Footnote 462:Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 288.(Back)
Footnote 463:Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 291.(Back)
Footnote 464:A. Tridon, France's Way of Choosing a President, inReview of Reviews, Dec., 1912.(Back)
Footnote 465:Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 286.(Back)
Footnote 466:Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 358-372; J. Nadal, Attributions du président de la république en France et aux États-Unis (Toulouse, 1909). For a brief American discussion of the same subject see M. Smith, The French Presidency and the American, inReview of Reviews, Feb., 1906. Cf. A. Cohn, Why M. Fallières is an Ideal French President, ibid., July, 1908.(Back)
Footnote 467:Henry Maine, Popular Government (London, 1885), 250.(Back)
Footnote 468:Arts. 3 and 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 287.(Back)
Footnote 469:In earlier days the ministers of war and of the marine were selected not infrequently from outside Parliament, but this practice has been discontinued.(Back)
Footnote 470:Dupriez, Les ministres, II., 332-357. A recent treatise of value is H. Noell, L'Administration centrale; les ministères, leur organisation, leur rôle (Paris, 1911). Mention may be made of L. Rolland, Le Conseil d'État et les réglements d'administration publique, inRevue du Droit Public, April-June, 1911; J. Barthélemy, Les sous-secrétaires d'état, ibid.; P. Ma, L'organisation du Ministère des Colonies, inQuestions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Sept. 1, 1910.(Back)
Footnote 471:A French scholar writes: "Power cannot pass alternately, as in England and the United States, from the party on one side over to the party in opposition. This alternation, this game of see-saw between two opposing parties, which certain theorists have declared to be the indispensable condition of every parliamentary régime, does not exist, and has never existed, in France. The reason why is simple. If the party of the Right, hostile to the Republic, should come into power, the temptation would be too strong for them to maintain themselves there by establishing an autocratic government, which would put an end to the parliamentary régime, as in 1851. The electors are conscious of this tendency of the Conservatives, and will not run the risk of entrusting the Republic to them. When they are discontented with the Republicans in power, they vote for other Republicans. Thus, new Republican groups are being ceaselessly formed, while the old ones fall to pieces." C. Seignobos, The Political Parties of France, inInternational Monthly, Aug., 1901, 155. On the French parliamentary system see Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 345-357, 373-461; E. Pierre, Principes du droit politique électoral et parlementaire en France (Paris, 1893).(Back)
Footnote 472:Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 432-461. L. Gozzi, L'Interpellation à l'assemblée rationale (Marseilles, 1909); J. Poudra and E. Pierre, Traité pratique de droit parlementaire, 8 vols. (Versailles, 1878-1880), VII., Chap. 4.(Back)
Footnote 473:Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 288.(Back)
Footnote 474:Ibid., I., 310.(Back)
Footnote 475:J. C. Bracq, France under the Republic (New York, 1910), 8.(Back)
Footnote 476:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 22. But compare the view set forth in J. S. C. Bodley, France, 2 vols. (London, 1898), I., 46-60.(Back)
Footnote 477:O. Pyfferoen, Du sénat en France et dans les Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1892).(Back)
Footnote 478:Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 302-308.(Back)
Footnote 479:Laws of June 16, 1885, and February 13, 1889; Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 316-318.(Back)
Footnote 480:"During the electoral period, circulars and platforms signed by the candidates, electoral placards and manifestoes signed by one or more voters, may, after being deposited with the public prosecutor, be posted and distributed without previous authorization." Organic Law of November 30, 1875, Art. 3.(Back)
Footnote 481:L. Duguit, Traité de droit constitutionnel, I., 375-376.(Back)
Footnote 482:The first English-speaking state to adopt the system was Tasmania, where, after being in partial operation in 1896-1901, it was brought fully into effect in 1907. By an electoral law of 1900 Japan adopted it for the election of the members of her House of Commons. The plan was put in operation in Cuba April 1, 1908, and was adopted in Oregon by a referendum of June 1, 1908.(Back)
Footnote 483:It is the assertion of M. Benoist that this situation has existed unbrokenly since 1881. An interesting fact cited is that the notable Separation Law of 1905 was adopted in the Chamber by the votes of 341 deputies who represented in the aggregate but 2,647,315 electors in a national total of 10,967,000.(Back)
Footnote 484:Duguit,op. cit., argues forcefully in behalf of the proposed change. For adverse views, cogently stated by an equally eminent French authority, see A. Esmein, Droit Constitutionnel (5th ed., Paris, 1911), 253.(Back)
Footnote 485:The text of the proposed measure, in English translation, will be found in J. H. Humphreys, Proportional Representation (London, 1911), 382-385.(Back)
Footnote 486:The most systematic account of the electoral franchise in France since 1789 is A. Tecklenburg, Die Entwickelung des Wahlrechts in Frankreich seit 1789 (Tübingen, 1911). The French electoral system is described at length in E. Pierre, Code des élections politiques (Paris, 1893); Chaute-Grellet, Traité des élections, 2 vols. (Paris, 1897); M. Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française (5th ed., Paris, 1905), I., 1208-1244. The literature of the subject of electoral reform is very extensive. Mention may be made of C. Benoist, Pour la réforme électorale (Paris, 1908); J. L. Chardon, La réforme électorale en France (Paris, 1910); J. L. Breton, La réforme électorale (Paris, 1910); C. Francois, La représentation des intérêts dans les corps élus (Paris, 1900); F. Faure, La législature qui finit et la réforme électorale, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Dec. 10, 1909; Marion, Comment faire la réforme électorale; ibid., Feb. 10 and March 10, 1910; M. Deslanders, La réforme électorale, ibid., July 10, 1910; A. Varenne, La réforme électorale d'abord, ibid., Nov. 10, 1910; G. Lachapelle, La discussion du projet de réforme électorale, ibid., May 10, 1912; F. Faure, Le vote de la réforme électorale, ibid., Aug. 10, 1912 (contains the text of the Electoral Law); L. Milhac, Les partis politiques français dans leur programme et devant le suffrage, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, July 15, 1910; G. Scelle, La représentation politique, inRevue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1911; L. Marin, Le vote personnel, inLa Grande Revue, March 25, 1911; and G. Trouillot, La réforme électorale au Sénat, ibid., Sept. 25, 1912. The text of the bill of 1912 is to be found also inRevue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1912. On the question of proportional representation see G. Tronqual, La représentation proportionnelle devant le parlement français (Poitiers, 1910); F. Lépine, La représentation proportionnelle et sa solution (Paris, 1911); N. Saripolos, La démocratie et l'élection proportionnelle (Paris, 1900); G. Lachapelle, La représentation proportionnelle (Paris, 1910); ibid., Représentation proportionnelle, inRevue de Paris, Nov. 15, 1910; ibid., L'Application de la représentation proportionnelle, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Dec. 10, 1910. See also Anon., La sophistication du suffrage universel, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, July, 1909, and May, 1910; E. Zevort, La France sous le régime du suffrage universel (Paris, 1894). The subject of proportional representation in France is fully discussed in a Report of the British Royal Commission on Electoral Systems (1910). Report, Cd. 5,163; Evidence, Cd. 5,352.(Back)
Footnote 487:A. de la Berge, Les grands comités parlementaires, inRevue des Deux Mondes, Dec. 1, 1889.(Back)
Footnote 488:A. P. Usher, Procedure in the French Chamber of Deputies, inPolitical Science Quarterly, Sept., 1906; J. S. Crawford, A Day in the Chamber of Deputies, inGunton's Magazine, Oct., 1901; M. R. Bonnard, Les modifications du réglement de la Chambre des Députés, inRevue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec., 1911. The standard treatise on French parliamentary procedure is J. Poudra et E. Pierre, Traité pratique de droit parlementaire, 8 vols. (Versailles, 1878-1880.)(Back)
Footnote 489:Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 288.(Back)
Footnote 490:Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 294.(Back)
Footnote 491:Law of July 16, 1875, art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 291.(Back)
Footnote 492:Y. Guyot, Relations between the French Senate and Chamber of Deputies, inContemporary Review, Feb., 1910.(Back)
Footnote 493:Absolutely so, save for thescrutin de listeelection of 1885.(Back)
Footnote 494:The political history of the period since the elections of 1910 has been remarkable by reason chiefly of the absorption of public attention by the issues of electoral reform and labor legislation. Embarrassed by interpellations with reference to its ecclesiastical policy, the Briand ministry (reconstituted in November, 1910) retired in February, 1911. The Monis government which succeeded lacked coherence, as also did the ministry of Caillaux (June, 1911 to January, 1912). The cardinal achievement of the Poincaré ministry has been the carrying of the Electoral Reform Bill of 1912 in the lower chamber. See p.323.(Back)
Footnote 495:C. Seignobos, The Political Parties of France, inInternational Monthly, Aug., 1901, 155.(Back)
Footnote 496:The best accounts in English of the French parties and party system are Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., Chap. 2; Bodley, France, Book IV., Chaps. 1-8; and C. Seignobos, The Political Parties of France, inInternational Monthly, Aug., 1901. The last-mentioned is brief, but excellent. A valuable work is P. Laffitte, Le suffrage universel et la régime parlementaire (2d ed., Paris, 1889). Among useful articles may be mentioned: J. Méline, Les partis dans la république, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Jan., 1900; M. H. Doniol, Les idées politiques et les partis en France durant le XIXe siècle, inRevue du Droit Public, May-June, 1902; and A. Charpentier, Radicaux et socialistes de 1902 à 1912, inLa Nouvelle Revue, May 1, 1912. On socialism in France see J. Peixotto, The French Revolution and Modern French Socialism (New York, 1901); R. T. Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times (New York, 1883); P. Louis, Histoire du socialisme français (Paris, 1901); E. Villey, Les périls de la démocratie française (Paris, 1910); and A. Fouillee, La démocratie politique et sociale en France (Paris, 1910).(Back)
Footnote 497:H. Cauvière, L'idée de codification en France avant la rédaction du Code Civil (Paris, 1911).(Back)
Footnote 498:The task of revision has not yet been accomplished. See La Code Civil, livre du centenaire (Paris, 1904)—a volume of valuable essays by French and foreign lawyers.(Back)
Footnote 499:M. Leroy, Le centenaire du code pénal, inRevue de Paris, Feb. 1, 1911.(Back)
Footnote 500:J. Brissaud, History of French Private Law, trans. by R. Howell (Boston, 1912).(Back)
Footnote 501:The best treatise upon the French judicial system and upon proposed reforms of it is J. Coumoul, Traité du pouvoir judiciaire; de son rôle constitutionnel et de sa réforme organique (2d ed., Paris, 1911). See Vicomte d'Avenel, La réforme administrative—la justice, inRevue des Deux Mondes, June 1, 1889; L. Irwell, The Judicial System of France,Green Bag, Nov., 1902.(Back)
Footnote 502:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 58.(Back)
Footnote 503:It need hardly be explained that the First Consul's intention was that the ordinary judges should not be allowed to obstruct by their decisions the policies of the government.(Back)
Footnote 504:For an account of the administrative law of France see A. V. Dicey, The Law of the Constitution (7th ed., London, 1908), Chap. 12. Important French works on the subject include H. Barthélemy, Traité élémentaire de droit administratif (5th ed., Paris, 1908); H. Chardon, L'administration de la France, les fonctionnaires (Paris, 1908); G. Jèze, Les principes généraux du droit administratif (Paris, 1904); and J. L. Aucoc, Conférences sur l'administration et le droit administratif (3d ed., Paris, 1885). Mention may be made also of E. J. Laferrière, Traité de la jurisdiction administrative et des recours contentieux (Paris, 1887-1888), and Varagnac, Le Conseil d'État et les projets de réforme, inRevue des Deux Mondes, Aug. 15, and Sept. 15, 1892.(Back)
Footnote 505:A. Babeau, La ville sous l'ancien régime (Paris, 1880); A. Luchaire, Les communes françaises (Paris, 1890); H. Barthélemy, Traité de droit administratif (5th ed., Paris, 1908); A. Esmein, Histoire du droit français (8th ed., Paris, 1908).(Back)
Footnote 506:For the text of the Décret sur les Municipalités of December 14, 1789, see Hélie; Constitutions, 59-72. An English version is in Anderson, Constitutions, 24-33.(Back)
Footnote 507:Anderson, Constitutions, 233-236. The canton, suppressed by law of June 26, 1793, was now revived.(Back)
Footnote 508:The number of communes was reduced at this time from 44,000 to 36,000.(Back)
Footnote 509:Anderson, Constitutions, 283-288. G. Alix, Les origines du système administratif français, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, July-Nov., 1899.(Back)
Footnote 510:Its influence upon the administrative systems of other countries—Belgium, Italy, Spain, and even Greece, Japan, and various Latin American states—has been profound. "Judged by its qualities of permanence and by its influence abroad, the law of 1800 is one of the best examples of Bonaparte's creative statesmanship, taking rank with the Code and with the Concordat among his enduring non-military achievements. If, in the nineteenth century, England has been the mother of parliaments and has exercised a dominant influence upon the evolution of national governments, France has had an equally important rôle in moulding systems of local administration among the nations." Munro, Government of European Cities, 7.(Back)
Footnote 511:The texts of these acts are in Hélie, Constitutions, 1019-1050.(Back)
Footnote 512:Text in J. Duvergier, Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglements, avis du conseil d'état (Paris, 1834-1907), LXXXIV., 99-148.(Back)
Footnote 513:On the French administrative system two admirable general works are H. Barthélemy, Traité de droit administratif (5th ed., Paris, 1908), and A. Esmein, Histoire du droit français (8th ed., Paris, 1908). An older treatise of value is E. Monnet, Histoire de l'administration provinciale, départementale et communale en France (Paris, 1885). Three works in which the subject is dealt with in a comparative fashion are P. P. Leroy-Beaulieu, Administration locale en France et en Angleterre (Paris, 1872); P. W. L. Ashley, Local and Central Government (London, 1906); and F. J. Goodnow, Comparative Administrative Law (2d ed., New York, 1903). A study of some value is J. T. Young, Administrative Centralization and Decentralization in France, inAnnals of Amer. Acad. of Political and Social Science, Jan., 1898.(Back)
Footnote 514:An administrative reform which appears not infrequently in current political discussion in France is the grouping of the departments into "regions" possessing a certain community of character and interest. Each of a score or more of regions might conceivably be made to have an assembly of its own, and within each of them one of the departmental prefects might be given a certain superiority over his colleagues. The principal purpose would be to offset somewhat the nation's present excess of administrative centralization. On this proposal see C. Beauquier, Un projet de réforme administrative; l'organisation régionale en France, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Nov. 10, 1909. Cf. A. Brette, La réforme des départements à propos d'une proposition de loi, ibid. On the department as at present constituted the monumental treatise is G. Bouffet et L. Périer, Traité du départements 2 vols. (Paris, 1894-1895). In M. Laferrière, Loi organique départementale du 10 Août 1871 (Paris, 1871) is an annotated copy of the organic statute of 1871. See also G. Dethan, De l'organisation des conseils généraux (Paris, 1889); A. Nectoux, Des attributions des conseillers généraux (Paris, 1895); and P. Chardenet, Les élections départementales (Paris, 1895). An excellent brief statement will be found in M. Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française (5th ed., Paris and Nancy, 1905), I., 933-948, 1101-1116.(Back)
Footnote 515:Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française, I., 256-260.(Back)
Footnote 516:Munro, Government of European Cities, 15.(Back)
Footnote 517:A. Porche, La question des grandes et des petits communes (Paris, 1900).(Back)
Footnote 518:Among general treatises on the French commune may be mentioned M. Block, Entretiens sur l'administration; la commune (Paris, 1884); L. Bequet, Traité de la commune (Paris, 1888); P. Andre and F. Marin, La loi sur l'organisation municipale du 5 avril 1884 (Paris, 1884); and F. Grelot, Loi du 5 avril 1884 (Paris, 1889). The best and most recent extensive work is L. Morgand, La loi municipale, 2 vols. (7th ed., Paris, 1907). The most convenient brief discussion in French is in Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française, I., 738-852. In English a good description is in A. Shaw, Municipal Government in Continental Europe (New York, 1897), and a fuller and more recent one in W. B. Munro, The Government of European Cities, 1-108. On municipal elections the best work is M. J. Saint-Lager, Élections municipales (6th ed., Paris, 1904). Worthy of mention are Chardenet, Panhard, and Gérard, Les élections municipales (Paris, 1896), and J. Dorlhac, De l'électorat politique: étude sur la capacité électorale et les conditions d'exercise du droit de vote (Paris, 1890). An excellent study is P. Lavergne, Du pouvoir central et des conseils municipaux, inRevue Générale d'Administration, 1900. See also A. G. Desbats, Le budget municipal (Paris, 1895); M. Peletant, De l'organisation de la police (Dijon, 1899); and R. Griffin, Les biens communaux en France (Paris, 1899). On the government of Paris the reader may be referred to G. Artigues, Le régime municipal de la ville de Paris (Paris, 1898), and M. Block, L'Administration de la ville de Paris et du département de la Seine (Paris, 1898). Excellent bibliographies are printed in Munro,op. cit., 380-389, and in Block, Dictionnaire, I., 850-852.(Back)
Footnote 519:The Cisalpine constitution was amended September 1, 1798, when there was introduced in the republic the French system of administrative divisions.(Back)
Footnote 520:E. Bonnal de Ganges, La chute d'une république (Paris, 1885).(Back)
Footnote 521:For an interesting portrayal of the workings of republican idealism in the Neapolitan republic see Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, 150-157.(Back)
Footnote 522:An advisory council of state, consisting of eight members.(Back)
Footnote 523:The incorporation of Dalmatia with the kingdom of Italy was but temporary.(Back)
Footnote 524:For brief accounts of the Napoleonic régime in Italy see Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 14; B. King, A History of Italian Unity (London, 1899), I., Chap. 1. Works of value dealing with the subject include P. Gaffarel, Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes, 1796-1799 (Paris, 1895); A. Dufourcq, Le régime jacobin en Italie, 1796-1799 (Paris, 1900); F. Lemmi, Le origini del risorgimento italiano (Milan, 1906); G. Sabini, I primi esperimenti costituzionali in Italia, 1797-1815 (Turin, 1911); and R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy, 2 vols. (London, 1904). An older work is E. Ramondini, L'Italia durante la dominazione francese (Naples, 1882).(Back)
Footnote 525:By decree of April 24, 1815, these territories were erected into a kingdom under Austrian control, though possessing a separate administration.(Back)
Footnote 526:W. R. Thayer, The Dawn of Italian Independence, 2 vols. (Boston, 1893), I., 116-178.(Back)
Footnote 527:M. Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy (London, 1895), 3.(Back)
Footnote 528:J. Holland Rose, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., XV., 48. See also Fisher, The Republican Tradition in Europe, 158-159.(Back)
Footnote 529:Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 4; Johnston, Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy, II., Chap. 4; Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence, I., 215-278.(Back)
Footnote 530:The nature of the governmental system provided in this instrument will be explained at length in the succeeding chapter.(Back)
Footnote 531:G. Garavani, La costituzione della repubblica romana nel 1798 e nel 1849 (Fermo, 1910).(Back)
Footnote 532:Elaborate accounts of the revolution of 1848 in Italy are contained in King, History of Italian Unity, I., Chaps. 9-19, and Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence, II., Bks. 4-5. A good brief account is Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 4 (bibliography, pp. 908-913). A suggestive sketch is Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 9.(Back)
Footnote 533:King, History of Italian Unity, II., Chap. 27.(Back)
Footnote 534:King, History of Italian Unity, II., Chaps. 29-32.(Back)
Footnote 535:The resulting measure, the Law of Papal Guarantees, was enacted May 13, 1871. See p.388.(Back)
Footnote 536:For a brief account of the final stages in the unification of Italy see Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 14, 19. The best presentation of the entire subject is that in the two volumes of King, History of Italian Unity, 1814-1871. Other works of value are W. J. Stillman, The Union of Italy, 1815-1895 (Cambridge, 1898); J. Probyn, Italy, 1815-1890 (London, 1884); M. Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy (New York, 1894); P. Orsi, L'Italia moderna (Milan, 1901); F. Bertolini, Storia d'Italia dal 1814 al 1878 (Milan, 1880-1881); and E. Sorin, Histoire de l'Italie depuis 1815 jusqu'Ã la mort de V. Emm. (Paris, 1910). Among biographies mention may be made of G. Godkin, Life of Victor Emmanuel II. (2d ed., London, 1880); M. Cesaresco, Cavour (London, 1898); D. Zanichelli, Cavour (Florence, 1905); B. King, Mazzini (London, 1902). A very valuable biography, which indeed comprises virtually a history of the period 1848-1861, is W. R. Thayer, Count Cavour, 2 vols. (Boston, 1911). The monumental Italian work in the field is C. Tivaroni, Storia critica del risorgimento italiano, 9 vols. (Turin, 1888-1897). The principal documentary collection is N. Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia dall' anno 1814 all' anno 1861, 8 vols. (Turin, 1865-1872). Invaluable are L. Chiala, Lettere del Conte di Cavour, 7 vols. (Turin, 1883-1887), and D. Zanichelli, Scritti del Conte di Cavour (Bologna, 1892). For full bibliography see Cambridge Modern History, XI., 908-913.(Back)
Footnote 537:Quoted by G. A. Ruiz, The Amendments to the Italian Constitution, inAnnals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Sept., 1895, 38.(Back)
Footnote 538:Ruiz, Amendments to the Italian Constitution,loc. cit., 57. The text of theStatutoappears in P. Coglio e Malchiodi, Codice Politico Amministrativo. Raccolta completa di tutte le leggi e regolamenti concernenti la pubblica amministrazione nei suoi rapporti politici e amministrativi (6th ed., Florence, 1907), and in V. Gioia, Le leggi di unificazione amministrativa precedute dalla legge fondamentale del regno, 2 vols. (Palermo, 1879). It is printed also in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 346-354. There is a French version in F. R. Dareste, Les constitutions modernes, 2 vols. (Paris, 1883) I., 550-560. There is an English translation in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 5-16, and another, by S. M. Lindsay and L. S. Rowe, inAnnals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Nov., 1894. The Codice Politico Amministrativo contains a good collection of statutes, ordinances, and administrative regulations. The most comprehensive work on Italian constitutional law which has been written is F. Racioppi and I. Brunelli, Commento allo statuto del regno, 3 vols. (Turin, 1909). Among other treatises the following are of principal value: G. Arangio Ruiz, Storia costituzionale del regno di Italia, 1848-1898 (Florence, 1898); E. Brusa, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Italien (Leipzig, 1892), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; E. del Guerra, L'Amministrazione pubblica in Italia (Florence, 1893); and, for briefer treatment, G. Mosca, Appunti di diritto costituzionale (Milan, 1908) and I. Tambaro, II diritto costituzionale italiano (Milan, 1909).(Back)
Footnote 539:Arts. 11-17. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 6.(Back)
Footnote 540:Arts. 5-8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 5. Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 292-297.(Back)
Footnote 541:Separated from Finance in 1889.(Back)
Footnote 542:Art. 66. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 13.(Back)
Footnote 543:Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 291.(Back)
Footnote 544:Art. 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 5.(Back)
Footnote 545:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 166. On the Italian executive see Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 281-329. An essay of value is M. Caudel, Parlementarisme italien, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1900.(Back)
Footnote 546:Of 1,528 appointments made between 1848 and 1910 but 63 were refused confirmation by the Senate.(Back)
Footnote 547:It is interesting to observe that, in the interest of governmental stability and permanence, Cavour favored the adoption of the elective principle in Italy. For illustrations of the weakness of the Italian Senate see C. Morizot-Thibault, Des droits des chambres hautes ou sénats en matière des lois de finance (Paris, 1891), 156-175.(Back)
Footnote 548:E. Pagliano, Il Senato e la nomina dei senatori (Rome, 1906); L. A. Magro, L' aristocrazia e il Senato (Catania, 1909); I. Tambaro, La réforme du Sénat italien, inRevue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1910, and Les débats sur la réforme du Sénat italien, ibid., July-Sept., 1911; M. Scelle, Réforme du Sénat italien, ibid., Oct.-Dec, 1911; Nazzareno, La riforma del Senato, inRivista di Diritto Pubblica, III., 171. The report of the commission of 1910 is contained in Per la riforma del Senato; relazione della commissione (Rome, 1911).(Back)
Footnote 549:Art. 36. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 10.(Back)
Footnote 550:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 157.(Back)
Footnote 551:King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chap. 12.(Back)
Footnote 552:See p.400.(Back)
Footnote 553:For the text of the Giolitti proposals seeIl Seculo, June 11, 1911. On Italian electoral reform see A. Piebantoni, La riforma della legge elettorale (Naples, 1909); G. Bandini, La riforma elettorale con la rappresentanza proporzionale nelle elezioni politiche (Rome, 1910); G. Sabini, La riforma del sistema elettorale in Italia (Turin, 1910); Siotto-Pintor, Estensione del suffragio e distribuzione della rappresentanza, inRivista di Diritto Pubblico, Dec., 1911, and Le riforma del régime elettorale e le dottrine della rappresentanza politica e dell' elettorato nel secolo XX. (Rome, 1912).(Back)
Footnote 554:At the elections of March, 1909, in 75 of the 508 districts no candidate received an adequate majority. In 57 of these districts the candidate who, at the first ballot, had received the largest number of votes was elected at the second ballot. The political effect of the second ballot is slight. At the election of 1900 there were 77 second ballotings; at that of 1904, 39. A. N. Holcombe, Direct Primaries and the Second Ballot, inAmer. Political Science Review, Nov., 1911; A. F. Locatelli, Considerazioni intorno all' opportunità di abolire il ballottaggio, inLa Riforma Sociale, July-Aug., 1910.(Back)
Footnote 555:King and Okey, Italy To-day, 14.(Back)
Footnote 556:Art. 48. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 12.(Back)
Footnote 557:Arts. 52-54, 59, 62. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 12-13. In practice the requirement of the presence of an absolute majority of members is sometimes disregarded.(Back)
Footnote 558:Art. 41. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 11.(Back)
Footnote 559:Arts. 68-73. Ibid., II., 14-15.(Back)
Footnote 560:Prior to 1901 the administrative and electoralmandamentiand themandamenti giudiziariiwere identical geographically, and there were 1,805 of them in the kingdom. By a law of the year mentioned the judicialmandamentiwere reduced in number to 1,535.(Back)
Footnote 561:There is a brief description of the Italian judicial system in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 170-178.(Back)
Footnote 562:For an arraignment of the extravagance of the local governing authorities see King and Okey, Italy To-day, 267.(Back)
Footnote 563:For a brief account of local government in Italy see King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chap. 14. More extended treatment will be found in E. del Guerra, L'Amministrazione pubblica in Italia (Florence, 1893) and G. Greco, Il nuova diritto amministrativo Italiano (Naples, 1896).(Back)
Footnote 564:Text in Coglio e Malchiodi, Codice Politico Amministrativo. An English version is printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 16-21.(Back)
Footnote 565:Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 16.(Back)
Footnote 566:Art. 4. Ibid., 17.(Back)
Footnote 567:Art. 12. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 19.(Back)
Footnote 568:On the Government's use of theexequatursince 1871 see King and Okey, Italy To-day, 253.(Back)
Footnote 569:By act of July 12, 1871, articles 268-270 of the Italian penal code were so modified as to render ecclesiastics liable to imprisonment of from six months to five years, and to fines of from one thousand to three thousand lire, for spoken or written attacks upon the state, or for the incitement of disorder.(Back)
Footnote 570:King and Okey, Italy To-day, 255.(Back)
Footnote 571:For a brief discussion of the subject of church and state in Italy see King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chaps. 2 and 13. A useful book is R. de Cesare, Roma e lo stato del papa dal ritorno di Pio IX., 2 vols. (Rome, 1907), of which there is an abridged translation by H. Zimmern, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1850-1870 (Boston, 1909). Mention may be made of M. Pernot, La politique de Pie X. (Paris, 1910); A. Brunialto, Lo stato e la chiesa in Italia (Turin, 1892); G. Barzellotti, L'Italia e il papato, inNuova Antologia, March 1, 1904; and F. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1906).(Back)
Footnote 572:This partial renewal of a ministry, known in Italy as arimpasto, was, and still is, rendered easy by the average ministry's lack of political solidarity.(Back)
Footnote 573:This coalition policy—the so-calledtransformismo—did not originate with Depretis. As early as 1873 a portion of the Right under Minghetti, by joining the Left, had overturned the Lanza-Sella cabinet; and in 1876 Minghetti himself had fallen a victim to a similar defection of Conservative deputies.(Back)
Footnote 574:Cardon, Del governo nella monarchia costituzionale, 125.(Back)
Footnote 575:For an exposition of party conditions during the past decade see A. Labrioli, Storia di dieci anni, 1899-1909 (Milan, 1910).(Back)
Footnote 576:The idea is expressed in the phrasecattolici deputati, si, deputati cattolici, no.(Back)
Footnote 577:Eufrasio, Il Non Expedit, inNuova Antologia, Sept. 1, 1904.(Back)
Footnote 578:The political parties of Italy are described briefly in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., Chap. 4, and at more length in King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chaps. 1-3. Special works of importance upon the subject include M. Minghetti, I partiti politici e la ingerenza loro nella giustizia e nell' amministrazione (2d ed., Bologna, 1881); P. Penciolelli, Le gouvernement parlementaire et la lutte des partis en Italie (Paris, 1911); and S. Sighele, Il nazionalismo e i partiti politici (Milan, 1911). Of value are R. Bonfadini, I partiti parlamentari, inNuova Antologia, Feb. 15, 1894, and A. Torresin, Statistica delle elezioni generali politiche, inLa Riforma Sociale, Aug. 15, 1900. A useful biography is W. J. Stillman, Francesco Crispi (London, 1899), and an invaluable repository of information is M. Prichard-Agnetti (trans.), The Memoirs of Francesco Crispi, 2 vols. (New York, 1912). On the parties of the Extreme Left the following may profitably be consulted: F. S. Nitti, Il partito radicale (Turin and Rome, 1907); P. Villari, Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Florence, 1902); R. Bonghi, Gli ultimi fatti parlamentari, inNuova Antologia, Jan. 1, 1895; G. Alessio, Partiti e programmi, ibid., Oct. 16, 1900; G. Louis-Jaray, Le socialisme municipal en Italie, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, May, 1904; R. Meynadier, Les partis d'extrême gauche et la monarchie en Italie, inQuestions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, April 1, 1908; F. Magri, Riformisti e rivoluzionari nel partito socialista italiano, inRassegna Nazionale, Nov. 16, 1906, and April 1, 1907; R. Soldi, Le varie correnti nel partito socialista italiano, inGiornale degli Economisti, June, 1903. On recent Italian elections see G. Gidel, Les élections générales italiennes de novembre 1904, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, Jan., 1905; P. Quentin-Bauchart, Les élections italiennes de mars 1909, ibid., July, 1909.(Back)
Footnote 579:For an English version of the Perpetual League of 1291 see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 285-288. The best account in English of the origins of the Confederation is contained in W. D. McCrackan, The Rise of the Swiss Republic (2d ed., New York, 1901). Important are A. Rilliet, Les origines de la confédération suisse (Geneva, 1868); P. Vauchier, Les commencements de la confédération suisse (Lausanne, 1891); W. Oechsli, Die Anfange der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1891). Of the last-mentioned excellent work there is a French translation, under the title Les origines de la confédération suisse (Bern, 1891). The origins of the Swiss Confederation were described in a scientific manner for the first time in the works of J. E. Kopp: Urkunden zur Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (Leipzig and Berlin, 1835), and Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (Leipzig and Berlin, 1845-1852). The texts of all of the Swiss alliances to 1513 are printed in J. von Ah, Die Bundesbriefe der alten Eidgenossen (Einsiedeln, 1891).(Back)
Footnote 580:Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332; Zürich in 1351; Glarus and Zug in 1352; Bern in 1353; Freiburg and Solothurn in 1481; Basel and Schaffhausen in 1501; and Appenzell in 1513. "Swiss history is largely the history of the drawing together of bits of each of the Imperial kingdoms (Germany, Italy, and Burgundy) for common defense against a common foe—the Hapsburgs; and, when this family have secured to themselves the permanent possession of the Empire, the Swiss league little by little wins its independence of the Empire, practically in 1499, formally in 1648. Originally a member of the Empire, the Confederation becomes first an ally, then merely a friend." Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., XXVI., 246.(Back)
Footnote 581:To these districts, however, the name canton was applied; and, indeed, this was the first occasion upon which the name was employed officially in Switzerland.(Back)
Footnote 582:McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 295-312; A. von Tillier, Geschichte der helvetischen Republik, 3 vols. (Bern, 1843); Muret, L'Invasion de la Suisse en 1798 (Lausanne, 1881-1884); L. Marsauche, La confédération helvétique (Neuchâtel, 1890).(Back)
Footnote 583:It is in this instrument that the Confederation was for the first time designated officially as "Switzerland."(Back)
Footnote 584:Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 4 (bibliography, pp. 805-807). The best general work on the period 1798-1813 is W. Oechsli, Geschichte der Schweiz im XIX. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1903), I.(Back)
Footnote 585:This statement needs to be qualified by the observation that the half-canton Nidwalden approved the constitution August 30, and only when compelled by force to do so.(Back)
Footnote 586:Three of the cantons—Unterwalden, Basel, and Appenzell—were divided into half-cantons, each with a government of its own; but each possessed only half a vote in the Diet.(Back)
Footnote 587:B. Van Muyden, La suisse sous le pacte de 1815, 2 vols. (Lausanne and Paris, 1890-1892); A. von Tillier, Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der sogen. Restaurationsepoche, 1814-1830, 3 vols. (Bern and Zürich, 1848-1850); ibid., Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der Zeit des sogeheissenen Fortschritts, 1830-1846, 3 vols. (Bern, 1854-1855).(Back)
Footnote 588:McCracken, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 325-330.(Back)
Footnote 589:Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the Valais.(Back)
Footnote 590:A. Stern, Zur Geschichte des Sonderbundes, inHistorische Zeitschrift, 1879; W. B. Duffield, The War of the Sonderbund, inEnglish Historical Review, Oct., 1895; and P. Matter, Le Sonderbund, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Jan. 15, 1896.(Back)
Footnote 591:For the methods of constitutional amendment see p.431.(Back)
Footnote 592:W. Oechsli, in Cambridge Modern History, XI., 234. A brief survey of the constitutional history of Switzerland from 1848 to 1874 is contained in Chap. 8 of the volume mentioned (bibliography, pp. 914-918). Two excellent works are C. Hilty, Les constitutions fédérales de la confédération suisse; exposé historique (Neuchâtel, 1891), and T. Curti, Geschichte der Schweiz im XIX. Jahrhundert (Neuchâtel, 1902). A fairly satisfactory book is L. Hug and R. Stead, Switzerland (New York, 1889). The text of the constitution may be found in S. Kaiser and J. Strickler, Geschichte und Texte der Bundesverfassungen der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft von der helvetischen Staatsumwälzung bis zur Gegenwart (Bern, 1901), and in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 405-431. English versions are printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257-290; McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 373-403; Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 289-332; and Old South Leaflets, General Series, No. 18. The texts of all federal constitutions after 1798 are included in the work of Kaiser and Strickler. A good collection of recent documents is P. Wolf, Die schweizerische Bundesgesetzgebung (2d ed., Basel, 1905-1908). The principal treatises on the Swiss constitutional system are J. J. Blumer, Handbuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaatsrechtes (2d ed., Schaffhausen, 1877-1887); J. Schollenberger, Bundesverfassung der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Berlin, 1905); ibid., Das Bundesstaatsrecht der Schweiz Geschichte und System (Berlin, 1902); and W. Burckhardt, Kommentar der Schweiz; Bundesverfassung vom 29 Mai 1874 (Bern, 1905). Two excellent briefer treatises are N. Droz, Instruction civique (Lausanne, 1884) and A. von Orelli, Das Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Freiburg, 1885), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. The best treatise in English upon the Swiss governmental system is J. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland (New York, 1900). Older works include B. Moses, The Federal Government of Switzerland (Oakland, 1889); F. Adams and C. Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation (London, 1889); and B. Winchester, The Swiss Republic (Philadelphia, 1891). Mention should be made of A. B. Hart, Introduction to the Study of Federal Government (Boston, 1891); also of an exposition of Swiss federalism in Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 7th ed., 517-529.(Back)
Footnote 593:Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257.(Back)
Footnote 594:The total area of the Confederation is approximately 16,000 square miles; the total population, according to the census of December 1, 1910, is 3,741,971.(Back)
Footnote 595:Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257.(Back)
Footnote 596:In the form in which it now exists the Swiss constitution is one of the most comprehensive instruments of the kind in existence. Aside from various temporary provisions, it contains, in all, 123 articles, some of considerable length. As is true of the German constitution, there is in it much that ordinarily has no place in the fundamental law of a nation. A curious illustration is afforded by an amendment of 1893 to the effect that "the killing of animals without benumbing before the drawing of blood is forbidden; this provision applies to every method of slaughter and to every species of animals." Art. 25. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. The adoption of this amendment was an expression of antisemitic prejudice.(Back)
Footnote 597:Arts. 5 and 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 258.(Back)
Footnote 598:Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 258.(Back)
Footnote 599:Arts. 15-23. Ibid., II., 260-262.(Back)
Footnote 600:McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 354-363; Payen, La neutralisation de la Suisse, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Oct. 15, 1892.(Back)
Footnote 601:Art. 27. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263.(Back)
Footnote 602:Art. 49. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 271-272.(Back)
Footnote 603:"The customs system shall be within the control of the Confederation. The Confederation may levy export and import duties." Art. 28. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. The constitution stipulates further that imports of materials essential for the manufactures and agriculture of the country, and of necessaries of life in general, shall be taxed as low as possible; also that export taxes shall be kept at a minimum. Art. 42 prescribes that the expenditures of the Confederation shall be met from the income from federal property, the proceeds of the postal and telegraph services, the proceeds of the powder monopoly, half of the gross receipts from the tax on military exemptions levied by the cantons, the proceeds of the federal customs, and, finally, in case of necessity, contributions levied upon the cantons in proportion to their wealth and taxable resources. Dodd, II., 269.(Back)
Footnote 604:Art. 27. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263.(Back)
Footnote 605:A. Souriac, L'évolution de la juridiction fédérale en Suisse (Paris, 1909).(Back)
Footnote 606:On the governments of the cantons the principal general works are J. Schollenberger, Grundriss der Staats-und Verwaltungsrechts der schweizerischen Kantone, 3 vols. (Zürich, 1898-1900), and J. Dubs, Das öffentliche Recht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1877-1878), I. Brief accounts will be found in Vincent, the Government of Switzerland, Chaps. 1-12.(Back)
Footnote 607:The area of Zug is 92 square miles; of Glarus, 267; of the Unterwaldens, 295; of the Appenzells, 162. The longest dimension of any one of these cantons is but thirty miles, and the distance to be traversed by the citizen who wishes to attend the Landesgemeinde of his canton rarely exceeds ten miles. It was once the fashion to represent the Swiss Landesgemeinde as a direct survival of the primitive Germanic popular assembly. For the classic statement of this view see Freeman, Growth of the English Constitution, Chap. 1. There is, however, every reason to believe that between the two institutions there is no historical connection.(Back)
Footnote 608:H. D. Lloyd, A Sovereign People (New York, 1907), Chap. 4.(Back)
Footnote 609:For an excellent account of the introduction of proportional representation in the canton of Ticino see J. Galland, La démocratie tessinoise et la représentation proportionnelle (Grenoble, 1909). The canton in which the principle has been adopted most recently is St. Gall. In 1893, 1901, and 1906 it was there rejected by the people, but at the referendum of February, 1912, it was approved, and in the following November the cantonal legislature formally adopted it. For a brief exposition of the workings of the system see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 4. An important study of the subject is E. Klöti, Die Proportionalwahl in der Schweiz; Geschichte, Darstellung und Kritik (Bern, 1901). On the proposed introduction of proportional representation in the federal government see p. 433.(Back)
Footnote 610:Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 243.(Back)
Footnote 611:It will be observed, of course, that in the cantons which maintain a Landesgemeinde there is no occasion for the employment of the referendum upon either constitutional or legislative questions. The people there act directly and necessarily upon every important proposition.(Back)
Footnote 612:Important treatises on the Swiss referendum are T. Curti, Geschichte der schweizerischen Volksgesetzgebung (Zürich, 1885); ibid., Die Volksabstimmung in der schweizerischen Gesetzgebung (Zürich, 1886). A French version of the former work, by J. Ronjat, has appeared under the title Le référendum: histoire de la législation populaire en Suisse (Paris, 1905). Of large value is Curti, Die Resultate des schweizerischen Referendums (2d ed., Bern, 1911). An older account is J. A. Herzog, Das Referendum in der Schweiz (Berlin, 1885). An excellent book is S. Duploige, Le référendum en Suisse (Brussels, 1892), of which there is an English translation, by C. P. Trevelyan, under the title The Referendum in Switzerland (London, 1898). Of value also are Stüssi, Referendum und Initiative in den Schweizerkantonen (Zürich, 1894), and J. Signorel, Étude de législation comparée sur le référendum législatif (Paris, 1896). Mention may be made of J. Delpech, Quelques observations à propos du référendum et des Landesgemeinde suisse, inRevue du Droit Public, April-June, 1906.(Back)
Footnote 613:A. Keller, Das Volksinitiativrecht nach den schweizerischen Kantonsverfassungen (Zürich, 1889).(Back)
Footnote 614:In the Landesgemeinde cantons the Landammann is elected by the primary assembly.(Back)
Footnote 615:Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 10; Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 8; Lloyd, A Sovereign People, Chap. 3.(Back)
Footnote 616:Art. 95. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 281.(Back)
Footnote 617:No longer, as prior to 1888, necessarily that of foreign affairs.(Back)
Footnote 618:Art. 103. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 284. For a synopsis of the law of July 8, 1887, whereby an apportionment of functions was made among the various departments see Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 239-246.(Back)
Footnote 619:Members of the Council are re-elected, almost as a matter of course, as long as they are willing to serve. Between 1848 and 1893 the average period of service exceeded ten years. Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 203.(Back)
Footnote 620:The resignation, in 1891, of M. Welti, a member of the Council since 1867, by reason of the fact that the people rejected his project for the governmental purchase of railway shares occasioned general consternation.(Back)
Footnote 621:For interesting observations upon the advantages and disadvantages of the Swiss system see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 204-208. See also Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 16; Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 188-203.(Back)
Footnote 622:Art. 102. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 282-284; Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 218-225.(Back)
Footnote 623:Art. 113. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 286. The nature and functions of the Swiss executive are treated briefly in Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 17, and Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 4. An excellent account is that in Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 182-246. Of value are Blumer and Morel, Handbuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaatsrechts, III., 34-92, and Dubs, Le droit public de la confédération suisse, II., 77-105.(Back)
Footnote 624:In French, the Conseil National and the Conseil des États.(Back)
Footnote 625:This denial of clerical eligibility was inspired by fear of Catholic influences.(Back)
Footnote 626:Arts. 72-79. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 277-278.(Back)
Footnote 627:"Neither the president nor the vice-president may be chosen at any session from the canton from which the president for the preceding session was chosen; and the vice-presidency may not be held during two successive regular sessions by representatives of the same canton." Art. 82.(Back)
Footnote 628:Arts. 80-83. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 278.(Back)
Footnote 629:Art. 84. Ibid., II., 278.(Back)
Footnote 630:The principal duty of the chancellor is the keeping of the minutes of the National Council. A vice-chancellor, appointed by the Federal Council, performs a similar function in the Council of States, under responsibility to the chancellor.(Back)