Family114.—PLATALEIDÆ. (6 Genera, 30 Species.)
The Plataleidæ, including the Spoonbills and Ibises, have been classed either with the Herons or the Storks, but have most affinity with the latter. Though not very numerous they are found over the greater part of the globe, except the colder zones and the Pacific Islands. The following is the distribution of the genera:—
Platalea(6 sp.), all the warmer parts of the globe except the Moluccas and Pacific Islands;Ibis(2 sp.), Temperate North America and Tropical South America;Falcinellus(2 sp.), almost cosmopolitan;Geronticus(19 sp.), all Tropical countries and Temperate South America;Scopus(1 sp.), Tropical and South Africa;Balæniceps(1 sp.), the Upper Nile. This last genus the "Shoe-bird," or boat-billed heron, perhaps forms a distinct family.
Family115.—CICONIIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)
The Ciconiidæ, or Storks, are mostly an Old World family, only three species inhabiting the Neotropical, and one, the Nearctic region. They are also absent from the islands of the Pacific, the Antilles, and, with one exception, from Madagascar. The genera are as follows:—
Ciconia(6 sp.), ranges through the Palæarctic, Ethiopian andOriental regions as far as Celebes, and in South America;Mycteria(4 sp.), inhabits Africa, India, Australia and the Neotropical region;Leptopiltus(3 sp.), the Ethiopian and Oriental regions to Java;Tantalus(5 sp.), the Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotropical regions, and the South-east of North America;Anastomus(2 sp.), the Ethiopian region, and India to Ceylon.
Family116.—PALAMEDEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)
The Palamedeidæ, or Screamers, are curious semi-aquatic birds of doubtful affinities, perhaps intermediate between Gallinæ and Anseres. They are peculiar to South America. The genera are:—
Palamedea(1 sp.), which inhabits the Amazon valley;Chauna(2 sp.), La Plata, Brazil and Columbia,
Family117.—PHŒNICOPTERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)
The Flamingoes (Phœnicopterus) seem peculiar to the Ethiopian and Neotropical regions, ranging from the former into India and South Europe. America has four species, inhabiting Chili and La Plata, the Galapagos, Mexico and the West Indian islands; the others range over all Africa, South Europe, India and Ceylon. These singular birds are placed by some authors near the Spoonbills and Ibises, by others with the Geese. Professor Huxley considers them to be "completelyintermediate between the Anserine birds on the one side and the Storks and Herons on the other." The pterolysis according to Nitzsch is "completely stork-like."
General Remarks on the Distribution of the Grallæ, or Wading and Running Birds.
The Waders, as a rule, are birds of very wide distribution, the four largest families Rallidæ, Scolopacidæ, Charadriidæ and Ardeidæ, being quite cosmopolitan, as are many of the genera. But there are also a number of small families of very restricted distribution, and these all occur in the two most isolated regions, the Neotropical and the Australian. The Neotropical region is by far the richest in varied forms of Waders, having representatives of no less than 15 out of the 19 families, while 7 are altogether peculiar to it. The Australian region has 11 families, with 1 peculiar. The other two tropical regions each possess 11 families, but none are peculiar. The Palæarctic region has 10, and the Nearctic 7 families. No less than three families—Chionididæ, Thinocoridæ, and Cariamidæ—are confined to the Temperate regions and highlands of South America; while four others,—Aramidæ, Psophiidæ, Eurypygidæ and Palamedeidæ,—are found in Tropical America only; and these present such an array of peculiar and interesting forms as no other part of the globe can furnish. The Phœnicopteridæ or Flamingoes, common to the Tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America, but absent from Australia, is the only other feature of general interest presented by the distribution of the Waders.
The Order contains about 610 species, which gives about 32 species to each family, a smaller average than in the Gallinæ or Accipitres, and only about one-fourth of the average number in the Passeres. This is partly due to the unusual number of very small families, and partly to the wide average range of the species, which prevents that specialization of forms that occurs in the more sedentary groups of birds.
Order IX.—ANSERES.
Family118.—ANATIDÆ. (40 Genera, 180 Species.)
The Anatidæ, comprehending the Ducks, Geese, and Swans with their allies, are of such universal distribution that there is probably no part of the globe where some of them are not occasionally found. They are, however, most abundant in temperate and cold regions; and, contrary to what occurs in most other families, the most beautifully-coloured species are extra-tropical, and some even arctic. The distribution of the genera is as follows:—
Anseranas(1 sp.), Australia;Plectropterus(2 sp.), Tropical Africa;Sarkidiornis(1 sp.), South America, Africa, and India;Chenalopex(1 sp.), Amazonia;Callochen(1 sp.), South Europe, North, East, and South Africa;Cereopsis(1 sp.), Australia;Anser(13 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions to Central America and the Antilles;Bernicla(12 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres;Chloephaga(5 sp.), South Temperate America and Aleutian Islands;Nettapus(4 sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India and Ceylon to Malaya and Australia;Cygnus(10 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres;Dendrocygna(10 sp.), Tropical and sub-tropical regions;Tadorna(3 sp.), Palæarctic and Australian regions;Casarca(5 sp.), Palæarctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, and Australian regions, to New Zealand;Aix(2 sp.), Temperate North America and Eastern Asia;Mareca(4 sp.), Palæarctic region, North America, Temperate South America, and Australia;Dafila(3 sp.), all America and the Palæarctic region;Anas(16 sp.), cosmopolitan;Querquedula(17 sp.),cosmopolitan;Chaulelasmus(2 sp.), Palæarctic region and North America;Spatula(5 sp.), all Temperate regions;Malacorhynchus(1 sp.), Australia;Cairina(1 sp.), Tropical South America;Branta(1 sp.), Palæarctic region and India;Fuligula(5 sp.), North Temperate regions and New Zealand;Æthya(5 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, India, Australia, and South Africa;Metopiana(1 sp.), South Temperate America;Bucephala(4 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;Harelda(2 sp.), Northern Palæartic and Nearctic regions;Hymenolaimus(1 sp.), New Zealand;Camptolaimus(1 sp.), North-east of North America;Micropterus(1 sp.), Temperate South America;Somateria(5 sp.), Arctic and sub-arctic regions;Œdemia(5 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;Biziura(1 sp.), Australia;Thalassornis(1 sp.), South Africa;Erismatura(6 sp.), all America, South-east Europe and South Africa;Nesonetta(1 sp.), Auckland Islands;Merganetta(3 sp.), Andes of Columbia to Chili;Mergus(6 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, Brazil, and the Auckland Islands.
Family119.—LARIDÆ. (13 Genera, 132 Species.)
The Laridæ, or Gulls and Terns, are true cosmopolites, inhabiting the shores and islands of every zone; and most of the genera have also a wide range. They are therefore of little use in the study of geographical distribution. The genera are as follows:—
Stercorarius(6 sp.), cosmopolitan, most abundant in cold and temperate zones;Rhodostethia(1 sp), North America;Larus(60 sp.), cosmopolitan;Xema(1 sp.), North Temperate zone;Creagrus(1 sp.), North Pacific;Pagophila(1 sp.), Arctic seas;Rissa(3 sp.), Arctic and Northern seas;Sterna(36 sp.), cosmopolitan;Hydrochelidon(12 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones;Gygis(1 sp.), Indian Ocean and Tropical Pacific Islands;Anous(6 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones;Nænia(1 sp.), South Temperate America;Rhynchops(3 sp.), Tropical America, Africa, and India.
Family120.—PROCELLARIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 96 Species.)
The Procellariidæ, comprising the Shearwaters, Petrels, and Albatrosses, are universally distributed, but some of the genera are local.
Puffinus(20 sp.),Procellaria(18 sp.), andFulmarus(40 sp.), are cosmopolitan;Prion(5 sp.) andPelecanoides(3 sp.), belong to the South Temperate and Antarctic regions;Diomedia(10 sp.), comprises the Albatrosses, which are tropical, occasionally wandering into temperate seas.
Family121.—PELECANIDÆ. (6 Genera, 61 Species.)
The Pelecanidæ, comprising the Gannets, Pelicans, Darters, and Frigate-Birds, although universally distributed, are more abundant in tropical and temperate regions.
Sula(8 sp.) andPhalacrocorax(35 sp.), are cosmopolitan;Pelecanus(9 sp.) is tropical and temperate;Fregetta(2 sp.) andPhaeton(3 sp.) are confined to Tropical seas;Ptotus(4 sp.) to Tropical and warm Temperate zones.
Family122.—SPHENISCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 18 Species.)
The Penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and South Temperate regions, except two species which are found on the coast of Peru and the Galapagos. They are most plentiful in the southern parts of South America, Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Antarctic islands, and one or two species are found at the Cape of Good Hope. The genera as given in theHand Listare:—
Spheniscus(1 sp.), South Africa and Cape Horn;Eudyptes(15 sp.), with the range of the family;Aptenodytes(2 sp.), Antarctic Islands.
Family123.—COLYMBIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
The Northern Divers are confined to the Arctic and North Temperate Seas. The only genus,Colymbus, has one species confined to the West Coast of North America, the others being common to the two northern continents.
Family124.—PODICIPIDÆ. (2 Genera, 33 Species.)
The Grebes are universally distributed. The genera arePodiceps(26 sp.), cosmopolitan; andPodilymbus(2 sp.), confined to North and South America. Some ornithologists group these birds with the Colymbidæ.
Family125.—ALCIDÆ. (7 Genera, 28 Species.)
The Alcidæ, comprising the Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins, are confined to the North Temperate and Arctic regions, where they represent the Penguins of the Antarctic lands. One of the most remarkable of these birds, the Great Auk, formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, is now extinct. The genera are as follows:—
Alca(2 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic seas;Fratercula(4 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones;Ceratorhina(2 sp.), North Pacific;Simorhynchus(8 sp.), North Pacific;Brachyrhamphus(3 sp.), North Pacific to Japan and Lower California;Uria(8 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones;Mergulus(1 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic Seas. The last three genera constitute the family Uriidæ, of some ornithologists.
General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres.
The Anseres, or Swimmers, being truly aquatic birds, possess, as might be expected, a large number of cosmopolitan families and genera. No less than 5 out of the 8 families have a world-wide distribution, and the others are characteristic either of the North or the South Temperate zones. Hence arises a peculiarity of distribution to be found in no other order of birds; the Temperate being richer than the Tropical regions. The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions each have seven families of Anseres, two of which, the Colymbidæ and Alcidæ, are peculiar to them. The Ethiopian, Australian, and Neotropical regions, which allextend into the South Temperate zone, have six families, with one peculiar to them; while the Oriental region, which is wholly tropical, possesses the five cosmopolitan families only.
There are about 78 genera and 552 species of Anseres, giving 69 species to a family, a high number compared with the Waders, and due to there being only one very small family, the Colymbidæ. The distribution of the Anseres, being more determined by temperature than by barriers, the great regions which are so well indicated by the genera and families of most other orders of birds, hardly limit these, except in the case of the genera of Anatidæ.
Order X.—STRUTHIONES.
Family126.—STRUTHIONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
The Ostriches consist of two genera, sometimes formed into distinct families.Struthio(2 sp.) inhabits the desert regions of North, East, and South Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria. It therefore just enters the Palæarctic region.Rhea(3 sp.) inhabits Temperate South America, from Patagonia to the confines of Brazil.
Family127.—CASUARIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)
The Cassowaries and Emeus are confined to the Australian region. The Emeus,Dromæus(2 sp.), are found only on themain-land of Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441).Casuarius(9 sp.) inhabits the islands from Ceram to New Britain, with one species in North Australia; it is most abundant in the Papuan Islands.
Family128.—APTERYGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
The species ofApteryxare entirely confined to the two larger islands of New Zealand. They are supposed to have some remote affinity withOcydromus, a genus of Rails peculiar to Australia and New Zealand; but they undoubtedly form one of the most remarkable groups of living birds (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 445).
Struthious Birds recently extinct.
A number of sub-fossil remains of birds, mostly large and some of gigantic size, having affinities to theApteryxand, less closely, to the Cassowaries, have been discovered in New Zealand. These are all classed by Professor Owen in the genusDinornisand familyDinornithidæ; but Dr. Haast, from the study of the rich collections in the Canterbury (New Zealand) Museum, is convinced that they belong to two distinct families and several genera. His arrangement is as follows. (SeeIbis, 1874, p. 209).
Family129.—DINORNITHIDÆ. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)
Dinornis(5 sp.);Meionornis(2 sp.).
These had no hind toe, and include the largest species. Professor Newton thinks that they were absolutely wingless, being the only birds in which the fore limbs are entirely wanting.
Family130.—PALAPTERYGIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)
Palapteryx(2 sp.);Euryapteryx(2 sp.).
These had a well-developed hind toe, and rudimentary wings.
Family131.—ÆPYORNITHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)
A gigantic Struthious bird (Æpyornis), belonging to a distinct family, inhabited Madagascar.
It was first made known by its enormous eggs, eight times the bulk of those of the ostrich, which were found in a sub-fossil condition. Considerable portions of skeletons have since been discovered, showing that these huge birds formed an altogether peculiar family of the order.
General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones.
With the exception of the Ostrich, which has spread northward into the Palæarctic region, the Struthious birds, living and extinct, are confined to the Southern hemisphere, each continent having its peculiar forms. It is a remarkable fact that the two most nearly allied genera,StruthioandRhea, should be found in Africa and South Temperate America respectively. Equally remarkable is the development of these large forms of wingless birds in Australia and the adjacent islands, and especially in New Zealand, where we have evidence which renders it probable that about 20 species recently coexisted. This points to the conclusion that New Zealand must, not long since, have formed a much more extensive land, and that the diminution of its area by subsidence has been one of the causes—and perhaps the main one—in bringing about the extinction of many of the larger species of these wingless birds.
The wide distribution of the Struthiones may, as we have already suggested (Vol. I., p. 287.), be best explained, by supposing them to represent a very ancient type of bird, developed at a time when the more specialized carnivorous mammalia hadnot come into existence, and preserved only in those areas which were long free from the incursions of such dangerous enemies. The discovery of Struthious remains in Europe in the Lower Eocene only, supports this view; for at this time carnivora were few and of generalized type, and had probably not acquired sufficient speed and activity to enable them to exterminate powerful and quick-running terrestrial birds. It is, however, at a much more remote epoch that we may expect to find the remains of the earlier forms of this group; while these Eocene birds may perhaps represent that ancestral wide-spread type which, when isolated in remoter continents and islands, became modified into the American and African ostriches, the Emeus and Cassowaries of Australia, theDinornisandÆpyornisof New Zealand.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.
REPTILIA.
Order I.—OPHIDIA.
Family1.—TYPHLOPIDÆ.—(4 Genera, 70 Species.)
The Typhlopidæ, or Blind Burrowing Snakes, are widely scattered over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions, and least so in the Neotropical. They are absent from the Nearctic region; and in the Palæarctic are found only in South-eastern Europe and Japan.
The most extensive genus isTyphlops, comprising over 60 species, and having a range almost as extensive as the entire family. The other well characterised genera are:—
Typhlina(1 sp.), ranging from Penang to Java and Hong Kong;Typhline(1 sp.), the Cape of Good Hope;Dibamus(1 sp.), New Guinea.
Family2.—TORTRICIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)
The Tortricidæ, or Short-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are a small family, one portion of which ranges from India to Cambodja, and through the Malay islands as far as Celebes and Timor; these form the genusCylindrophis. Another portion inhabits America, and consists of:—
Charina(1 sp.), found in California and British Columbia; andTortrix(1 sp.), in Tropical America.
We have here a case of discontinuous distribution, indicating, either very imperfect knowledge of the group, or that it is the remnant of a once extensive family, on the road to extinction.
Family3.—XENOPELTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
The curious nocturnal carnivorous Snake, forming the genusXenopeltis, and the sole representative of this family, ranges from Penang to Cambodja, and through the Malay Islands to Celebes.
Family4.—UROPELTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 18 Species.)
The Uropeltidæ, or Rough-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are strictly confined to Ceylon and the adjacent parts of Southern India, and would almost alone serve to mark out our second Oriental sub-region. The genera are:—
Rhinophis(7 sp.), Ceylon;Uropeltis(1 sp.), Ceylon;Silybura(8 sp.), Anamally Hills and Neilgherries;Plecturus(3 sp.), Neilgherries and Madras; andMelanophidium(1 sp.), the Wynand.
Family5.—CALAMARIIDÆ. (32 Genera, 75 Species.)
The Calamariidæ, or Dwarf Ground Snakes, are found in all warm parts of the globe, extending north into the United States as far as British Columbia and Lake Superior; but they are absent from the Palæarctic region, with the exception of a species found in Persia. The species are in a very confused state. The best characterised genera are the following:—
Calamaria(20 sp.), Persia, India to Java and the Philippine Islands, Celebes, and New Guinea;Rhabdosoma(18 sp.), Mexico and South America, and also the Malay Islands as far east as Amboyna, Timor, and New Guinea;Typhlocalamus(1 sp.), Borneo;Macrocalamus(1 sp.), India;Aspidura(3 sp.), India and Ceylon;Haplocerus(1 sp.), Ceylon;Streptophorus(3 sp.), Central and South America;—with a host of others of less importance or ill-defined.
Family6.—OLIGODONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)