominous, foretelling future events by its horrid croakings, and announcing impending calamities: in those times the raven was considered as a bird of vast importance, and the various changes and modulations of its voice were studied with the most careful attention, and were made use of by artful and designing men to mislead the ignorant and credulous. It is a very long-lived bird, and is supposed sometimes to live a century or more. It is fond of carrion, which it scents at a great distance; it is said that it will destroy rabbits, young ducks, and chickens: it has been known to seize on young lambs which have been dropped in a weak state, and pick out their eyes while yet alive: it will suck the eggs of other birds; it feeds also on earthworms, reptiles, and even shell-fish when urged by hunger.
It may be rendered very tame and familiar, and has been frequently taught to pronounce a variety of words: it is a crafty bird, and will frequently pick up things of value, such as rings, money, &c. and carry them to its hiding place. It makes its nest early in the spring, and builds in trees and the holes of rocks, laying five or six eggs, of a pale bluish green colour, spotted with brown. The female sits about twenty days, and is constantly attended by the male, who not only provides her with abundance of food, but relieves her in turn, and takes her place in the nest.
The natives of Greenland eat the flesh, and make a covering for themselves with the skins of these birds, which they wear next their bodies.
In 1808, a raven was kept at the Red Lion, Hungerford: a gentleman’s chaise, in turning into the yard, ran over the leg of his Newfoundland-dog, and while examining the injury done, Ralph was evidently a concerned spectator. When the dog was tied up, under the manger with the horses, Ralph attended upon him with particular kindness: this was so marked, that it was observed to the hostler, who said, that he had been bred from his pin-feather in intimacy with a dog, that the affection between them was mutual, and that all the neighbourhood had been witnesses of the acts of fondness they had conferred upon each other. This dog also had his leg broke, and during the long time he was confined Ralph waited upon him and carried him provisions daily; by accident the hostler shut the stable door, and Ralph was deprived of the company of his friend the whole night, but in the morning the bottom of the door was found so pecked, that Ralph would, in another hour, have made his own entrance port.—Bewick.
Ravenous,a.Furiously voracious, hungry to rage.
Raw,a.Not subdued by fire; not covered with the skin; sore; immature; unseasoned; bleak, chill.
Ray,s.A beam of light; a genus of the class amphibia, including the skate, sturgeon, thornback, and torpedo.
Rebound,s.The act of flying back in consequence of motion resisted.
Recharge,s.Among hunters, a lesson which the huntsman winds on the horn when the hounds have lost their game.
Recheat,s.A lesson which the huntsman winds on the horn when the dogs are at fault, to bring them back from pursuing a counterscent.
Recipe,s.A medical prescription.
Recoil,v.To rush back from resistance; the rebound of a gun.
Recoil.—Whatever retards the exit of the charge operates like an increase of lead, and, by confining the force of the explosion the more to the barrel, produces a greater recoil, hence partly it is, that in proportion as the barrel becomes foul within by repeated firing, the recoil increases. A piece will recoil if, from the breach plug being made too short, there remain some turns of the screw not filled up, these hollows, wherein a part of the powder is lodged, forming an obstacle that confines and retards the explosion. A barrel mounted on a stock that is very straight, will recoil more than when mounted on a stock that is considerably bent, as the curvature serves to break and deaden the force of the recoil; and, sometimes also, a fowling piece will recoil from the shooter applying it improperly to his shoulder, for if the butt is not applied closely to the shoulder, or is applied so as to be supported only at a single point, the recoil will be much more sensibly felt, than when the hollow of the butt embraces the shoulder, and is firmly supported by the weight of the body. Guns are observed to recoil more after being fired a number of times, than they did at the beginning. The matter which is left on the inside of the barrel after the explosion, and which increases on every discharge, attracts moisture very quickly, especially if the saltpetre employed in the powder was not well purified from the admixture of common salt which it contains in its rough state. This moisture becomes considerable after a few discharges, and, being formed into vapour by the heat during the explosion, adds its expansive effort to that of the inflamed powder, and greatly increases the agitation and recoil. Owing to this cause, probably, rather than to that before mentioned, arises the recoil, from some turns of the breech screw not being filled up by the breech plug, and thereby affording a lodgment to moisture.—Essay on Shooting.
Rectified Spirit,s.Alcohol, or spirit of wine.
This is obtained in a dilute state from fermented liquors by distillation, and is afterwards rectified or concentrated, by repeating the operation two or three times. Rectified spirit is the basis of many useful embrocations, for strains, bruises, &c. It dissolves camphor and all the resins very readily: hence we have camphorated spirit, opodeldoc, Friar’s balsam, &c. Mixed with an equal quantity of water it forms what is termed proof spirit, which is the liquid generally employed for making tinctures. Rectified spirit is often used undiluted as an embrocation for strains; and, when the injury is deeply seated, may be serviceable. I think, however, it is rendered more efficacious by the addition of soap, ammonia and camphor, or oil of rosemary. Rectified spirit is never employed as an internal remedy in the horse; though fermented liquors, such as beer, porter, or wine, have been often given with advantage, in cases which required cordials. Horses, that have been so fatigued with a long chase or journey as to refuse their food and appear quite exhausted, are much refreshed by taking a cordial ball in half a pint of beer, and feed soon after with great alacrity. The advantage thus derived is merely temporary, as they are not by this treatment rendered adequate to another chase or journey quicker than they would otherwise be.
Red,a.Of the colour of blood, of one of the primitive colours.
Redbreast,s.A small bird so named from the colour of its breast, called also a Robin.
This well-known species of warbler needs little description. The upper parts are of a yellowish brown, tinged with ash-colour; forehead and from chin to breast of a deep rufous orange; belly and vent whitish; the plumage of both sexes are alike; the nestling-feathers of young birds are spotted; and they do not possess the red on the breast for two or three months after they leave the nest.
It is said to be a migrative species, but from no other reason than their more frequent and numerous appearance about our habitations in the winter, when the woods and fields are destitute of insects; it is then they seek the protection of man, and are so tame as to enter doors and windows, and pick up the crumbs fallen from the table; here they too frequently fall a sacrifice to the watchful cat.
“The redbreast,†says Fleming, in a letter to Colonel Montagu, “is only occasionally observed in Zetland after gales of wind.†Whether in spring or autumn, or at what season, is not mentioned; but most probably in the latter, when those which breed in the more northern parts of the European continent may be shifting their quarters, and, by accident, are driven from Norway. It sings throughout the winter, except in severe weather. About the beginning of April it prepares a nest in some mossy bank or out-building, composed of dead leaves, green moss, and stalks of plants, lined with hair; and lays from five to seven whitish eggs spotted with rust-colour and cinereous; their weight about twenty-six grains.—Montagu.
Red Deer,s.The stag, the greater deer.VideStag.
Redlead,s.Minium.
Redpole,s.A bird of the finch tribe, so called from a red spot on the crown of the head.
This bird is less than the common linnet and twite, and although like them, subject to a partial change of colour at a particular season, may be readily distinguished from them, as well by other peculiar characteristics as by its inferiority of size, weighing about two drachms and a half; length five inches; the bill is of a light colour, inclining to dull yellow; irides hazel; the forehead is of a purplish red; the feathers of all the other parts are dusky, margined with rufous-brown; chin black; throat and breast pink; sides streaked with dusky; belly white; quills and tail dusky, edged with pale brown; in some the rump is tinged with pink; legs dusky.
The female differs in being somewhat lighter above, and in the colour on the head, which is not so bright, sometimes yellowish. This sex has the black spot on the chin, but none of the pink on the breast and throat. In confinement they lose the pink colour on the breast at the first moulting; at the second the colour on the head changes to a greenish yellow. Bechstein had a male, the head of which turned to a fine gold colour after the third moulting. The young birds are destitute of the pink feathers; and indeed the males are subject to as much variety as the linnet, and sometimes have no red at all on the breast.
This species is very generally diffused throughout Europe; but its native regions seem to be the northern parts. They reach Germany in great flocks towards the end of October, and again retire in the months of March and April.—Montagu.
Redshank,Red-legged Horseman,Pool Snipe, orSand Cock, (Scolopax calidris,Linn.;Le Chevalier aux Pieds rouges,Buff.)s.A bird.
This bird weighs about five ounces and a half: its length is twelve inches, and breadth twenty-one. The bill, from the tip to the corners of the mouth, is more than an inch and three quarters long, black at the point, and red towards the base: the feathers on the crown of the head are dark-brown, edged with pale rufous; a light or whitish line passes over and encircles each eye, from the corners of which a dark-brown spot is extended to the beak: irides hazel; the hinder part of the neck is obscurely spotted with dark-brown, on a rusty ash-coloured ground; the throat and forepart are more distinctly marked or streaked with spots of the same colour: on the breast and belly, which are white, tinged with ash, the spots are thinly distributed, and are shaped something like the heads of arrows or darts. The general appearance of the upper parts of the plumage is glossy olive-brown; some of the feathers are quite plain, others spotted on the edges with dark-brown, and those on the shoulders, scapulars, and tertials are transversely marked with the same coloured waved bars, on a pale rusty ground: the bastard wing and primary quills are dark-brown; the inner webs of the latter are deeply edged with white, freckled with brown, and some of those quills next the secondaries are elegantly marked, near their tips, with narrow brown lines, pointed and shaped to the form of each feather; some of the secondaries are barred in nearly the same manner, others are white; back white; the tail-feathers and coverts are beautifully marked with alternate bars of dusky and white; the middle ones slightly tinged with rust colour; legs red, and measure from the end of the toes to the upper bare part of the thigh, four inches and a half.
This species is of a solitary character, being mostly seen alone, or in pairs only. It resides the greater part of the year in the fen countries, in the wet and marshy grounds, where it breeds and rears its young. It lays four eggs, whitish, tinged with olive, and marked with irregular spots of black, chiefly on the thicker end. Pennant and Latham say, it flies round its nest, when disturbed, making a noise like a lapwing. It is not so common on the sea-shores as several others of its kindred species.
Ornithologists differ much in their descriptions of the redshank, and probably have confounded it with others of the red-legged tribe, whose proper names are yet wanting, or involved in doubt and uncertainty. Latham, in his supplement, describes this bird as differing so much in its summer and winter dress, and its weight, as to appear to be of two distinct species. There is reason to believe that several species of the scolopax and tringa genera, which have not been taken into the list of British birds, appear occasionally in Great Britain, and that this circumstance, together with the difference of age and sex, has occasioned much confusion.
Red-legged Godwit, Spotted Snipe or Barker, Spotted Redshank.(Scolopax Totanus,Linn.;Le Chevalier Rouge,Buff.)—The length of this bird, from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail is twelve inches, and to the end of the toes, fourteen inches and a half; its breadth, twenty-one inches and a quarter, and its weight about five ounces two drachms, avoirdupoise. The bill is slender, measures two inches and a half from the corners of the mouth to the tip, and is for half its length, nearest to the base, red, the other part black: irides hazel; the head, neck, breast, and belly are spotted in streaks, mottled and barred with dingy ash-brown and dull white, darker on the crown and hinder part of the neck: the throat is white, and lines of the same colour pass from the upper sides of the beak over each eye, from the corners of which two brown ones are extended to the nostrils: the ground colour of the shoulders, scapulars, lesser coverts, and tail, is a glossy olive-brown; the feathers on all these parts are indented on the edges, more or less, with triangular-shaped white spots. The back is white; the rump barred with waved lines of ash-coloured brown, and dingy white; the vent-feathers are marked nearly in the same manner, but with a great portion of white: the tail and coverts are also barred with narrow waved lines, of a dull ash-colour, and, in some specimens, are nearly black and white. Five of the primary quills are dark-brown, tinged with olive; the shaft of the first quill is white; the next six are, in the male, rather deeply tipped with white, and slightly spotted and barred with brown: the secondaries, as far as they are uncovered, when the wings are extended, are of the same snowy whiteness as the back. The feathers which cover the upper part of the thighs, and those near them, are blushed with a reddish or vinous colour: the legs are of a deep orange red, and measure, from the end of the middle toe-nail to the upper bare part of the thigh, five inches and a half.—Bewick.
Redwing,s.A bird.
Redwing, Swinepipe, or Wind Thrush.(Turdus Iliacus,Linn.;Le Mauvis,Buff.)—This bird is not more than eight inches in length. The bill is of a dark-brown colour; eyes deep hazel; the plumage in general is similar to that of the thrush; but a white streak over the eye distinguishes it from that bird: the belly is not quite so much spotted, and the sides of the body, and the feathers under the wings, are tinged with red, which is its peculiar characteristic; whence also it derives its name.
These birds make their appearance a few days before the fieldfare, and are generally seen with them after their arrival; they frequent the same places, eat the same food, and are very similar to them in manner. Like the fieldfare, they leave us in the spring, for which reason their song is quite unknown to us; but it is said to be very pleasing. The female builds her nest in low bushes or hedges, and lays six eggs, of a greenish blue colour, spotted with black.
This and the former are delicate eating: the Romans held them in such estimation that they kept thousands of them together in aviaries, and fed them with a kind of paste, made of bruised figs and flour, and various other kinds of food, to improve the delicacy and flavour of their flesh; these aviaries were so contrived as to admit light barely sufficient to direct them to their food; every object which might tend to remind them of their former liberty was carefully kept out of sight, such as the fields, the woods, the birds, or whatever might disturb the repose necessary for their improvement. Under this management these birds fattened, to the great profit of their proprietors, who sold them to Roman epicures for three denarii, or about two shillings sterling, each.
A redwing was taken up, November 7th, 1785, at six o’clock in the morning, which, on its approach to land, had flown against the light-house at Tynemouth, and was so stunned that it fell to the ground and died soon after; the light most probably had attracted its attention.
When redwings appear on the eastern coast, they as commonly announce the approach of the woodcock, as does the arrival of the wryneck that of the cuckoo, in the south.—Bewick—Daniel.
Reed,s.A hollow knotted stalk, which grows in wet grounds; a small pipe; an arrow.
Reek,s.Smoke, steam, vapour; a pile of corn or hay.
Reel,s.A turning frame upon which yarn is wound into skeins from the spindle; an implement for winding up the angler’s line.
Reeve,s.The female of the ruff.
Refuse,s.That which remains disregarded when the rest is taken.
Regarder,s. obs.The regarder is a ministerial officer of the forest, sworn to make regard there as usual, to view and enquire of all the officers within the forest of vert or venison, and of concealments or defaults of the forester, or other officers of the forest.
Rein,s.The part of the bridle which extends from the horse’s head to the driver’s or rider’s hand; used as an instrument of government, or for government.
Rein,v.To govern by a bridle; to restrain, to control.
Reins,s.The kidneys, the lower part of the back.
Relay,s.Horses on the road to relieve others.
Remove,s.Change of place; the act of changing place; a step in the scale of gradation; act of putting a horse’s shoes upon different feet.
Rendezvous,s.Assembly, meeting appointed; place appointed for an assembly.
Rendezvous,v.To meet at a place appointed.
Rennet,s.The ingredient with which milk is coagulated, in order to make cheese.
Renounce,v.To disown, to abnegate; a term in card playing.
Repellent,s.An application that has a repelling power.
Repercussion,s.The act of driving back, rebound.
Reptile,a.Creeping upon many feet.
Reptile,s.An animal that creeps upon many feet.
Resinous,a.Containing resin, consisting of resin.
Respiration,s.The act of breathing; relief from toil.
Rest,s.Sleep, repose; cessation from disturbance; cessation from bodily labour.
Rest,v.To lay as on a support; to steady a gun when taking aim.
Restharrow,s.A plant.
Restiff,a.Unwilling to stir; resolute against going forward; stubborn.
Restiveness,s.Obstinate reluctance; viciousness in a horse.
Restorative,s.A medicine that has the power of recruiting life.
Reticle,s. obs.A small net.
Reticulated,a.Made of net-work.
Retina,s.The optic nerve which receives the image of the object in vision.
Rheum,s.A thin watery matter oozing through the glands, chiefly about the mouth and eyes.
Rheumatism,s.A painful distemper supposed to proceed from acrid humours.
Acute general rheumatism, or rheumatic fever, is inflammation of the muscular system, and has been already noticed under the head founder, or chill. There is, however, a different kind of rheumatic affection I have sometimes met with, in which the joints are affected; generally, I believe, the hock joint; but probably the other joints are equally liable to this affection. It is sometimes accompanied with a morbidly irritable state of the stomach and bowels, and if a strong or even a common purgative is given in such a case, there will be danger of its producing inflammation of these parts. The same irritable state of the stomach and bowels is sometimes observable also in chills, as they are termed, and when the hind-leg is suddenly attacked with inflammation and swelling, after violent shivering and fever. In all such cases, though physic is often necessary, that is, when the bowels are in a costive state, yet it is likely to do great harm unless in a moderate dose, and guarded with cordials or opium. The following ball may be given on such occasions: it must be observed, however, that copious bleeding is the essential remedy, and must precede every other.
PURGATIVE WITH OPIUM, OR CORDIAL CATHARTIC.
PURGATIVE WITH OPIUM, OR CORDIAL CATHARTIC.
PURGATIVE WITH OPIUM, OR CORDIAL CATHARTIC.
The affected parts may be fomented and rubbed with some stimulating liniment or embrocation.—White.
Rhubarb,s.A medical root, slightly purgative, referred by botanists to the dock.
Rib,s.A bone in the body, any piece of timber or other matter which strengthens the sides; a slip of iron attached to gun barrels for strength or ornament.
Ribbed,a.Furnished with ribs; enclosed as the body by ribs.
Rick,s.A pile of corn or hay regularly heaped up and sheltered from wet.
Rickets,s.The rickets is a distemper in children, from an unequal distribution of nourishment, whereby the joints grow knotty, and the limbs uneven; a disease in horses.
Rickets is very like to tabies, in all its causes, and also in some of its appearances and effects; it is common to the same breeds, and is both occasional and hereditary. It is occasional when it meets with the circumstances of confinement, bad air, filth, and unwholesome food, or the milk of an unhealthy mother. Many whelps are born with the predisposition, among the fancy breeds in the confined parts of great cities and large towns, particularly pugs and the smaller sorts of bull dogs: there is also a breed of wry-legged terriers which without doubt originated in ricketty specimens, which were afterwards cultivated for particular purposes, principally rabbit-hunting. The affection often appears soon after birth; and shows itself by the slow development of the body, except in the head, belly, and joints, all of which enlarge at the expense of the rest of the parts: particularly it attacks all the joints of the extremities; these swell into protuberances, probably from a sympathy in the constitution to make up by bulk what the bones want in ponderosity, but which is not effected; for, deprived of their earthy solidifying principles, they yield to the superincumbent weight, and the cylindrical ones particularly become crooked. Cleanliness, good air, free exercise, and wholesome food, will commonly prevent it in the future breeds of such dogs as have shown a disposition to it. As a cure, an invigorating diet added to these, with the occasional use of tonic bitters if the appetite fails, or the digestion should appear defective, will answer the intention.—Blaine.
Ride,v.To travel on horseback; to travel in a vehicle; to be borne, not to walk; to manage a horse; to be supported, as ships on the water.
Rider,s.One who is carried on a horse or in a vehicle; one who manages or breaks horses.
In Riding.—Jockeys may be divided into several classes: namely, the southern jockeys, the northern jockeys, and the dirty jockeys. The first class are those which are seen at Newmarket, Ascot, Epsom, and indeed in most of the races in the southern counties, and also at Doncaster. The second class attend the Yorkshire meetings, and what, for the sake of distinction, I will call the northern circuit. The third or dirty class, are met with still farther to the north, in Westmoreland, Cumberland, &c. and are remarkable for their slovenly, dirty, and unworkmanlike appearance:—it is no uncommon occurrence to see these wretched apologies for jockeys (at Kendal for instance) ride in dirty jackets, dark greasy corduroys, and gaiters of a similar complexion. Mr. Thomas Simpson’s jockey frequently appears thus, though Mr. Simpson is wealthy and highly respectable; but evidently not very scrupulous on the score of cleanliness. The southern jockeys, much to their credit, appear on horseback with a neatness and cleanliness bordering upon elegance; and their performance is, for the most part, of a superior order—superior, in fact, to their rivals of the north; they are illiterate ignorant men, with little exception: though, in private, they affect a mysterious, but plebeian importance, and would willingly be thought a sort of semi-gentlemen, which, however, their very attempt to assume such a character renders impossible. There is much less of this ridiculous and ignorant affectation in the northern jockeys, who yet seem, it must be confessed, not nearly so anxious about their appearance on horseback (as far as relates to the advantage of dress,) as their brethren of the south.
The question next arises as to which are the best workmen. The southerns, beyond a doubt; that is, speaking generally: but, it must be admitted, that there are some excellent northern jockeys, who would lose little by the comparison with either Chifney, Robinson, Dockeray, or any of the most favourite riders of the present day. Buckle is now grown old, and does not often appear; otherwise, I should place him at the head of the list. H. Edwards must be classed, I imagine, amongst the northern jockeys; he has a good seat, good hands, and a good head; and is altogether an excellent rider: I am doubtful if his superior is to be found. T. Shepherd, a northern jockey, has a good head, and I have always admired his riding; I think his abilities have generally been much underrated. Lear is a promising young northern jockey; but he must be careful not to let his self-opinion and overbearing temper supersede the plain uncultivated sense he possesses. Templeman is what may be called an improving jockey: he has a good seat, and I have frequently been much pleased with his performances. He rode Dr. Faustus (Sir T. Stanley’s) remarkably well at the Liverpool summer meeting, and I thought won the cup—I was not singular in this opinion: the judge, however, decided in favour of Velocipede. I never recollect observing a horse better managed than Forth managed his own horse Frederick, when running this year (1829) at Epsom, for the Derby. He had betted to a considerable amount upon Exquisite (also his own horse, and came in second) particularly with Mr. Crockford; but shifted his money the evening before running on Frederick, and thus became a winner to a very considerable amount. There are many very awkward jockeys, possessing but very slender requisites for the profession which they have embraced; to point them out, however, by name, would appear ill-natured and invidious.
It is some dozen years or more since “old Billy Pierse†quitted the avocation of a jockey. This man I always considered as a very superior rider—as one of the best I ever saw. In stature he was one of the shortest of his fraternity: but he was a sort of dwarf Hercules: he was able to give his horse a pull without any perceptible movement of his body; and of all the jockeys I ever saw, not one sat so steadily upon his horse. He never acquired the fame of Chifney; though there are those who think his merits were equal, if not superior to that celebrated jockey:—such is the opinion of one gentleman, in particular, whose superior judgment I have frequently experienced and very much admired.
What I have denominated the “dirty jockeys,†are little worthy of consideration. They are very indifferent riders, but made up of trick and cunning; and ready at any time to put in practice their sinister arts for the purposes of deception, swindling and fraud.
I have not the least doubt, were this description of jockeyship entirely superseded, it would give very general satisfaction to the true friends of the turf. In the first place, with the exception of Lord Wilton, Mr. White, and some others, there are few gentlemen but what make a poor, or perhaps ridiculous, figure in riding a race. When gentlemen are to ride, it seldom happens that the patience of the multitude is not put to the test: if the preparations for gentlemen riders are not more complex than those of the professed jockeys, they cannot be either so well defined, or so direct, since they occupy a period of time of at least six times the duration. But this is by no means the worst of the business:—the system is liable to very gross abuse; and a class of men contrive to insinuate themselves into it, who have very meagre pretensions indeed to the character of gentlemen, and whose operations are, for the most part, merely a cloak for the basest purposes. I have often been surprised, that those genuine or sterling gentlemen who choose to contend in the race, are not more scrupulous as to the persons in whose company they thus appear: accustomed as they are to the turf, they cannot be unconscious, surely, that men frequently are seen as gentlemen riders, who are not only destitute of every honourable feeling, but whose exertions are in furtherance of a system of swindling, base and degrading, and utterly incompatible with the best interests of the turf. Also, a number of these men cannot come fairly under the description of amateur riders, since they go from race to race throughout the season, and are in the constant habit of riding, which they understand as well as the regular jockeys. What chance has a mere amateur against such competitors?
As to jockeys riding to order, nothing can be more correct or judicious, when such orders are intended to bring out the horse, so as to make the most of his powers, and to win if possible; but many cases have no doubt occurred of an opposite description, where the horse possessing the qualities to win, has been ridden purposely to lose. Yet, I am inclined to think, that suspicion has not unfrequently been expressed without just grounds. It should be recollected that horses vary considerably in their running, unaccountably so at times, either from latent disease, or other inexplicable cause; and therefore before a jockey is accused of wilfully riding to lose, the matter should be very dispassionately considered. Generally speaking, a jockey is very anxious to win, and I should be more inclined to suspect him of foul riding in order to win, than premeditatedly riding to lose, unless he had betted largely against the horse, and this is much more likely to occur where the jockey happens to be the owner of the horse, than under ordinary circumstances.—Turf Expositor.
Ridge,s.The top of the back; the rough top of anything; a steep protuberance; the ground thrown up by the plough; the top of the roof rising to an acute angle;ridges of a horse’s mouthare wrinkles or risings of the flesh in the roof of the mouth, running across from one side of the jaw to the other.
Ridgling,s.A ram half castrated.
Ridingcoat,s.A coat made to keep out the weather.
Rifle,s.A gun whose barrel is only constructed to shoot bullets.
I have made many experiments, and thought a good deal, by way of ascertaining the best calibre for answering the particular or general purposes to which the rifle may be applied. We all know that the resistance of the air is the chief obstacle which projected bodies have to encounter. It is so very great, that the range of projected spheres is more regulated by the degree of this resistance than by the velocity they receive from the powder,—the increased velocity of the ball being met by a geometrically increased ratio of atmospheric resistance. The larger bullets, therefore, having less surface in proportion to their mass, are, proportionately, much less resisted; so that the flights of the larger exceed those of the lesser, in more than the proportion of their respective diameters. For instance, a thirty-two pound shot, whose diameter is about six inches, will, with even a less proportionate charge of powder, and at an equal elevation, range half as far again as a nine pound, whose diameter is four inches. The proportion which the surface of a sphere bears to its mass, increasing in a geometrical ratio to the decrease of its diameter—the smaller the sphere, the greater is the proportionate resistance it meets with in its flight. At length, we find that small particles of the heaviest metals, becoming, as it were, nearly all surface, will actually float in the atmosphere, or remain suspended for a considerable time in the lightest fluids. Hence it is, that from the same piece, and with a similar charge of powder, we shall find that the range of an ounce of bird shot will regularly extend with the increased size of the shot employed, until, in progression, we get to the ounce bullet itself, which fits the piece; and which, by the by, at an elevation, would not be impelled further if projected from a twenty-four pound cannon.
The theory of the air’s regular resistance to the onward progress of the bullet, must also be applied to the irregular action of the wind across the line of its flight; which action also increases in the ratio of the decrease of the weight of the bullet. At the distance of 315 yards I have found a strong cross wind to cause a rifle bullet of nineteen to the pound to diverge from three to four feet. On the other hand, I have used a rifle carrying a bullet of ten to the pound, which, with the same wind, did not, at the same distance, diverge more than about one foot. In constructing a butt for rifle practice, regard should, therefore, be had to the more usual direction of the wind; and, as far as the locality will allow, the butt should be placed so as to have the wind more frequently in the line of the range, either way, than across it.
For general, and especially for military purposes, such large rifles as the last mentioned would, coupled with the ammunition, be found too heavy. The rifles commonly used in the United States carry, I am told, a bullet of thirty-two to the pound. The adoption of so small a calibre, I take to have been occasioned by the use of the rifle being, in that country, originally and generally confined to the interior of thick forests, wherein it seldom happens that an object is to be fired at beyond the distance of one hundred yards; and where, moreover, the wind is much less felt than in an open country.
Under the above circumstances, the half-ounce rifles are quite adequate to their purpose; but in a more open, and especially in a mountainous country, the calibre of rifles should be considerably larger. In a hilly country, you are often in the actual presence of the enemy, and capable of greatly annoying him, at distances at which, on a plain, the view is interrupted and confined by the least considerable of surrounding objects. In a hilly country, occasions are perpetually offering, wherein long rifle ranges would cause considerable mischief to your opponents. Such long ranges can never be obtained, nor depended on, with the half-ounce rifles of the Americans and Tyrolese.
If the foregoing observations are founded on fact, it is easy to decide what sort of rifle should be applied to a particular purpose. With respect to general purposes, I am inclined to fix on the calibre of one ounce, or sixteen bullets to the pound. The English government rifles are of nineteen or twenty to the pound; to which calibre there is little objection, especially as it is the same as that of the cavalry carbines and pistols. However, I could advance several reasons,—I do not call them very important ones,—for preferring the French regulation; according to which all the fire-arms of all the different corps, both of cavalry and infantry, are of one and the same calibre, of sixteen bullets to the pound.
With respect to the rifle, at least, I would most strenuously recommend the substitution of percussion for flint locks; over which the advantages of the former are as great as the latter are superior to the huge wheel and pyrites locks of two centuries ago. In comparison to the percussion gun, the very best flint one absolutely hangs fire, and one out of twenty is usually a miss-fire. A cap is put on much quicker than a flint lock is primed; there is no time lost in changing flints; and if Mr. Joyce’s percussion powder be used, there is no foulness or corrosion whatever; lastly, the rifles at present in use might be converted into copper caps at a trifling expense, and new copper cap locks will cost less than flint ones. The only objection to the change (and I own it is a very great one indeed), is the blind prejudice of custom.
To render the use of the copper cap piece still more eligible, especially for military purposes, there should be no lateral vent-hole in the breech, but in lieu of it, a broad convex-headed screw; which, upon being withdrawn, opens a passage into the chamber under the nipple, of an eighth of an inch in diameter.
By this simply contrivance,—which I have applied to all my own guns, rifles, and pistols,—should any obstruction occur, either from wet or dirt, which cannot be removed by merely probing the nipple, it will infallibly he cleared out by removing the screw, scooping out the passage into the chamber, putting a little powder therein, and firing it off, after having probed the nipple and replaced the screw. The aperture formed by the removal of the screw, greatly adds to the facility of washing the barrel.
Instead of the brush and brass wire pricker, required for the present flint-lock service, the use of percussion pieces would make it necessary to substitute a little instrument of steel, resembling the letter T; one half of the horizontal part being a four, or, what is perhaps better, a three-sided pricker, or probe, of about one-twentieth of an inch diameter. The other half of the horizontal piece forms a kind of little scoop, corresponding to the diameter of the lateral screw above mentioned; upon the removal of which it is to be employed. The centre piece, or foot of the T, is a turnscrew, surmounted by a little ring to attach it to the jacket. As, however, the instrument will not be often wanted, perhaps it had better be kept in the trap of the rifle stock, in the inside of which I attach it, by a thong, to a little screw staple.
Some persons recommend that, instead of the lateral screw above described, the nipple itself should be taken out, in case of obstruction, or for the purpose of washing the barrel. This is not only ineffective, but highly improper, as it requires the use of a particular shaped key or pincer to screw the nipple; whereas, such things as will turn a screw, or serve the purpose of a pricker, are to be found everywhere.
The percussion powder for the caps, should by all means be composed of the nitrate of mercury, first brought into use by Mr. F. Joyce, of Old Compton Street. This, instead of having the slightest tendency to corrode the piece, would rather appear to possess an anti-oxidating property; for I have repeatedly found that, having fired upwards of twenty rounds with this percussion powder, and laid the piece by for a month without the least cleansing, it has been, at the expiration of that time, as perfectly free from the least speck of rust as the day it came new from the maker’s shop. This would certainly not be the case even with a common flint lock; but as for the common percussion powder, composed of superoxygenated muriate of potash, it actually corrodes the parts of a gun as much as a drop of nitric acid itself; in fact, upon combustion it evolves, and leaves a residuum of that active fluid upon the iron. The consequent rapid destruction of the parts is such as would, especially in military service, occasion great inconvenience.
I have often compared notes, and reflected upon the respective advantages belonging to the magazine and copper cap locks, either for military or sporting purposes. Of magazine locks hitherto invented, the best and simplest is that by Forsyth, with the magazine sliding upon a plane, in which is the touch-hole, being connected with the cock by a bridle, which causes it to follow or precede its motions. For military use, this lock has the advantage over the copper cap, inasmuch as it saves the time and attention required for priming; nothing else being required than to cock and pull the trigger. In rifle practice, the use of this lock will more than retrieve the small additional portion of time which it requires to push down even my rifle cartridge, above what it takes to drop a cartridge into a common musket, with all its windage. On horseback, the advantages of such magazine locks are still more evident and important; as every one knows what an awkward loss of time and powder the operation of priming a flint lock occasions to a horseman in motion; whereas, with the magazine, containing thirty or forty primings, and a swivel ramrod, a carbine or pistol may be loaded with the same speed and precision on horseback, at a trot or a gallop, as when sitting in a chair. It is certainly easier to put on a copper cap than to prime a flint lock; but, with the magazine, there is no priming operation at all. With the common corrosive percussion powder above spoken of, the magazine lock certainly becomes very unfit for military purposes; for after having fired a shot or two, without subsequent cleaning, the lock will be nearly immovable the day after. However, in the late Spanish campaign of 1823, I had several magazine rifles and pistols, and no other than the corrosive percussion powder; but the officers and men to whom I entrusted them were so proud and so careful of them, as to keep them always in the most perfect order. Anyhow, it is evident that, for cavalry officers at least, the percussion magazine locks are undoubtedly, to be preferred; and, for both officers and men, I will observe,en passant, that it is far better to have one double pistol, than two, or half a dozen, single ones; and that whether one or two pistols be used, they should, upon going into action, he secured by a thong to the sword-belt; so as, in case of need, to be instantly disposed of by being dropped over the left shoulder. By having only one pistol, one holster may be converted into a convenient pouch. It is essential that, in double pistols, carbines, or rifles, the axis of the barrels should be perfectly parallel from breech to muzzle. If this be strictly attended to, it is not of much consequence whether they be disposed as in a fowling-piece, or, as it is called, “under and over.†One “under and over†pistol, eight inch barrels (the upper one rifled), nineteen bore, swivel ramrod, with a movable spring butt, to be kept in the other holster when not in use, is an excellent weapon for an officer. The movable butt must also serve the purpose of a mallet in loading the rifled barrel. Three or four slight taps will send the ball home: for, particularly on horseback, a rifle-barrelled pistol cannot well be loaded by pushing with so small a ramrod. With the smooth barrel, the party may fire away, either with ball or buck-shot cartridges, as fast as he pleases.
The copper cap offers the advantage of somewhat greater simplicity, and consequently less liability to derangement; and above all, it is, with the application of wax as hereafter described, perfectly water-proof. For the rifle service, therefore, it might perhaps, in one point of view, be preferable to the magazine; and certainly it is so in every respect for fowling pieces; in the use of which protection from the rain is of much more importance than the gain of a few seconds in loading, and where none of the inconveniences of priming on horseback are experienced. Duelling pistols should decidedly be copper caps. With such pistols there is no occasion whatever for a magazine; and I have found that a delicate trigger cannot be subjected to the slightest casual pull or strain of the magazine stirrup, without great liability to accident.
A remarkable defect in all the rifle-shooting that I have ever seen, is the improper construction of the ramrod, which is much too light. From this it results, that either the bullet is inserted with too little constriction to ensure its revolving on its axis to the end of an extensive flight; or, upon a tighter fit being attempted, much time and awkward exertion are expended in driving it properly “home.â€
The friction to be overcome in forcing a bullet into a rifle is, in some respects, analogous to that of a wedge or a nail in entering a piece of wood. Nobody would think of driving a nail or a wedge by mere pressure or pushing, which would not effect the object with a thousand times the force that would suffice in the shape of percussion or impingement. To load a rifle with a mallet is out of the question, especially for military purposes; but I find that the very best effect is produced by having the ramrod of solid brass, considerably heavier than the iron ones of the government rifles. I have also a bit of hard wood, turned into the shape of a pestle, acutely convex at the thick end; and to qualify it for hasty use, I fasten it by a string to the button of my jacket. With this I give the ball a smart tap, which drives it below the centre of its circumference into the grooves of the barrel. If the latter be perfectly clean, the bullet will go down all the way by mere pushing; but this will not be the case after a few shots have been fired, unless the bullet be smaller than it should be. Any how, the ramrod ought always to be flung down once or twice, in conclusion—as the particular ring or jar, so produced, furnishes the only true criterion of the bullet being really “home.â€
The ramrod being of the proper weight, and the end applied to the bullet being nearly equal to its calibre and well countersunk, the bullet will be moved by it with a few easy percussions; and should the barrel be ever so foul towards the breech, one or two flings with such a ramrod will send the bullet “home†with the assured ring. Neither a wooden nor a light metal ramrod will produce this effect after a few shots.
The ramrods I have had constructed for my own use are of solid brass, of about half an inch diameter except the end applied to the bullet, which, for a couple of inches, is so large as just to fit easily into the barrel. This large end is bored conically out, so as to contain between two and three drachms of powder, which, in leisure shooting, serves to introduce the charge with the rifle reversed. The ball-drawer, when required, screws into the other end of the rod.
The government rifle ramrods, might, for economy’s sake, be made of iron; but they should be much heavier than they are. It is absolutely necessary to good and quick rifle shooting, that the bullet should be driven into the mouth of the piece by a stroke of some sort or other, previously to the use of the ramrod. Should the little wooden pestle mentioned above be deemed inconvenient in military practice,—which I opine it is not,—a similar effect might be produced by a tap with the round button-like end of the present rifle ramrods; though, for the sake of the barrel, I would recommend that this button should be of soft copper. Were it made more convex, it would drive the bullet further in.
It is evident, that for actual service, the practice cannot be rendered too simple. So I only just mention,en passant, that in my own cartridge pouch, twelve cartridges, to be used first, are made with thicker cotton, which, for distinction’s sake, is red or blue. So, as the barrel becomes foul, I get to the other cartridges, of somewhat easier introduction. I have found it very pleasant even to divide my cartridges into three different fits—red, blue, and white. A rifle, however, deteriorates in accuracy of shooting, in proportion to the number of shots fired without cleaning the barrel. For the foulness accumulating mostly towards the breech, forms there a certain degree of constriction and obliteration of the grooves, into which part the bullet being forced, no longer fits the other and greater portion of the barrel, so to ensure its spinning upon its axis to the end of a long range. After twenty-five shots, without cleaning, at 315 yards, in very dry weather, I have found the bullets begin to deviate a little; as they no longer struck the target on the side which had come foremost from the barrel.
With respect to the rifleman’s cartridge-pouch, it should certainly be placed in front, buckling round the waist with a broad strap. The great thickness or projection which is given to the English rifle-pouches has many inconveniences; one of which is, that the weight, being concentrated into one almost cubic mass, causes great fatigue and annoyance, and perhaps injury, to the bearer. So far from having any such shape, I have found that the pouch ought to be so flat, as only to contain one row of tin tubes for cartridges, twenty-four of which occupy a space of about fourteen inches from hip to hip. The tubes being about five inches long, open at each end, but divided in the middle by a diaphragm, contain two cartridges each. When the uppermost row is consumed, to get at the others, it is only required to draw out the tubes, and reverse them in the pouch. If the cartridges are closed up, according to the method recommended in another part of this Treatise, they may, from the increased diameter of the folded end, be made to stick more or less firmly in the reversed half of the tubes, when these are drawn out to be turned. The pouch covers up with a flap of flexible leather, saturated with linseed oil, and secured at pleasure with a round button and loop. At one or both ends of the pouch is a little leathern bag, which may contain one or more packets of spare cartridges. I prefer, however, the method I have observed amongst the Calabrians and Corsicans, who, had they rifles, would be the most formidable skirmishers in the world. Their pouches go all round the body; though sometimes it is, as it were, a double pouch, with only small intervals at each hip, occupied by a bayonet on one side, and a middling-sized pistol on the other. From having only one row of tubes, these pouches are so little protuberant, as to be scarcely more perceptible, under or over the jacket, than a simple belt would be. When the cartridges are exhausted in front, the pouch is easily slipped round as much as required. Moreover, the weight being so distributed all round the body, gives scarcely any incumbrance; and I have found it a further improvement to partially support it by braces, worn under the jacket or waistcoat. Slips from the usual trouser suspenders will answer the purpose.
I must yet add a few words, by way of recommending some essential alterations in the method of exercising the troops to the use of that weapon, which will in most respects apply to the musket, carbine, and pistol.
In all the rifle or musket practice that I have ever seen or heard of, the men are made to fire at a target of about three feet diameter, placed before a bank or mound of earth, which receives all the missing bullets. Nothing can be more ineffectual in the way of instruction than this method! Every shot which misses the target, might as well have been fired vertically in the air, for any instruction it can have afforded to the firer! Even those bullets which do strike the target, will furnish no precise criteria of experience, unless the actual mark of each be immediately pointed out to the man who fired it.
The butt, or rather wall, for teaching rifle or musket shooting, should be at least twelve feet square, or rather twelve feet broad and twenty high. It should be covered entirely with cast-iron plates, of about three quarters of an inch thick. A convenient movable butt may be composed of a rectangular frame of wood, traversed like a window-frame, by pieces of wood at right angles or diagonally, having holes at the intersections for the admission of flat-headed bolts, by which the four corners of the cast-iron plates, corresponding to the size of the square divisions, will be secured to the frame, in close connexion with each other. Such a butt being set up endways, need only be connected, by a pulley at the top, to a couple of poles fixed in the earth, or to the top of a movable triangle. Any inclination, either forwards or backwards, may be given to it by means of the pulley. If it be inclined backwards at an angle of eighty to eighty-five degrees, the bullets, at medium and short ranges, will be reflected upwards nearly perpendicularly in the air.
The ground in front of the butt should be well levelled to the distance of about thirty yards, and covered with sifted road-scrapings, in preference to turf, gravel, or sand.
As unnecessary waste should in all cases be avoided, there is no reason why the recovery of the bullets should not be attended to. The best way to insure this, is to give the surface of the butt an inclination forward, of about ten degrees upon the horizontal line, which will cause the bullets to be reflected downwards upon the smooth ground in front. The recovered lead might be given as the perquisite of the marker, or to the best shot at the drill.
A little on one side, and about five yards in advance of the butt, there should be a little screen, or epaulement, behind which a man might safely stand to perform the office of marker. This marker must be provided with a pot of lamp-black and water, with a brush affixed to a long stick, and a pot of whitewash. He must also have a bit of chalk, or a box of various coloured wafers, to mark the shots. To prepare the butt for shooting, it must be blackened all over. An object is then to be designated in the middle, either with whitewash, or with one or more sheets of white paper, according to the distance, and to the proficiency of the men who are to practise.
Instead of a circular object or target, I recommend, for military practice, a perpendicular parallelogram of two, four, six, twelve, or more inches broad, and one, two, three, or five feet high. If such a figure be made with whiting on the black butt, the bullets will make very distinct marks upon it, while those which miss it will leave white ones on the butt. If paper be used, care must be taken that it be not moved about by the wind. Pieces of thick wrought iron, of the shape and dimensions last described, to suit the different distances, &c., whitened and hung up against the butt, form excellent targets, especially for distant shooting. A loud gong-like clang announces the stroke of a bullet, while the marker may pretty well indicate, with a stick blackened at the end, its precise situation. He will also point out the site of those unresponsive shots which do not hit the mark. The presiding officer should use a telescope. This method will obviate the necessity of perpetually walking up to the target, which occasions much loss of time, confusion, and danger.
As I have always observed that it gives most satisfaction to the firer, when he sees the object fired at actually knocked down from its situation, this result might easily be obtained either with plates of plaster of Paris, or with metal ones. It may be also well to observe, that a bright red is undoubtedly the colour which can be seen at the greatest distance, and consequently the properest for abull’s-eye.
Every shot being marked, and pointed out to the man who fired it, he will always be able to form a criterion by which to regulate his next attempt. Men might as well be made to shoot at a bottle in the dark, as to practise without knowing where the bullet strikes—except when they may chance to hit the bull’s-eye! I will venture to assert, that five shots fired with care, comparison, and reflection, will produce more improvement than fifty expended in the usual irrational manner.
It is particularly requisite to attend to theperpendicularline; and that no shot be allowed to count, which strikes the butt at more than five feet from the ground. In service, it is far better that the bullet should fall rather short, than that it should go over the adversary’s head; as, in the former case, if it be on tolerably level ground, and in the right perpendicular direction, there is a great probability of its hitting him by the ricochet.
Both in rifle and pistol-shooting, an absurd custom prevails, of pointing the piece upwards, and bringing it down to a level with the object to be fired at. Instead of this practice, to which there are many objections, the piece should, previously to being cocked, be pointed downwards, at less than a yard from the foot of the firer. It is then to be steadily raised up in the line of the object, and when within a certain distance from the proposed level, the trigger (if not a detent) should be gradually pressed, according to the knowledge which the firer has of it, so that it may just go off without any pull at the desired moment. While the piece is in motion upwards, the perpendicular line described will be true and steady; and the quicker the motion the truer the line. When the perpendicular motion ceases, the horizontal vacillation begins. The aim, therefore, should not be prolonged beyond the arrival of the sight at the intended level; but whenever it is so, the piece must be lowered below it, and brought up again.
I have invented, says the Colonel, a simple method of rendering copper caps perfectly water proof. It consists in dipping the open rim, or base of the cap, into green taper wax, melted in a plate over a lamp. The melted wax must not be so deep as to spread into the cap up to the percussion powder at its extremity, but only so high as to form a slight lining of the wax around its inner base. This will suffice to cause the cap to close hermetically over the nipple; so that, provided it be not cracked, and the gun have no lateral vent-hole (which it ought not to have), the loaded piece may be put, over the lock, into a pail of water, without affecting either the cap or the charge. For sporting purposes, it is sufficient to have a few such caps in store, for wet weather. For military use, the whole of the caps might be so prepared at the laboratories.
Two rifle guns of the manufactory, the one valued at a hundred, the other at twenty-five guineas, were next loaded, and fired by General Beaumont and another person against my rifle, called Caroline, the distance agreed on being one hundred yards. General Beaumont’s first shot hit the bull’s eye, upon which he was highly complimented; mine in return was an inch from it, and high odds were consequently in favour of the General. The succeeding shots were as follows:—
General Beaumont’s second shot missed, and went over the iron plate three feet square.
Colonel Thornton’s ditto near the bull’s eye.
General B’s third shot below the iron, and struck the ground.
Colonel T’s ditto hit the bull’s eye.
General B’s fourth shot struck to the left of the plate thirteen inches from the mark.
Colonel T’s ditto near the mark.
General B’s fifth shot went over the mark.
Colonel T’s ditto within one inch of the bull’s eye.
The other rifle, shot by a person belonging to the manufactory, did not succeed better than General Beaumont, and the decision was consequently given in my favour. The rifle I shot with on this occasion, was the workmanship of Mr. Sluden, of Cockspur Street.
During the late war in 1775, a company of riflemen, formed from the backwoodsmen of Virginia, was quartered here (Lancaster in New England), for some time. Two of them alternately held a board, only nine inches square, between his knees, while his comrade fired a ball through it from a distance of one hundred paces. The board is still preserved, and I am assured, by several who were present, that it was performed without any manner of deception.—Maccerone—Thornton, &c.
Rigid,a.Stiff, not to be bent, unpliant, inflexible.
Ring,s.A circle; a circle of gold or some other matter worn as an ornament; a circular course; a circle made by persons standing round; a number of bells harmonically tuned; the sound of bells or any other sonorous body; a sound of any kind; a hunting term.
Ringbone,s.A hard callous substance growing in the hollow circle of the little pastern of a horse; it sometimes grows quite round like a ring.
Ringdove,Cushat, orQuest, (Columba palumbus,Linn.;Le Pigeon ramier,Buff.)s.A kind of pigeon.