The stag-hound is now the largest and most powerful of all the dogs which go under the general term of hound. He is held higher in estimation than any other dog of chase, and has a most commanding and dignified aspect, blended with every mark of intellectual mildness.
It has been asserted by the most celebrated naturalists, that the hound, harrier, turnspit, water-dog, and spaniel, are originally of the same race; and there seem to be strong reasons for believing this to be the case, as their figures and instinctive properties are nearly allied in all of these kinds; the principal difference consisting in the length of their legs and the size of their ears, which are in all of them soft in their texture and pendulous. The hound and harrier are supposed to be the natives of Britain, France, and Germany, an opinion which is attended with some degree of reason, for when transported to warmer climates they quickly degenerate.
It seems extremely probable that this large, strong, and bony hound was the primeval stock from which all the collateral branches of this race have descended, and that all deviations from the original stem have been the result of crosses and improvements, during many centuries, by those skilled in rearing and breeding dogs of the chase, and varied in size and strength, according to the particular sport for which they are intended. At the present day there cannot be a doubt but that the practical breeder, by judicious crosses, can either enlarge or diminish the stature and strength of his pack in the course of three or four generations.
The stag-hounds exclusively devoted to that sport, in the royal establishment of this country, it is well known, have been an improved cross between the old English southern hound and the fleeter foxhound, grafted upon the bloodhound.
Things gradually continue thus to improve in proportion as the face of the country becomes more cultivated, till animals of the chace are greatly reduced in number, so much so, that even the stag is now but seldom seen in a state of nature in this country, decreasing as the sequestered places of its abode become fewer. They are now only to be met with in a state of unrestrained freedom in those extensive moors upon the borders of Cornwall and Devonshire, and in some places of the Highlands of Scotland, and the mountains of Kerry in Ireland, in which last place they add greatly to the beauty and magnificence of the justly celebrated Lake of Killarney, where they are pursued with hound and horn.
There is a fine breed of buck-hounds in Richmond Park, and their sagacity is very extraordinary. In taking the deer, according to annual custom, either for the royal hunt or for the fattening paddocks, a stag or a buck, which has been previously fixed upon, is ridden out of the herd by two or three of the keepers in succession, each of whom is closely followed by a hound, the young dogs only being kept in slips. As soon as the deer has been separated from his companions, the dogs have the requisite signal given to them, and they immediately follow in pursuit. The scene is then highly interesting. A strong deer will afford a very long chase, but when he comes to bay the dogs generally seize him by the throat or ears; the keepers come up, take him by the horns, and after having strapped his hind and fore legs together, put him into a cart which follows for the purpose, and he is then disposed of as he may be wanted. I have seen an active young keeper throw himself from his horse upon a deer at bay, which he had come up to at full gallop, and hold his horns till assistance arrived. Some danger, however, attends this sport; as, when a deer has been hard pressed, I have seen him, in more than one instance, suddenly turn upon the horsemen and injure the horses, and in one case wound the leg of the horseman. The dogs are so well trained, and are so soon made aware which buck is intended to be caught, that they seldom make a mistake, even if the deer regains the herd after having been driven from it, but press him through it, till they have again separated him from it. It is well known that when a hard pressed deer tries to rejoin his companions, they endeavour to avoid and get away from him as much as possible, or try to drive him away with their horns. So severe is the chase in Richmond Park in taking deer, especially when the ground is wet, that three or four good horses may be tired by a single horseman in one day’s deer taking, if each deer is ridden out of the herd, and followed till he is taken. When dogs are in slips, the man who holds them merely rides as near as he can to the person who is endeavouring to single out the deer, and awaits his signal for slipping the dog. These dogs who are a large, rough sort of greyhound, and very powerful and sagacious, are soon taught not to injure the deer when they come to them. The cry of ‘hold them,’ made use of by the keepers in urging them forward, seems to be perfectly understood by the dogs.—Brown—Jesse.
Staggard,s.A four-year-old stag.
Staggers,s.A kind of horse apoplexy; madness.
Stagnate,v.To lie motionless, to have no course or stream.
Stain,v.To blot, to spot, to dye.
Stake,s.A post or strong stick fixed in the ground; a piece of wood; anything placed as a palisade or fence; the post to which a beast is tied to be baited; anything pledged or wagered; the state of being hazarded, pledged, or wagered.
Stalk,v.To walk with high steps; to walk behind a stalking horse or cover; to follow deer.
Stalkinghorse,s.A horse, either real or fictitious, by which a fowler shelters himself from the sight of the game.
Stall,s.A crib in which an ox is fed, or where any horse is kept in the stable.
Stallfed,a.Fed not with grass but dry feeding.
Stallion,s.A horse kept for mares; a horse not castrated.
Stanch,v.To stop blood, to hinder from running.
Stand,s.A station; a place where one waits standing; station; a stop; a halt; stop, interruption; the act of opposing; highest mark; stationary point.
Standhouse,s.A building erected on a racecourse, to accommodate the subscribers or company generally.
Star,s.One of the luminous bodies that appear in the sky; the pole star; mark on the forehead of a horse.
Stare,v.To be rough in the coat, as a horse.
Starfish,s.A fish branching out into several points.
Starhawk,s.A kind of hawk.
StarlingorStare, (Sturnus vulgaris,Linn.;L’Etourneau,Buff.)s.A bird that may be taught to whistle, and articulate words.
The length of this bird is somewhat less than nine inches. The bill is straight, sharp-pointed, and of a yellowish brown; in old birds deep yellow; the nostrils are surrounded by a prominent rim; the eyes are brown; the whole plumage is dark, glossed with green, blue, purple, and copper, but each feather is marked at the end with a pale yellow spot; the wing-coverts are edged with yellowish-brown; the quill and tail-feathers dusky, with light edges; the legs are of a reddish-brown. From the striking similarity, both in form and manners, observable between this bird and its congeners, we have no scruple in removing it from its usual place, as it evidently forms a connecting link between them, and in a variety of points seems equally allied to both. Few birds are more generally known than the stare, it being an inhabitant of almost every climate; and as it is a familiar bird, and easily trained in a state of captivity, its habits have been more frequently observed than those of most other birds. The female makes an artless nest in the hollows of trees, rocks, or old walls, and sometimes in cliffs overhanging the sea; she lays four or five eggs, of a pale greenish-ash colour; the young birds are of a dusky-brown colour, till the first moult. In the winter season these birds fly in vast flocks, and may be known at a great distance by their whirling mode of flight, which Buffon compares to a sort of vortex, in which the collective body performs a uniform circular revolution, and at the same time continues to make a progressive advance. The evening is the time when the stares assemble in the greatest numbers, and betake themselves to the fens and marshes, where they roost among the reeds; they chatter much in the evening and morning, both when they assemble and disperse. So attached are they to society, that they not only join those of their own species, but also birds of a different kind, and are frequently seen in company with red-wings, fieldfares, and even with crows, jackdaws, and pigeons. Their principal food consists of worms, snails, and caterpillars; they likewise eat various kinds of grain, seeds, and berries, and are said to be particularly fond of cherries. In a confined state they eat small pieces of raw flesh, bread soaked in water, &c.; are very docile, and may easily be taught to repeat short phrases, or whistle tunes with great exactness, and in this state acquire a warbling superior to their native song.
The time to shoot starlings by wholesale is just before the dusk of the evening, when they come down to roost among the reeds. Here they assemble in swarms, that darken the air; and for some time keep up a chatter, which even surpasses that of Frenchmen in their warmest political debates.
Having swept down some dozens with your duck-gun, let their heads be immediately pulled off; as this will, in a great degree, prevent their having a bitter taste.
Starlings are very good when stewed with rice, or made into a curry.
Before I conclude under the head of starlings, I must ask leave to become my own trumpeter, in order to name a shot that I made at these birds, which will give some idea as to the manner in which they swarm together. Happening, in the early part of last winter, to have put my punt afloat on Lord Rodney’s pond, at Alresford, I loaded my new double swivel-gun with a pound of small shot in each barrel, and a little before day-light paddled across to a retired part of the pond, where the reeds were literally swarming with these birds. Having placed the punt “stern on,” so as to command the eastern light, and shoot well clear of the reeds, I gave a little signal, as previously agreed on, to Mr. Macilwain (who, with Captain Hill, was in another punt behind) to discharge both barrels of my little double gun. On hearing this report up sprung the whole army, consisting I should say of every starling in Hampshire, and making the valley echo like a peal of thunder. No sooner had they cleared the reeds than I opened my battery, and cut such a lane through them, as I could scarcely have thought possible, and the quantity of feathers which came flying back to leeward, I could compare to nothing but a fall of black snow. What number were killed and wounded we never could ascertain, from the extreme difficulty of getting the birds that fell among the reeds and quagmires, but we fairly bagged two hundred and forty-three, as fast as they could be picked up, and the workmen, when the reeds were cut down, declared that they found between two and three hundred more; for this, however, I have only their word, though there is no reason to doubt it, as we all felt confident that at least five hundred fell in this one volley.—Bewick—Hawker.
Starred,a.Marked with stars.
Starshoot,s.A supposed emission from a star.
Start,v.To feel a sudden and involuntary twitch or motion of the animal frame; to wince; to deviate; to set out from the barrier at a race; to set out upon any pursuit; to alarm.
Start,s.A motion of terror; a sudden twitch or contraction of the frame; a sudden rousing of an animal; a quick spring or motion; first emission from the barrier; act of setting off.
Start in Racing.—The person appointed to start the horses shall mark in his list the time when the horses in each race actually started; and if there have been any false starts, the first of them shall be considered as the time of starting for that race. And he shall make a report thereof to the keeper of the match-book in the afternoon of the day the races are run. And if any delay beyond the allowed time shall have taken place, he shall state by whom, or by what cause, the delay was occasioned. He shall regulate his watch by the coffee-room clock, which shall be considered as the true time for this purpose.—Turf Expositor.
Startle,v.To fright, to impress with sudden terror.
Starveling,s.An animal thin and weak for want of nourishment.
Steel,s.Steel is a kind of iron, refined and hardened, of great use in the making of tools and instruments of all kinds; chalybeate medicines.
Steel,v.To point or edge with steel; to make hard or firm.
Steelyard,s.A kind of balance, in which the weight is moved along an iron rod, and grows heavier as it is removed farther from the fulcrum.
Steeple Chace,s.A race over the country by hunters.
Steer,s.A young bullock.
Stem,v.To oppose a current, to pass across or forward notwithstanding the stream.
Stern,s.The hinder part of anything; the tail of a dog.
Stern(Sterna nigra,Linn.),s.
This species is less than the common tern; weight about two ounces and three-quarters; length ten inches; bill black; irides dusky; forehead, sides of the head, beneath the eyes, throat, and fore part of the neck white; the rest of the head, back of the neck, and under part of the body, black; back, wings, and tail, deep ash-colour; vent and under tail-coverts white; the tail is less forked than in either of the other species; the outer feathers edged with white; legs dull red, the webs much indented or semipalmated. In some the forehead and fore part of the neck are mottled with black; and as most authors have omitted, or at least have not made mention of any white on the forehead, such is probably another variety. The female has no white about the head.—Montagu.
Sterna(Linn.),s.Tern, a genus thus characterised:—
Bill as long, or longer than the head, almost straight, compressed, fringed, cutting and pointed; the mandibles of equal length, the upper slightly inclined towards the point; nostrils towards the middle of the bill, slit lengthwise, and pierced from part to part; legs small, naked to above the knee; shank very short; four toes, the three fore ones reunited by a cut membrane, the hind toe free; claws small and arched; tail more or less forked; wings very long and pointed, the first quill the longest.
Stew,v.To seeth anything in a slow moist heat.
Stew,s.A storepond, a small pond where fish are kept for the table.
Stickleback,s.The smallest of fresh water fish; applied to a horse means heavy, lazy, not flippant.
Thesticklebackis the smallest fish in this country, and is called by several names in different parts of it; they are not worthy the angler’s notice, except as baits with the prickles cut off (which kills the fish), for which purpose they are equal to the minnow, or superior in pond fishing for perch; they may be taken with the least sized hook, and a bit of small red worm, and are found in little inlets of streams, and also in stagnated waters. Walton considers the stickleback preferable to the minnow, as being capable of whirling round quicker, which is the perfection of this sort of fishing: to acquire this velocity, the hook is to be put in at the mouth and out at the tail, and having first tied him with white thread a little above the tail, and placed him in such a manner on the hook as he is likely to turn quick, his mouth is then sewed up to the line; should he not whirl so speedily as is wished, the tail should be more or less turned towards the inner part, or side of the hook, or put somewhat more crooked or straight on the hook, until it turns both true and fast: in a swift stream any great trout will be tempted; the loach will have the same effect, provided it be small.—Daniel.
Stiff,a.Rigid, inflexible;stiff country, heavy soil, much enclosed, difficult to ride over or pass through.
Stifle,s.The bone of a horse.
The upper bone of the thigh is united to the lower by a somewhat complicated joint. It terminates by two round prominences behind, which are received into slight depressions on the upper surface of the lower bone; and in front is a curious groove over which plays a small irregular bone, the patella or stifle bone. The whole is called, by farriers, the stifle joint.
The stifle joint is not often subject to sprain. The heat and tenderness will guide to the seat of injury. Occasionally, dislocation of the patella has occurred, and the horse drags the injured limb after him, or rests it on the fetlock: the aid of a veterinary surgeon is here requisite. The muscles of the inside of the thigh, generally, have sometimes been sprained; this may be detected by diffused heat, or heat on the inside of the thigh above the stifle: rest, fomentations, bleeding, and physic, will be the proper means of cure.—The Horse.
Stilts,s.Supports or poles by which water may be crossed.
Stimulate,v.To excite by some pungent motive; in physic, to excite a quick sensation, with a derivation towards the part.
Stint,v.To bound, to limit, to confine, to restrain; to impregnate a mare.
Stirrup,s.An iron hoop suspended by a strap, in which the horseman sets his foot when he mounts or rides.
Stoat,s.An animal of the weasel tribe.
This animal, which is equally agile and mischievous with the weasel in pursuit and destruction of the hare, and all other sorts of game, poultry, and eggs, has, from its habits and the small difference in shape from the weasel, been often described under the same denomination. Its height is about two inches; the tail five and a half, very hairy, and at the points tipped with black; the edges of the ears and ends of the toes are of a yellowish white; in other respects it perfectly resembles the weasel in colour and form. In the most northern parts of Europe the stoat regularly changes its colour in winter, and becomes perfectly white, except the end of the tail, which remains invariably black. It is then called the ermine: the fur is valuable, and sold in the country where caught, from two to three pounds sterling per hundred. The animal is either taken in traps, made of two flat stones, or shot with blunt arrows.
The stoat is sometimes found white during the winter season in Great Britain, and is then commonly called the white weasel. Its fur, however, having neither the thickness, the closeness, nor the whiteness, of those which come from Siberia, is, with us, of little value.
To destroy these worst of all four-footed vermin to game in its infant state, the following mode is recommended:—Provide small square-made steel traps, with a small chain and iron peg to fix them down; get two drachms of musk, shoot some small birds, and dip the tail of these birds in the musk; tie one on the plate of each trap, and set in the hedges, or where it is suspected they frequent: this will soon reduce the number, should it be ever so considerable: if it so happen, that no musk is immediately to be got, the trap must be baited with a bit of rabbit; and it should be remembered that this bait cannot be too stale.
Some time since, as Mr. Clarke, of Horndean, was going a few miles on foot, in the forest of Bere, to visit a friend, he observed a hare come into the green road before him, which seemed to be listening, and looking back for something which pursued her. He stood still, and hearing no dog, was curious to discover the cause of her alarm; when, to his great surprise, he discovered the object of it to be a small yellow red and white stoat, which hunted her footsteps with the utmost precision. He, wishing to know if so diminutive an animal could have a chance of coping with the great speed of the hare, retreated to a holm-bush hard by, where he was an attentive observer of this silent hunt for near two hours, during which, he is certain to have seen both hare and stoat at least forty times. They were frequently gone for five or ten minutes; but the hare, still unwilling to leave the place where she was found, came round again, and her little pursuer sometimes close at her heels. Towards the end of this remarkable chase, which became uncommonly interesting, the hare took advantage of the thickest covert the place afforded, and made use of all her cunning and strength to escape, but without effect; till at length, wearied out by the perseverance of the stoat, Mr. C. heard her cry for some time.
At last, the cries coming from one point, he concluded she was become the victim of the chase; on which he went to the spot, where he found the hare quite dead, and the stoat so intently fastened on her neck, as not to perceive his approach. The stoat, in its turn, now fell a victim to Mr. C’s stick; after which, he proceeded with both hare and stoat to the house of his friend.—Sporting Anecdotes.
Stock,s.The trunk, the body of a plant; a log; a post; the handle of anything; a support of a ship while it is building; a close neckcloth; a race, a lineage, a family.VideGun.
Stock,v.To store, to fill sufficiently; to fit a gun stock.
Stockdove,s.The ringdove.
Stockfish,s.Dried cod, so called from its hardness.
Stomach,s.The ventricle in which food is digested; appetite.
Stomach of Birds.—The stomach of birds forms them into two distinct natural classes: those with cartilaginous stomachs, covered with very strong muscles, called a gizzard; and those with membranaceous stomachs, more resembling that of carnivorous quadrupeds. The former is given to birds whose principal food is grain and seeds of various kinds, or other hard substances that require much friction to comminute, to assist which gravel is necessary; the latter is given to birds which feed upon flesh or fish, and whose digestion is accelerated more by the gastric juice than by the action of the stomach. Those of the first class digest or retain every substance swallowed; and those which eject or disgorge innutritious matter unavoidably taken in, such as feathers, fur, bones, &c., belong to the second class; as is conspicuous in the falcon (Falconidæ,Leach), and owl (Strigidæ,Leach), and others that feed on fish. Granivorous birds seem to possess a power of retaining the small stones taken into the gizzard, or evacuating them when they become polished and less useful, but cannot disgorge them. In a state of nature the quantity of gravel taken in must be regulated, no doubt, by the sensation of the stomach; but, extraordinary as it may seem, in domesticated animals those instinctive faculties are deranged. We have known instances where the whole cavity of the gizzard has been filled with gravel stones. We once remember part of a brood of young ducks, half grown, taking in such a quantity of gravel, as not only filled the gizzard but the craw, and even the gullet; they soon after died. Many species of birds possess a reservoir for food, called a craw, or crop, which seems to answer the same purpose as the first stomach in ruminating animals, and here it is that the food is softened and prepared for the stomach, or carried to the young.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.
Flatulent colic, gripes, &c.—This is a disorder of considerable importance, and often terminates in inflammation of the bowels, entirely from the circumstance of not being sufficiently understood. The symptoms are well known. The horse is very uneasy, paws his litter, looks round to his flanks, sometimes endeavours to kick his belly, gathers up his hind legs, and falls down rather suddenly, rolls upon his back, suddenly gets up again, and appears in extreme pain. The pulse is in its natural state, and the inner surface of the eyelids is not unusually red. The disorder comes on suddenly, the animal being previously in good health. The horse is sometimes costive, but not often, and in some cases the dung is rather loose. Bleeding can scarcely be considered an essential remedy in this complaint, because it is often cured without it. But it is a safe practice, as the distension of the bowels by the confined air may otherwise produce inflammation before relief is afforded. It should never therefore be omitted. The next thing to be done is to give some carminative medicine; and about a pint of brandy or gin and water is as good a carminative as can be given: on all common occasions it may be considered the best, because it is the most innocent as well as effectual. There are cases, however, where the stomach has been so injured by ill treatment, that a more powerful medicine is required. The following tincture should then be given in the dose I shall soon name. Brandy and water, however, that is, from four to six ounces of brandy to twelve ounces of water, should always be preferred, because it is sufficiently strong, in almost all cases, to answer the purpose. For it should be known that the strong medicines usually employed in this disorder, especially oil of turpentine and peppermint, pepper, large doses of ginger and grains of paradise and opium, though they generally afford relief, are sure to increase the disposition to the disorder by weakening the stomach. The weakest stimulant, therefore, that will afford relief with certainty should be preferred, and its repetition avoided for the future, by avoiding the causes which produced the disorder, and these will soon be pointed out.
It sometimes happens, and not unfrequently, that there is an accumulation of excrement in the cœcum, by which the valvular orifice is so completely obstructed, that it cannot be overcome by any efforts of the stomach, though excited by opium and the most powerful carminatives. Clysters in this case will always afford relief, if properly administered; that is, by means of a large ox’s bladder and a long pewter pipe, not less than fourteen or fifteen inches in length. The only clyster required is from half a pound to a pound of salt, and five or six quarts of warm water. This will excite the whole of the large bowels to action, and dislodge the fæces from the cœcum. By this means the animals may always be relieved, and without it he will in such cases certainly die.
There are cases of flatulent colic, however, which are in their nature incurable, that is, first, when there is such a quantity of food taken into the stomach, and the digestive power of the organ has been so depressed by previous disorder, that no effort it can make, however powerfully it may be excited, can enable it to get rid of its contents. Secondly, when the horse is put to work, and into quick exercise in that state: such cases are by no means uncommon in post and coach horses, and rupture of the stomach is sometimes the consequence. When this happens, the horse breaks out into a profuse, but very cold perspiration, is extremely depressed, breathes quickly; the pulse can scarcely be felt, but is very quick. It is soon followed by death. The distension of the small intestines sometimes forces a portion of them through the mesentery, in such a manner that one coil of it becomes so completely tied that the included air cannot escape.
Let them be digested together in a well-corked bottle, and shaken several times a day for three or four weeks. It is then to be strained through blotting paper, and is fit for use. The medium dose is two ounces, which may be given in a little mild ale, or an infusion of some aromatic herb, such as peppermint, pennyroyal, camomile, &c. Mr. Bracey Clarke recommends a tincture made with allspice, bruised, half a pound; brandy, gin, or rum, two quarts. The following mixture has been found effectual.
One half of this is a dose, and if the first dose does not afford relief, the second, it is said, has always been found effectual.
I am inclined to believe that flatulent colic is sometimes brought on by drinking largely of cold pump water, or hard water, in hot weather.
Stomach staggers, or sleepy staggers—Paralysis of the stomach.—The symptoms of this disorder are great heaviness and drowsiness, resting the nose in the manger, or inclining the head, and resting the cheek, or bearing against the wall. The head is forced against the manger, or rack, or the nose between the rack staves. In this way the eyes and face are often much bruised and swollen. The horse stands with his fore leg much under him, appearing to give way every now and then, as if he would fall. There is an appearance of convulsive twitching of the muscles of the neck and chest. There is, too, a great degree of yellowness, approaching to orange-colour, of the membranes of the eyes, and often a yellowness of the mouth also. Urine scarcely any, and high-coloured; sometimes none is voided, and sometimes it is discharged by a convulsive effort. Sometimes the disorder is attended with locked jaw, ending in paralysis and death. In the early stage of the disorder the horse is sometimes suddenly roused by opening the stable door, he lifts up his head, and sometimes neighs; but this is only a momentary effort. When the disease happens at grass, the animal is generally found forcing his head against the hedge, or a gate, or moving about in a state of stupor and apparent insensibility. Sometimes he is found struggling in a ditch, and in that situation he often dies.
As soon as stomach staggers are observed, the horse should be bled, in order to relieve the head in some degree; but the principal object is to enable the stomach to get rid of the load which oppresses it. Various remedies have been proposed for this purpose. The best I believe are purgatives joined with cordials and stimulants, and small quantities of warm water frequently, in order to soften the contents of the stomach. Clysters of salt and water are useful also, and should be thrown up several times a day. The disease is often incurable, probably from a want of early attention.
When medicine cannot be readily procured, two or three tablespoonfuls of flower of mustard, and three or four ounces of common salt may be tried.
About a quart of water may be given every now and then with a horn; and if a teaspoonful or two of compound spirit of ammonia (sal volatile) be added to it, the effect will be promoted. A tablespoonful or two of common salt may also be added three or four times a day. The horse should be drenched and clystered during the night as well as the day; in short, without unremitting attention success must not be expected.—Montagu—White.
Stomachic,s.A medicine for the stomach.
Stone,s.Stones are bodies insipid, hard, not ductile or malleable, not soluble in water; calculous concretion in the kidneys or bladder.
Stonechatter,s.A bird; the wheatear.
Stonefly,s.An insect.
Stonehawk,s. obs.A kind of hawk.
Stonehorse,s.A horse not castrated; a stallion.
Stoneplover,s.A bird, commonly called the red godwit.
Stoolball,s. obs.A play where balls are driven from stool to stool.
Stoop,v.To bend down; to bend forward; to submit; to descend from rank or dignity; to come down on prey as a falcon: to alight from the wing.
Stoop,s.Act of stooping; fall of a bird upon his prey.
Stop,v.To hinder from progressive motion; to teach dogs to stand to game.
Stopping for the Feet.—A mixture of clay and cowdung, or either of these separately, is commonly used for this purpose; and, by keeping the bottoms or soles of the feet moist and cool, often does good. In soles that are too thin and soft, or for the frogs when in that state, the following composition is more proper:
Mr. Goodwin has contrived a kind of boot for keeping the feet cool and moist, as well as for applying the above composition.—White.
Stork,s.A bird of passage, famous for the regularity of its departure.
Straggler,s.A wanderer; a rover; anything that separates from the rest, or stands singly.
Strain,v.To squeeze through something; to purify by filtration; to sprain, to weaken by too much violence; to put to its utmost strength.
Strain,s.An injury by too much violence; race, generation, descent.
Strand,s.The verge of the sea or of any water; a division or portion of a rope.
Strangles,s.A disease incident to young horses.
The treatment of strangles is very simple. As the essence of the disease consists in the formation and suppuration of the tumour under the jaw, the principal, or almost the sole attention of the practitioner should be directed to the hastening of these processes; therefore, as soon as the tumour of strangles evidently appears, the part should be actively blistered. Old practitioners used to recommend poultices, which, from the thickness of the horse’s skin, must have very little effect, even if they could be confined on the part; and from the difficulty and almost impossibility of this, and their getting cold and hard, they must weaken the energies of nature, and delay the ripening of the tumour. Fomentations are little more effectual. A blister will not only secure the completion of the process, but hasten it by many days, and save the patient much pain and exhaustion; and it will produce another good effect—it will, previous to the opening of the tumour, abate the internal inflammation and soreness of the throat, and thus lessen the cough and wheezing.
If there is much fever, and evident affection of the chest, and which should carefully be distinguished from the oppression and choaking occasioned by the pressure of the tumour, it will be proper to bleed.
A few cooling medicines, as nitre, emetic tartar, and perhaps digitalis, may be given, as the case requires. The appetite, or rather the ability to eat, will return with the opening of the abscess. Bran-mashes, or fresh cut grass or tares, should be liberally supplied; which will not only afford sufficient nourishment to recruit the strength of the animal, but keep the bowels gently open. If the weakness be not great, no further medicine will be wanted, except a dose of mild physic, to prevent the swellings or eruptions which sometimes succeed to strangles. In cases of debility, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as camomile, and gentian with ginger, in doses of a couple of drachms, may be administered.—The Horse.
Strangury,s.A difficulty of urine, attended with pain.
Strap,s.A narrow long slip of cloth or leather.
Straw,s.The stalk on which corn grows, and from which it is threshed.
Strawcoloured,a.Of a light yellow.
Stream,s.A running water; the course of running water; current.
Stretcher,s.Anything used for extension; the timber against which the rower plants his feet.
Stride,s.A long step, a wide stretch of the legs; the pace of a horse.
Stringhalt,s.A sudden twitching and snatching up of the hinder leg of a horse much higher than the other.
Stripe,s.A lineary variation of colour; a shred of a different colour; a weal, or discoloration made by a lash or blow; a blow, a lash.
Structure,s.Act of building, form, make; edifice, building.
Under the termStructure of the Eye, Mr. White, describing its anatomy and physiology, divides the subject into two parts, that is, the eye itself and its appendages. Under the latter head, he comprehends the eyelids, the muscles which move it, the eyelashes, the lachrymal gland, the puncta lachrymalia, and lachrymal duct, the caruncle of the eye, the haw, and the membrane named conjunctiva, and the muscles by which the eye is moved.
He then proceeds:—Having described the appendages, as they are termed, I shall proceed to a description of the eye itself, the structure and economy of which is most curious and interesting. It is said to be composed of coats and humours, and this perhaps is the best manner of considering it. The first coat that appears is the cornea, or glass of the eye, which forms the anterior part, and is beautifully transparent. It is not of a circular form, as in man, but of an irregular oval, or rather oblong form, when examined out of the socket; but in its natural situation in the living horse, that part which projects beyond the eyelids is of a regular oval, or rather of an oblong form, and corresponding in some degree with the form of the pupil. It forms a larger portion of the globe of the eye than in man, and, by its convexity, causes the rays of light which pass through it to converge towards the pupil. This convexity may be too great or too little, and in either case render vision somewhat imperfect, and cause starting. The convexity of the cornea is preserved by the fluid which it incloses, named aqueous humour. On puncturing the cornea this fluid escapes, and then the cornea becomes flat and wrinkled. On removing the cornea the iris appears, which is a thin delicate brown or blackish muscle, with an oblong hole in the centre, named pupil. The iris is composed of two orders of fibres; the one circular, which, by contracting, diminishes, and even closes the aperture in the centre, named pupil; the other radiated, which by contracting, opens or enlarges the aperture or pupil. The second humour of the eye is situated immediately behind the pupil, and is named crystalline humour, or crystalline lens. On taking it out it appears to be a solid and beautifully transparent double convex lens, the posterior surface of which is more convex than the anterior one. It is found to become denser and denser from the circumference to the centre, and the slightest pressure so deranges it as to lessen or destroy its transparency.
The crystalline humour may be considered as composed of numerous concavo-convex lenses, admirably fitted to each other; those of the largest size having their circumference or edge opposed to and nicely joined to each other, thus forming altogether a double convex lens. The point of union between the two largest lenses is embraced by a band of muscular fibres, disposed in a circular direction, and named the ciliary ligament. These, by contracting, assisted probably by the muscles of the eye, increase the convexity of the crystalline lens, or rather of the series of concavo-convex lenses, of which the eye is composed, in a manner so just and equal, as to adapt it to the distance of the object at which the animal is looking, while, by the relaxation of these muscular fibres, the convexity of the lens is diminished by its own elasticity. These changes take place with inconceivable rapidity and accuracy. There are other muscular fibres proceeding from the band of circular fibres named ciliary processes, in a straight, or rather radiated, direction, towards the second coat of the eye, named tunica choroides; these are so arranged as to be drawn into folds, by which disposition they are enabled to perform their office more easily, which is that of drawing the lens towards the optic nerve, and thereby increasing the intensity of vision, whereby the animal is enabled to see small objects distinctly. The crystalline lens is inclosed in a transparent capsule, which is not in contact with it, there being about one drop, as it is computed, of a transparent liquid interposed, which, from the anatomist’s name who first observed it, has been called ‘liquor Morgagnii.’
I have seen a case where the convexity of the lens has been so increased, by an unusual degree of contraction of the circular fibres, named ciliary ligament, that it burst the capsule, and was forced out of its situation. I found it lying with its posterior convex surface on the inferior margin of the iris; about half of it appearing in the anterior chamber of the eye, as it is termed. The transparency of the lens was not affected, at least, it appeared so to me, and I rather think the accident had occurred, just at the time I observed it, from twitching the horse violently. In cataract, a disorder in which the crystalline lens becomes opaque, it always becomes globular in its form from an irritable state of the band of circular fibres; the same effect may be observed in the circular fibres of the iris, causing the pupil to be small, even in a moderate light, while the inflammation is going on, which occasions the cataract; but when the opacity is such as to exclude the light from the posterior part of the eye, which contains the third or vitreous humour, with the choroid coat, retina, and optic nerve, then the circular fibres relax, and the radiated fibres draw up the iris somewhat irregularly, which adhering to the capsule of the opaque lens, the pupil remains permanently open.
All that part of the eye which is posterior to the iris, is chiefly occupied by the third, or vitreous humour, and it is in this humour that the crystalline lens is imbedded. The vitreous humour is perfectly transparent, and consists of a fluid, inclosed in numerous small transparent cells, all of which appear to be inclosed in one delicate transparent membrane, named tunica arachnoidea. If the vitreous humour is cut, by snipping it with scissors, a fluid, like water, drops from it freely, so that it appears to be nothing more than water, probably holding a little salt in solution, which escapes when the transparent cells are thus cut open.
That part of the vitreous humour in which the lens is imbedded is different from the other parts, and of the consistence of jelly. Immediately behind the ciliary ligament, as it is termed, the arachnoid coat may be inflated with a small blowpipe, and made to resemble a circular canal; this has been called from the name of the person who first observed it, the circular canal of Petit. It is supposed to be connected with the radiated fibres of the iris. I have seen the whole of this humour in the eye of a sheep that had an hydatid in the right ventricle of the brain, of the consistence of jelly.
It is now time to speak of the optic nerve, and its appendage, the retina, with the third coat of the eye, named tunica choroides. The retina is a delicate transparent membrane, which embraces the vitreous humour, and is supposed to be an expansion or production of the optic nerve, serving to receive the impressions of objects, in order that they may be conveyed by the optic nerve to the organ of vision, named thalamus nervi optici, or speaking of both organs, thalami nervorum opticorum. After death, the retina becomes opaque, and of a light grey colour. It is so delicate a membrane, that there is some difficulty in preserving it for exhibition unless the eye is quite fresh. Under the retina lies the choroid coat, which is nothing more than a plexus of blood vessels, covered with a mucus substance of different colours. In the human eye it is black, which is the cause of the human pupil, or apple of the eye, appearing black; but in the horse it is variegated with mucus of a purple, a blue, a green, and a black colour, which, blending together, causes the pupil to appear of a dark blue colour. This mixture of colours in the bottom of the eye, or choroid coat, has been named tappetum lucidum.
The last and most considerable coat of the eye is the sclerotic coat, which is a very strong thick membrane, including all the other coats and humours, except the cornea. The sclerotic coat forms the greater portion of the globe of the eye, and is intimately united towards the anterior part with the cornea, which may be viewed as bearing the same relation to the sclerotic coat, as the glass of a watch does to the case. By maceration in water the cornea separates from the sclerotic coat completely.
Diseases of the eye.—Though the horse’s eye is commonly supposed to be subject to a variety of diseases, they may, without impropriety, be comprehended under two heads. That is, disorders which arise from internal causes, and such as are occasioned by blows, bites, and other accidents. The former are generally, I may say almost always, incurable; that is, they are incapable of a perfect cure, or, in other words, the eye is very rarely perfectly restored after being so affected, unless a complete cataract, or total blindness, takes place in one eye.—White.
Stub,s.A thick short stock left when the rest is cut off; a log, a horse nail.
Stub-barrel,s.VideBarrel.
Stubble,s.The stalks of corn left in the field by the reaper.
Stubborn,a.Obstinate, stiff, inflexible; harsh, rough, rugged.
Stub-net,s.
Stub-nets are very useful in catching carp or trout, when they flee to the banks. They should be made of very strong twine, inch and quarter mesh, be nine feet long, with cork and lead line; upon which there should be plenty of each: a few widenings should be thrown into the middle, so that there may be a little appearance of a bag; the net is then to be firmly fastened (so that it stands from lead to cork, three or four feet deep) to two ash pitchfork handles, shod with iron spikes at one end. In surrounding a stub, one spike is to remain fixed in the ground, whilst the other is thrust underneath the stub: the fish, thus annoyed, try to regain the deep water, and strike into the bosom of the net, which is then hoisted up, the fish taken out, and the net put down for other trials. If the stubs are very jagged, both spikes are to be stuck in the ground as close as possible to the harbour, and the parties grope with their hands, and those fish which escape their fingers are caught in the stub-net.
Stud,s.A post, a stake; a nail with a large head driven for ornament; a collection of breeding horses and mares.
Stumble,v.To make to trip or stop.
Stumble,s.A trip in walking.
Stump,s.The part of any solid body remaining after the rest is taken away.
Stunt,v.To hinder from growth.
Stupe,s.Cloth or flax dipped in warm medicaments, applied to a hurt or sore.
Stupe,v.To foment, to dress with stupes.
Sturgeon,s.A sea fish.
Sturk,s.A young ox or heifer.
Sturnidæ(Vigors),s.Starlings, a family of perchers (Insessores,Vigors).
Sturnus(Linn.)s.Starling, a genus thus characterised.
Bill strait, depressed, rather obtuse, and slightly awl-shaped, the base of the upper mandible advancing upon the front; the point depressed; nostrils at the sides of the base, and partly closed by a prominent rim; wings long, the first feather very short, the second and third the longest in the wing, and of nearly equal length; feet with three toes before and one behind, the middle toe being united to the outer one as far as the first joint.—Montagu.
Sty,s.A cabin to keep hogs in; any place of low debauchery.
Sty,v.To shut up in a sty.
Styptic,a.The same as astringent, but generally expresses the most efficacious sort of astringents, or those which are applied to stop hæmorrhages.
Stypticsare medicines which constringe the blood-vessels when wounded, so as to stop an effusion of blood. Many preparations have been recommended for this purpose: but when the size of the wounded vessel is at all considerable, an adequate degree of pressure by means of bolsters and bandages is alone to be depended upon; and when that cannot be done, the vessel must be tied up above the wound and below, by which the bleeding will be effectually suppressed. No danger is to be apprehended from slight bleedings in the horse, as they always cease spontaneously.
The styptics commonly employed are oil of turpentine, diluted vitriolic acid, muriate of iron, absorbent earths, and flour.—White.
Sublimate,s.Anything raised by fire in the retort; quicksilver raised in the retort.
Suck,s.The act of sucking; milk given by females.
Sudatory,s.Sweating.
Sudorific,s.A medicine provoking sweat.
Suet,s.A hard fat, particularly that about the kidneys.
Sulphur,s.Brimstone.
Sulphurous,a.Made of brimstone, having the qualities of brimstone; containing sulphur.
Summed,s.A term in falconry to describe the hawk’s condition when fully feathered, and ready to leave the mew.
Summer,s.The season in which the sun arrives at the hither solstice.
Summering Hunters.—Lest it should be supposed that I am averse to turning hunters out at all in the summer months, it will be better, perhaps, not to proceed farther without explaining myself on that head. So far from being averse to it, I would strongly recommend it, under favourable circumstances. In case of having recourse to blistering, it is most serviceable; and after firing, almost necessary; but then they should be turned out only at night, and into a place where there is but little grass, and have two, if not three feeds of corn a day, but nothing else to eat till they go out, unless it be a few vetches, for four or five days at a time, when they are young and tender, in the months of May or June; but this should not be repeated more than three or four times, as they tend to make horses very foul, and when in pod are most injurious to them. It is not every one who keeps hunters that has paddocks to turn them into; nor, indeed, do they fall to the lot of many; but when they are to be had the advantage is great, as a horse is safe in them, and the smaller they are, within reason, the better; for it is not the grass that we want, but the exercise and the moisture of the ground for their feet, and the bracing effects of the pure air. If only one or two hunters are turned into a large paddock, and the grass grows upon them, some sheep should be put in with them to keep it down. Their bite also sweetens the herbage, and makes it more nutritious; but paddocks should never be mown. Paddocks, however, are always to be made, and at a trifling expense. A small piece of ground—say thirty square yards—is sufficient. Let it be hurdled round, and then lined with fagots reared up from seven to eight feet high. A stallion may be kept in these places with the greatest safety as to his breaking out of them, for he will never attempt it so long as he cannot see through or over the fence. The fagots, so far from being worse, are better for the use they are put to; and they are within the reach of every one who resides in the country, at five shillings a score, if he do not grow them himself. The hurdle that lets the horse in and out should often be changed, and then he will be still less inclined to attempt to break out.
However beneficial this turning out a horse in the summer may be, it is comparatively trifling with the advantages that are reaped by a winter’s run. I have seen horses, as it were, renovated in their constitution, by being turned out for a winter; and, as far as relates to their legs and feet, it is, I think, the only time when anything effectual can be done for them, when the injury has been considerable.—
It is said that the Earl of Plymouth first tried the plan of summering his hunters altogether within the stable, with little variation in their treatment; by which it is asserted their condition was fully preserved, and that, by this means, his horses entered on their hunting season in full wind, speed, and bottom. Others, to avoid this extreme, have soiled their hunters in the stable, or have given carrots; and some have gone a step further, and have pursued the in-door summering, not in stables, but in loose boxes. Still, in all these cases, regular exercise is required, or the feet must suffer, or the horses are apt to become pursy, thick-winded, roarers, or broken-winded. This exercise is apt to be severe, and then the wear on the limbs continues the deterioration which the hunting season had brought on. But if a sportsman had one, two, or three hunters only, and would use them gently every day as hacks, he might then summer them in this way without injury to the horses, provided they had not suffered much from strains or foot lamenesses; in which case absolute rest would of course be requisite. It would therefore seem from all this, that a medium plan, which should combine the renovating effects of air, mild exercise, moisture to the feet, and the relaxent effects of grass, might be followed with much more propriety and hope of general advantage than either total turning out on grass, or total confining within on hay.
The box summering of hunters, in my opinion, is of this kind, and consists in allowing each hunter his liberty in a loose box, having fly wire casements and closed doors during the day, in which he is to be moderately fed with corn and hay. At night, unless it be stormy or very cold, he is to be turned out into a small sheltered paddock, which affords only a short bite of upland grass, of which an acre is sufficient for each horse; but not more than three should be together, to avoid violent racing about amongst them, and other accidents. When the field is eaten quite bare, a similar plot may be substituted; but, in all cases, an open shed within each field, independent of the boxes, should afford a refuge against accidental storms and rain. At an early hour every morning the hunter should be taken to his box, from whence he is not again to come out till the evening, unless a very favourable gloomy day offers itself. Carrots may be substituted for part of the corn and hay with advantage in stable summering; which variation, and many others, will present themselves, and prove beneficial, when the true principles on which the subject should be considered form the basis of the determination. The treatment of the feet during this period must be regulated by circumstances; one or two quiet horses, used to each other, may be allowed to range together without removing the hinder shoes; but it is always a safer plan to take them off, unless the ground be very hard, or the box be paved. This latter circumstance can always be obviated, by allowing these boxes to be covered over either with tan, sod, or other soft matter; but boxes expressly built for this particular purpose would be better altogether unpaved; in which case, to avoid dust, and to keep the flooring cool, it might be moderately watered every morning. The fore feet may be tipped, particularly if at all inclined to contraction; or should they become hard, hot, and dry, such means must be made use of as the medical parts of the work direct, under diseases of the feet. The general state of the horse ought also be attended to, as his bowels, that they do not become costive; and the skin, that it do not become hide-bound or eruptive, or that a short dry cough may not steal a march unobserved on him. The careful and intelligent groom must watch over the health of his in-door summered horses with vigilance, and alter his plan according to circumstances; but the still more prudent owner would do well to have them inspected weekly by a well-informed veterinary surgeon.—Nimrod—Blaine.
Supple,a.Pliant, flexible; fawning, bending.
Suppurate,v.To grow to pus.
Suppuration,s.The ripening of the matter of a tumour into pus.
Surcingle,s.A girth with which the saddle or sheet is secured.
Surefooted,a.Treading firmly, not stumbling.
Surfeit,v.To feed with meat or drink to satiety and sickness.
Surfeit,s.A disease incident to horses and dogs.
Large pimples or lumps often suddenly appear on the skin of the horse, and especially in the spring; and occasionally they disappear as quickly as they come. Sometimes they seem to be attended with great itching, but in others they appear not in the least to annoy the animal. When they have remained a few days, the cuticle frequently peels off, and a small scaly spot, though rarely a sore, is left. This is called a surfeit, from its resemblance to some eruptions on the skin of the human being, when indigestible or unwholesome food has been taken. These lumps are, in some cases, confined to the neck; but they oftener spread over the sides, back, loins, and quarters.
Bleeding will always be beneficial—from three to five quarts may be taken, according to the strength of the horse, the extent of the eruption, and the degree of fever. Physic never does good. Alteratives will be found useful—and particularly the alterative which was recommended for hide-bound, and in the same doses. These should be given on several successive nights. The night is better than the morning, because the warmth of the stable will cause the antimony and sulphur to act more powerfully on the skin. The horse should be warmly clothed—half an hour’s walking exercise should be given, an additional rug having been thrown over him—such green meat as can be procured should be used in moderate quantities, and the chill should be taken from the water.
A cuticular eruption, called surfeit, is a fourth appearance that mange frequently assumes. It seems, in many cases, the consequence of some active inflammatory state of the constitution, frequently of some great local internal inflammation; in which cases it puts on something of an acute form. It sometimes breaks out suddenly in bitches after pupping; and in dogs newly recovered from distemper; in fact, any great vascular excitement may produce it; thus, when a dog travels during a great part of a very hot day, and becomes afterwards exposed to cold, a surfeit is oftentimes the consequence. It is usually seen in the form of partial blotches, it being seldom that it extends universally over the body. In some cases there is little appearance of elevated scab; but large patches show themselves, from which the hair has fallen, and left the skin bare and rough from the branny scaly eruption, which itches with more or less violence. Some sportsmen allege that a surfeit is sometimes occasioned by giving food in a hot state. Salt provisions have certainly brought it on; and long-continued feeding on oat or barley meal has done the same.—The Horse—Blaine.
Surgery,s.The art of curing by manual operations.
Suture,s.A manner of sewing or stitching, particularly wounds.
Swallow(Hirundo,Auctores),s.A genus of perchers (Insessores,Vigors), of which we have three species natives—the bank, the chimney, and the window swallow.
Swallow,s.A small bird of passage, or, as some say, a bird that lies hid and sleeps in winter.
Swallows are found in every country of the known world, but seldom remain the whole year in the same climate; the times of their appearance and departure in this country are well known: they are the constant harbingers of Spring, and on their arrival all nature assumes a more cheerful aspect. The bill of this genus is short, very broad at the base, and a little bent: the head is flat, and the neck scarcely visible; the tongue is short, broad, and cloven; tail mostly forked; wings, legs short.
Of all the various families of birds, which resort to this island for food and shelter, there is none which has occasioned so many conjectures respecting its appearance and departure as the swallow tribe. The habits and modes of living of this tribe are perhaps more conspicuous than those of any other. From the time of their arrival to that of their departure they seem continually before our eyes.
The swallow lives habitually in the air, and performs its various functions in that element; and whether it pursues its fluttering prey, and follows the devious windings of the insects on which it feeds, or endeavours to escape the birds of prey by the quickness of its motion, it describes lines so mutable, so varied, so interwoven, and so confused, that they hardly can be pictured by words.
Not many attempts have been made to preserve swallows alive during the winter, and of these few have succeeded. The following experiments, by Mr. James Pearson of London, we shall give nearly in his own words.
Five or six of these birds were taken about the latter end of August, 1784, in a bat fowling-net, at night; they were put separately into small cages, and fed with nightingales’ food; in about a week or ten days they took food of themselves; they were then put altogether into a deep cage, four feet long, with gravel at the bottom; a broad shallow pan with water was placed in it, in which they sometimes washed themselves, and seemed much strengthened by it. One day Mr. Pearson observed that they went into the water with unusual eagerness, hurrying in and out again repeatedly, with such swiftness as if they had been suddenly seized with a frenzy. Being anxious to see the result, he left them to themselves about half an hour, and on going to the cage again, found them all huddled together in a corner, apparently dead; the cage was then placed at a proper distance from the fire, when only two of them recovered, and were as healthy as before; the rest died. The two remaining ones were allowed to wash themselves occasionally for a short time only; but their feet soon after became swelled and inflamed, which Mr. P. attributed to their perching, and they died about Christmas; thus the first year’s experiment was in some measure lost. Not discouraged by the failure of this, Mr. P. determined to make a second trial the succeeding year, from a strong desire of being convinced of the truth respecting their going into a state of torpidity. Accordingly, the next season, having taken some more birds, he put them into the cage, and in every respect pursued the same methods as with the last; but to guard their feet from the bad effects of damp and cold, he covered the perches with flannel, and had the pleasure to observe that the birds throve extremely well; they sung their song through the winter, and soon after Christmas began to moult, which they got through without any difficulty, and lived three or four years, regularly moulting every year at the usual time. On the renewal of their feathers, it appeared that their tails were forked exactly the same as in those birds which return hither in the spring, and in every respect their appearance was the same. These birds, says Mr. Pearson, were exhibited to the Society for promoting Natural History, on the 14th day of February, 1786, at the time they were in a deep moult, during a severe frost, when the snow was on the ground. Minutes of this circumstance was entered in the books of the society. These birds died at last from neglect, during a long illness which Mr. Pearson had; they died in the summer. Mr. Pearson concludes his very interesting account in these words:—January 20, 1797. I have now in my house, No. 21, Great Newport-street, Long Acre, four swallows in moult, in as perfect health as any birds ever appeared to be when moulting.—Bewick.
Swallow,v.To take down the throat; to ingulf.
Swamp,s.A marsh, a bog, a fen.
Swampy,a.Boggy, fenny.
Swan,s.A large waterfowl.