Their success in making their own choice authoritative has led them to overlook the incongruity of the system, so that they have never resolutely required it to be abolished. Perhaps the idea that it might be useful in some important crisis of national affairs has had an influence to prevent interference with it. As its retention is attended with considerable expense, when questions of Economy come to take a leading place in public policy it is likely to be laid aside, in form, as well as in fact.
The elections for President, Congressmen, Governors of the States and their Legislatures, determining the general policy of the government, and the class of men who shall be appointed to the various minor offices under its control; those who feel a strong interest in that policy from their judgment of its effect on the welfare of the country, or their desire to promote special measures; and those who are anxious to obtain or hold office, are very warmly interested in them. They divide into parties according to their views and exert themselves to the utmost to influence the result.
Most human affairs have their good and bad side, and this is not an exception. This party warmth is useful in causing discussion, examination, and thought, and stirring up the people to a careful study of their institutions and the principles of government, and the effect which particular measures may have on the public welfare. Its tendency, in this direction is, to make all the people statesmen—a point of the highest importance in a free government, where the People are Sovereign. The disadvantage is, that it often awakens an undue degree of passion and prejudice, the parties and men who are candidates for office abuse and misrepresent each other in order to destroy each others influence, when, perhaps, they are equally in earnest in seeking the good of the country. For this there is no apparent remedy, but in the intelligence and good sense of the people themselves. They must learn to becareful and candid in their judgment of men and measures, and to examine all sides of a question before rendering a decision. All should strive toward this intelligent moderation during important elections.
The Presidents of the Continental Congress—as the Legislative body of the United States was called up to 1789, when the new Constitution went in effect—were chosen by its members, which then consisted of only one House, in the same manner as the Speaker of the House of Representatives is chosen now; nor was his authority more extensive. He was simply the presiding officer of a legislative body; and one that had by no means the effective authority of our present Congress, although no body in the world ever more deserved the gratitude and reverence of all time; for it founded and gave direction and character to a great nation—it may be, the greatest the world will ever know.
These Presidents had little, except the name, in common with the Presidents of the United States, as the Constitution made them. The Presidents were now to be appointed by the people, and become the depositaries of the Power of the Nation in Action. It was fit that, in a government deriving all its authority from the People, as the source of power, its Special Agent, its acting Representative, should be chosen by them.
In the summer of 1788 three-fourths of the States had ratified the Constitution, and it became authoritative as the Fundamental Law of the country. The Continental Congress, therefore, closed its own career by ordering elections for thenew Congress, and for the electors who were to appoint the first President. It directed that these elections should take place on the first Wednesday in January, 1789; that the electors should meet on the first Wednesday in February following, to discharge the duty to which they were appointed; and that, on the first Wednesday in March, (which, in that year, was the fourth,) Congress should meet, the President be inaugurated, and the new government be put in operation.
This brought all these important events close upon the heels of one another; and on the 4th of March there was not a quorum of the Members of Congress assembled. The States lay far apart, and the roads were bad in those times, and at that season of the year. Though a bare quorum had gathered by the last of March, and many measures of pressing necessity were attended to, a full representation was waited for before the President elect was notified that they were ready for his inauguration; and that event took place only on the 30th of April. The presidential term, however, was considered to have legally commenced at the time previously ordered, and closed on that day of the year and month; so that it became the first day of our political year. It commences and closes the President’s term of office and ends the regular session of Congress.
There were but 69 electors, and the choice of George Washington for President, and John Adams for Vice-President, was unanimous. He had declared, when resigning his commission as commander-in-chief, that he took leave “of all the employments of public life,” and only the earnest solicitations of the leading public men of the time, and their opinion that he alone could successfully inaugurate the new government, decided him to leave his cherished retirement. Washington’s ambition was known to be free from spot or stain of self seeking, and his moderation and judgment were trusted in as the sheet anchor of a new government which many feared would become too strong for the liberties of the people. Theydreaded an abuse of power; but they had no fear of such abuse while wielded by Washington. There was a solid foundation to Washington’s fame, in his character.
The presidential electors were mainly chosen by the State legislatures during the times immediately following the adoption of the Constitution. That instrument did not decide how they should be chosen, but left it to the discretion of the State governments. In some States conventions chose them, and the practice was various; but after a time it proved to be more satisfactory to refer the choice directly to the people, and very soon the people themselves practically selected the President, the electors being pledged to the choice of the candidate favored by their constituents, so that their significance was lost. It is a proof of thepopularcharacter of our government. The system of electors indicated a fear of the people; a want of confidence in their judgment and self control. The electors, it was supposed, would be wiser, less accessible to passion and caprice than those who elected them. The people set them quietly aside, and proceeded to do their own work themselves, using the electors only to register their decision. Public men have seldom ventured to oppose the clearly formed and definite purposes of the people.
Washington was again unanimously elected. He desired to lay down the burdens of office; but so many perplexing questions and disturbing influences threatened the stability of the government that he could not be spared. His name and character were a rock of strength. John Adams was re-elected Vice-President. Only 11 States had voted at the first election; North Carolina and Rhode Island not having then ratified the Constitution. They had now done so, and Vermont and Kentucky had been admitted, so that there were 15 States voting at this election. There were 132 electors. Washington declined another election absolutely, and the government had proved so suitable as to be fairly settled in the confidence of the people.
Four persons were voted for at this election.
As, by the Constitutional provision regarding electors, the person having the largest number of votes became President, and the one who had the next in number became Vice-President, Adams was now President, and Jefferson Vice-President. Tennessee had now been admitted into the Union, and there were 16 States voting.
Conflicting views on foreign policy, and vexing questions of internal administration began to exert a strong influence, and party spirit, for the next twenty years, was very bitter. Mr. Adams was a Federalist; Mr. Jefferson was an anti-Federalist.
The same candidates were again in the field. The political parties had become clearly defined. Adams and Pinckney were the Federal candidates, receiving—Adams, 64, Pinckney 63, electoral votes, while Jefferson and Burr had each 73. They were of the anti-Federal, or Republican party.
The election did not decide which of the two, Jefferson or Burr, should be President and Vice-President, and, by the provisions of the Constitution, the House of Representatives decided it in favor of Jefferson. Party heats were so great that it took 7 days and 36 ballots to reach this result. It was felt that there was a defect in the Constitutional provision that left it undecided, in such a case, which of the candidates was the choice of the electors for President, and it resulted in the ratification of the 12th amendment before the next election.
The Federal party never regained the power of administration lost at this election, though they continued to be a strong opposition until the close of the war of 1812. Butan opposition, to criticize and point out faults, is often more useful out of office than in; and the Republican party was obliged to adopt substantially the general features of the policy pursued by their predecessors, while they added some very important ones of their own, in their disposition to favor popular rights.
Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton were the candidates of the Republicans. Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King of the Federalists.
Jefferson was popular, and received 162 votes—Clinton receiving the same. Pinckney and King received only 14 votes. The admission of Ohio, in 1802, made 17 States to vote at this election.
The Federal party was much weaker than in the following election.
James Madison was the Republican candidate for President, and Geo. Clinton for Vice-President. Pinckney and King were again candidates on the part of the Federalists.
Geo. Clinton died before the end of his term. There was the same number of States voting as in the previous election, viz.: 17.
Madison was re-elected, with Elbridge Gerry as Vice-President. They each received 128 electoral votes.
De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll, the candidates of the Federal party, received, Clinton 89, Ingersoll 57, votes. Louisiana having been recently admitted into the Union, there were now 18 States.
War with England was formally declared this year. It hadactually begun on the ocean sometime before. It was a very trying and painful presidential term, owing to the violent and injudicious opposition made to the measures of the government, and the unfortunate choice of generals for the first two years; yet the ultimate result was highly creditable to the standing and reputation of the United States, and put an end to the annoying and insulting interferences with our vessels and commerce that had brought it on. It was a war waged for the honor and inviolability of our Flag, which was ever after duly respected.
James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins were the candidates of the Republicans, who now began to be called Democrats. The Federalist party was now near its end. It nominated Rufus King who received 34 electoral votes, Monroe obtaining 183.
Indiana was admitted this year in time to vote, making 19 States. This period marked an important era in the internal history, as well as foreign relations, of the country. The period of trial for the Constitution was passed, and full confidence began to be felt in the system it had founded.
Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected, the vote being substantially unanimous, for the first and last time since Washington. The close of this term made the Republican rule in the administration 24 years in succession, under three Presidents, each once re-elected, and all citizens of Virginia.
Four new States had been admitted during the previous term, viz.: Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, and Maine, so that 23 States took part in this election.
Four candidates were in the field for the presidency at this election. Missouri having been admitted since the ninth electionthere were 24 States to vote. The whole number of electors was 261; necessary to a choice, 131.
The candidates and votes were as follows:
By the Constitution the House of Representatives was required to select the President from the 3 candidates having the highest number of votes. They were to vote by States, and a majority of States would elect. J. Q. Adams received the vote of 13 States, and was declared elected. John C. Calhoun having received 182 electoral votes for the Vice-Presidency, was thereby elected to that office. 18 of the States appointed the electors by popular vote and 6 appointed them by their legislatures.
Andrew Jackson was elected President, and John C. Calhoun re-elected Vice-President.
John Quincy Adams and Richard Rush were also candidates for President and Vice-President, respectively. The contest was very hot and bitter. Jackson received 178, and Adams 171 electoral votes. The Popular vote was 650,028 for Jackson to 512,158 for Adams. The number of electors was the same as in the 10th election. The most violent excitement divided the north and the south on the tariff question, which culminated during this term in the “nullification ordinance,” which Jackson met with the decision and vigor for which he was distinguished, ending in the submission of the nullifiers. Calhoun resigned his office as Vice-President, Dec. 28th, 1832. He was the leader of the nullifiers.
Jackson’s vigorous dealing with nullification was highly approved by the people, and he was re-elected, with Martin Van Buren as Vice-President.
Henry Clay was the candidate of the Whig party for President, and John Sergeant for Vice-President.
Van Buren received 189 electoral votes for Vice-President. Twenty-four States voted at this election.
Van Buren was run, by the Democrats, for the Presidency, and Richard M. Johnson for the Vice-Presidency, against Wm. H. Harrison, Hugh L. White, Daniel Webster, and W. P. Mangum. Van Buren’s vote was 762,149 popular, and 170 electoral. Harrison and the others united was 736,736 popular, and 124 electoral. The whole number of electors being 294, the number necessary to a choice was 148. Johnson failed by one electoral vote to be elected to the Vice-Presidency, and the case went to the Senate for decision, as directed by the Constitution. The remaining electoral votes for Vice-President being divided between 3 candidates, Johnson was appointed by the Senate.
Michigan and Arkansas having been admitted this year took part in the election, making 26 States.
The Whig party this year concentrated on Wm. H. Harrison for President, and John Tyler for Vice-President.
The Democrats opposed them with Van Buren and Johnson again. The country had been passing through a financial crisis of extreme severity during the thirteenth presidential term, and this election, involving the decision of a financial policy, was very exciting.
Harrison was an Ohio farmer, and, the Democrats said, “lived in a log cabin and drank hard cider.” The Whigs took the hint, built log cabins to hold their campaign gatherings in, drank much hard cider, and sung stirring political songs.
Tyler’s vote as Vice-President was the same as Harrison’s.
Harrison died on the 4th of April, one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler succeeded to the Presidency. His term was made remarkable by his disagreement with the measures of Congress, on financial questions.
This was the first time a Vice-President had been called on to serve as a substitute for the President. There were 26 States taking part in this election.
The slavery question entered into this election as a leading point. The Republic of Texas asked admission into the Union. As it would be certain to be a slave State, and many of the people objected to extending that institution while others favored it, the parties took it up; the Democrats favoring the admission, the Whigs opposing.
James K. Polk was the candidate for President, and Geo. M. Dallas for Vice-President, run by the Democrats.
The Whigs opposed against them Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen.
This was the third time Mr. Clay had been defeated as a candidate for the Presidency, to the great regret of many, even of those who voted against him.
The war with Mexico followed as a consequence of the policy of the United States government, decided upon in this election. Texas had formerly been a part of Mexico, and that country considered its admission into the Union as an act of hostility to herself.
The Whigs were successful in this election, owing to a division in the ranks of the Democratic party. The Whigs nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor for President, and Millard Fillmore for Vice-President; the Democrats Lewis Cass for President, and Wm. O. Butler for Vice-President; the Free Soil Democrats—who opposed the extension of slavery—Martin Van Buren for President, and Charles F. Adams for Vice-President.
The vote resulted thus:
The third ticket secured no electoral votes.
Four new States had been admitted into the Union since the 15th election, viz.: Texas, Florida, Iowa, and Wisconsin; and 30 States voted this year.
Gen. Taylor died July 9th, 1850, one year, four months, and four days after his inauguration, and Mr. Fillmore filled out his term of office.
During the previous Presidential term the subject of slavery, and the strategy of politicians in favor of and against it, absorbed public attention. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 opened the whole question, and a trial of strength as to which side should occupy the new territory, was prepared for. The crisis of preparation had not been reached when this election occurred, and comparatively little interest was taken in it.
The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce for President, and Wm. R. King for Vice-President; the Whigs chose as their candidates Gen. Winfield Scott for President, and Wm. A. Graham for Vice-President.
Pierce and King received, of popular votes 1,590,490, of electoral, 254. Scott and Graham received, of popular votes,1,378,589, of electoral, 42. Pierce’s majority, on popular vote, 211,901, on electoral, 212.
California had been admitted since the 16th election, and there were 31 States to vote in this.
This was the last election in which the Whig party nominated a candidate. The contest in regard to slave and free territory absorbing all the interest of the country, the parties were rearranged, those in favor of slavery, or wishing to leave that institution undisturbed, gathered to the Democratic party; while those wishing to actively oppose the extension of slavery to territory not yet occupied by it, united, under the name of the Republican party, the Whigs becoming extinct, as a party.
The Democrats nominated James Buchanan, and John C. Breckenridge for President and Vice-President; the Republicans, John C. Fremont and William L. Dayton. A third party, in favor of putting only native Americans in office, voted for Millard Fillmore and Andrew J. Donnelson. The result was the following:
Popular vote for Buchanan and Breckenridge 1,803,029, electoral, 174. Popular vote for Fremont and Dayton 1,342,164, electoral, 114. Popular vote for Fillmore and Donnelson, 874,625, electoral, 8.
Buchanan had only what is called a plurality popular vote; the two others united had a majority over him of 413,760 votes. A majority of electoral votes, however, was 149, and he received 174, and a majority of 52 electoral votes over the others united.
Only 31 States voted at this election. Mr. Buchanan was much blamed for not taking more vigorous measures to quench the secession movement that commenced in the last months of his administration. The contrast between his course and Jackson’s in 1832 was very marked.
The Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin for Vice-President. Thesouth, finding it impossible to uphold the slavery extension system against the growing Republican party, and the compromise that had protected that system having been laid aside in 1850, must submit to the gradual extinction of slavery, or withdraw from the Union. They chose the latter, and favored the division of the Democratic party, which was still much the largest, into several parts. Three tickets of that party were run, against one in the Republican, which assured the election of Lincoln.
The Northern Democrats voted mainly for Stephen A. Douglas and H. V. Johnson; the Southern Democrats for John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane; and those who wished to stop the contest on the slavery question altogether, on both sides, voted for John Bell and Edward Everett. The result was as follows:
The three divisions of the Democrats together had a popular majority of 947,289 over the Republicans, but the latter had a majority of 57 electoral votes over all the others united.
Two new States had been admitted since the eighteenth election, Minnesota and Oregon, and there were 33 States voting. The census of 1860 gave the population as 31,148,048. All the votes cast at this election amounted to 4,680,193, the largest number by more than 500,000 that had ever been known. The Southern States seceded within a few months, and the Civil War began. It was remarkable as the most gigantic war of its kind, perhaps of any kind, known in history; and for the obstinate bravery and resolution displayed on both sides. It continued during this entire presidential term.
The election this year was confined to the States that had remained loyal to the Constitution and the Union. Eleven States had seceded.
The Republicans re-nominated Lincoln for President, with Andrew Johnson for Vice-President. The Democratic party nominated Gen. Geo. B. McClellan for President, and Geo. H. Pendleton for Vice-President. The result was as follows:
The total number of popular votes was 4,034,789. Lincoln’s vote at this election was the largest that had ever been cast for one candidate, though there were less votes cast by all parties by 600,000 than in the nineteenth election. Two new States, Kansas and West Virginia, had been admitted since the previous election, which with the 11 in rebellion omitted, left 24 States voting.
The civil war closed with the submission of the seceded States to the general government soon after Lincoln’s re-inauguration; but he was assassinated about the same time, on the evening of April 13th, 1865, and died on the following day, leaving a nation in mourning, and the civilized world struck with horror. Andrew Johnson acted as President during the remainder of this term. Mr. Johnson’s administration was marked by the great difference in the policy of reconstructing the seceded States adopted by him and by the Congress, by the limitations which the latter threw around him, and the attempt to impeach him, which failed by a few votes.
Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was nominated by the Republicans for President, and Schuyler Colfax for Vice-President.
The nominees of the Democratic party were Horatio Seymour and Francis P. Blair.
Grant’s popular majority was 309,588. Questions of reconstruction and finance were determined by this election, the people upholding the policy pursued by Congress since the close of the war.
Grant was nominated by the Republican party for President, and Henry Wilson for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated Horace Greeley for President, and B. Gratz Brown for Vice-President. A second Democratic party had a ticket, nominating Chas. O’Connor and J. Q. Adams.
Grant’s popular majority was 762,991; and he received 218 electoral votes. 30 States gave him majorities, Pennsylvania reaching 137,000 majority in his favor. The whole popular vote at this election was 6,431,149. The colored people voted for the first time, under the amendment to the Constitution abolishing the distinction in citizenship in regard to color.
The elections are now held on the same day in all the States, by a general law. The number of States voting at the 22d election was thirty-seven. This election set a final seal on the policy of the Republican party, leaving the country free to turn its attention to other questions relating to its internal interests.
For convenience of reference we insert a list of the members of the Cabinet in each administration from 1789 down to 1874, to which is added the name of the Vice-President of each presidential term, though he is not a member of the Cabinet.
And for the first time considered members of the Cabinet,
William R. King, of Ala., who was elected Vice-President with Mr. Pierce, but died before he took his seat, and there was no Vice-President during Pierce’s administration.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES.
Salary of Associates $10,000. Court meets first Monday in December, at Washington.
1. All government consists of three steps, series, or departments. It has a Rule by which its action is governed; and this embraces the general principles guiding all action, as well as the special rules of conduct in regard to limited classes of actions—the next step in the series is the action demanded to put its rules in actual force—to apply them—the third is, to determine the application of the rule when supposed to be violated, and the agreement of the special rule with the general principle. That is to say, government is divided into the Legislative, or law making power; the Executive, or law enforcing power; and the Judicial, or law discriminating, or judging, power.
2. In some governments all these are in the same hands, and this produces a Despotism. In others they are variously divided or mixed. In our country the separation between them is made as distinct as possible. The People are regarded as the source or fountain of Power. The Constitution represents, in its general Principles or Rules, the Will and purposes of the People; and outside of the principles or regulations of this instrument no legislation is valid. The Constitution, emanating from the people, defines the boundary of all the Departments. Congress is the law-making power, enacting within the prescribed limits. The Judiciary takes care that these limits are not overstepped by legislative enactments, orexecutive action. The executive power, or the President, is the concentrated force, the vigorous Arm, of the government.
It is Congress, the Legislative Authority, that we have now to consider.
3. The National Congress is a body of men representing, and acting in the place of, the people. They are elected by the people to enact laws for the public good—to do all—and no more nor less—than the people would do, if it were possible for them to assemble in one great body and make the laws by which they wish to be governed.
It was constituted as wisely, to guard against the errors to which humanity is liable, as the experience of the past permitted to the thoughtful and patriotic statesmen who had charge of the organization of the government, when the successful termination of the War of Independence left the interests of a new Nation in their hands. England, from which they had mostly sprung, and which governed them until that period, was in possession of the freest and most enlightened government of those times, in the Old World; and they copied from her institutions and general structure what they judged adapted to our circumstances; prudently avoiding untried experiments, as far as possible.
4. Congress, like the English Parliament, consists of two Houses, one, the House of Representatives, (answering to the English House of Commons) being directly elected, for a short term, by the people, so as to express their views and interests as clearly as possible; the other, the Senate, (answering partially to the English House of Lords) appointed by the State Legislatures for a longer term, and from among statesmen of acknowledged ability and mature character and experience. This was expected to supply the necessary check to hasty and ill considered action, as they were required to mutually agree on all laws enacted.
5. Both are required to assemble, at the same time, in the Capitol at Washington, on the first Monday in December of each year. This is the regular session—extra sessions beingoccasionally called by the President when unusual circumstances demand it.
The members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years, the members of the Senate for six. As the first contains by far the largest number, a Congress is said to exist for two years, and the 20th Congress would be the one existing during the 40th and 41st years of the Republic, dating from the first Congress in 1789.
6. Is composed of two persons, chosen by the legislature of each State, to represent it as a whole. It makes no difference whether the State be large or small, whether population counts by the million or the thousand. The States are sovereign in their sphere, and this constitution of the Senate keeps that fact in view, operates against undue centralization of power, and oppression of the smaller States by the larger.
7. A Senator must be thirty years of age, must have been nine years a citizen, (he may have been born in a foreign State, and a citizen of it previously,) and must be a citizen of the State—(a voter in it) at the time of appointment. He is appointed for six years. The Senate is arranged in three classes so that the terms of one-third of the whole number shall expire every two years. They may be re-elected as often as the State legislatures choose. In one case, a Senator was continued thirty years in the Senate, without intermission. It has equal legislative power with the House of Representatives, except that it cannot originate laws for raising money, but it must approve and adopt all laws made by the House to render them valid. It has some powers that do not belong to the House. It confirms or rejects the nominations of the President, to office, and the treaties he makes with foreign powers, and is the only High Court of Impeachment.
8. When the Senate meets to consider the nominations of the President to office, it is called an Executive Session, and only a majority of votes is required to approve or confirm them; but when a treaty is to be ratified, or judgment givenin a case of impeachment, a vote of two-thirds of the members present is required.
The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of the Senate; but in case of a vacancy in that office, when he is acting as President, or if he be absent, it chooses a president from its own members.
9. Is composed of persons elected by the people in the various States, in proportion to the number of inhabitants. A Representative is elected for a term of two years. He must be twenty-five years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States seven years, and must be a citizen of the State he represents. This is often called the “Lower House,” or popular branch of the National Legislature, as the Senate is sometimes called the “Upper House,” because it is more select, and greater in dignity.
10. The House of Representatives has the sole power of presenting articles of Impeachment, and it alone can originate laws for raising revenue. A larger part of the laws are actually originated in it, because it is more numerous, its members better known to the people whom they immediately represent, and the people are better acquainted with them; and more petitions for particular laws are sent to them. Each representative is voted for by the people of his Congressional District alone, and not by all the people of each State; and he specially represents the views and wants of his District.
In each branch of Congress, when a Bill, or plan of a law, has been passed, it is sent to the other House, where it is referred to a Committee who examine it, and report on it to the House; by which it is discussed and adopted, amended, or rejected according to its judgment, and returned to the House in which it originated. By this method every law is meant to be subjected to a careful and cool investigation, its defects discovered and corrected, and its appropriateness clearly made manifest. Whoever will examine, with care and thoroughness the whole structure of our government will everywhere discovertraces of the same wisdom and watchful foresight. He will see reason for more admiration of the prudent statesmanship of those who organized our institutions, and feel less surprised at the wonderful prosperity of the country, and at the strength of the government when subjected to the severest trial. Everything human is more or less imperfect, and we shall never be without subjects of complaint, and opportunities for improvement; but every American, well informed concerning his own and foreign governments, will discover many weighty reasons for self-congratulation and pride that our first statesmen and people were so wise and prudent in laying the foundation, and that their successors have built on it with so much skill.
11. The presiding officer in the House of Representatives is called “The Speaker,” and is chosen by the House, at the beginning of each Congress. He serves during its two years of existence. The Clerk of the House and its minor officers are chosen by its members—and each House makes its own rules, or Parliamentary Laws. The term Congress properly covers both branches of the National Legislature; but, by custom, the members of the upper house are called Senators, and those of the lower Members of Congress, (commonly abbreviated to M. C.)
12. The Compensation of Members of Congress was originally fixed at eight dollars a day, but has, of late years, been several times changed. In 1856 it was made $3,000 per session, or $6,000 for a Congress of two years. In 1866 it was increased to $5,000 per session, and, in 1873 to $7,500 per session, the Speaker of the House, and the President of the Senate, by this last law, receiving $10,000 per year; but it produced so much dissatisfaction among the people that the law was changed at the following session, and they now receive $5,000 per annum.
13. The members of each house receive the same compensation. Mileage is allowed them in addition to the salary. This has been forty cents per mile, by the usual routes betweenthe members residence and Washington. In 1865 it was reduced to twenty cents per mile, which still seems more adapted to the days of stages and slow traveling than to the modern improvements in rapidity and cheapness. They formerly enjoyed the franking privilege, so called, i. e.: they could send letters and documents through the mails free. This was abolished in 1873, and they now pay their postage, the same as other people.
14. The first Congress under the Constitution met in New York City, where two sessions were held, when it was removed to Philadelphia. It remained there until 1800, when Washington became the capital. The Capitol there, in which Congress meets, is one of the largest buildings in the world; and the offices for the different executive Departments are immense structures. In 1874 there were 37 States and therefore 74 Senators. The number of Representatives was fixed by a law of March, 1873, at 292, at which number it will remain until the next census in 1880.
1. Each State is entitled to a number of Representatives in Congress proportioned to its inhabitants; but, instead of counting the whole number together, and leaving all the people in the State to vote for all the representatives of their State, it is divided into districts, each containing the prescribed number entitled to representation. The voters, then, in each district, select or nominate the men they wish to vote for—and thus they find it easy to send men they know and on whom they can rely to secure their interests. Besides, it is more convenient for them to meet and ascertain by consultation who would be most acceptable to the majority of those interested. Each Member of Congress, therefore, is chosen by a single district. The districting of States is done by their State Legislatures.
2. Sometimes a State is admitted into the Union before it has as many inhabitants as the law requires to one Congressman, in which case the law is relaxed, and they are permitted at least one Representative. Contiguous counties or towns are set apart in this way and numbered as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., Congressional District. In large cities as many wards, lying together, as include the requisite number, are erected into Districts. In case the number of Congressmen allotted to a State is larger than the number of districts, those in excess are voted for by the State at large. They are arranged as soon as possible after every census, so that this does not often occur. In the Western States the number continually increases and changes must be made after each census. By this means the balance of power gradually follows the emigration from East to West.
3. We have already remarked, in the chapter on Congress that, though the term Congressman properly applies to the members of both Houses, it is by common usage, confined to members of the lower House, those of the upper House being distinguished as Senators, so that the abbreviation M. C. (Member of Congress) is understood to specify a Representative.
4. These are the only members of any branch of the government who are chosen and elected directly by the people, and we may see herein the propriety of their having the control of all enactments for raising money, this being a point of vital interest to the people. The short term assigned them, (two years,) and their election by Districts, enables the people to interfere very soon if their purse strings are drawn too widely open—a very satisfactory reflection to the economical. Any citizen, whether native or foreign born, may become a Member of Congress, if he can obtain the consent of the voters in his district; but he must have been a citizen during the previous seven years. It is an office of dignity and responsibility, and the welfare of the country depends on the wisdom of the people in their choice.