INTRODUCTORY.History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely military1Permanence of the teachings of history2Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion2Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships2Essential distinction between weather and lee gage5Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions6Consequent effect upon naval policy6Lessons of history apply especially to strategy7Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable9Illustrations:The battle of the Nile,A.D.179810Trafalgar,A.D.180511Siege of Gibraltar,A.D.1779-178212Actium,B.C.31, and Lepanto,A.D.157113Second Punic War,B.C.218-20114Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly22Wide scope of naval strategy22CHAPTER I.Discussion of the Elements of Sea Power.The sea a great common25Advantages of water-carriage over that by land25Navies exist for the protection of commerce26Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports27Development of colonies and colonial posts28Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies28General conditions affecting Sea Power:I. Geographical position29II. Physical conformation35III. Extent of territory42IV. Number of population44V. National character50VI. Character and policy of governments58England59Holland67France69Influence of colonies on Sea Power82The United States:Its weakness in Sea Power83Its chief interest in internal development84Danger from blockades85Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest87Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power88Purpose of the historical narrative89CHAPTER II.State of Europe in 1660.—Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667.—Sea Battles of Lowestoft and of the Four DaysAccession of Charles II. and Louis XIV.90Followed shortly by general wars91French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu92Condition of France in 166093Condition of Spain94Condition of the Dutch United Provinces96Their commerce and colonies97Character of their government98Parties in the State99Condition of England in 166099Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships101Conditions of other European States102Louis XIV. the leading personality in Europe103His policy104Colbert's administrative acts105Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665107Battle of Lowestoft, 1665108Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers109The group formation112The order of battle for sailing-ships115The Four Days' Battle, 1666117Military merits of the opposing fleets126Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion127Ruyter in the Thames, 1667132Peace of Breda, 1667132Military value of commerce-destroying132CHAPTER III.War of England and France in Alliance against the United Provinces, 1672-1674.—Finally, of France against Combined Europe, 1674-1678.—Sea Battles of Solebay, the Texel, and Stromboli.Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands139Policy of the United Provinces139Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden140Anger of Louis XIV.140Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt141His memorial142Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II.143The two kings declare war against the United Provinces144Military character of this war144Naval strategy of the Dutch144Tactical combinations of De Ruyter145Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration145Battle of Solebay, 1672146Tactical comments147Effect of the battle on the course of the war148Land campaign of the French in Holland149Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland150Accession to power of William of Orange150Uneasiness among European States150Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673151Naval battle of the Texel, 1673152Effect upon the general war154Equivocal action of the French fleet155General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions156Military character of De Ruyter157Coalition against France158Peace between England and the United Provinces158Sicilian revolt against Spain159Battle of Stromboli, 1676161Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics163De Ruyter killed off Agosta165England becomes hostile to France166Sufferings of the United Provinces167Peace of Nimeguen, 1678168Effects of the war on France and Holland169Notice of Comte d'Estrées170CHAPTER IV.English Revolution.—War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697.—Sea Battles of Beachy Head and La Hougue.Aggressive policy of Louis XIV.173State of French, English, and Dutch navies174Accession of James II.175Formation of the League of Augsburg176Louis declares war against the Emperor of Germany177Revolution in England178Louis declares war against the United Provinces178William and Mary crowned178James II. lands in Ireland179Misdirection of French naval forces180William III. lands in Ireland181Naval battle of Beachy Head, 1690182Tourville's military character184Battle of the Boyne, 1690186End of the struggle in Ireland186Naval battle of La Hougue, 1692189Destruction of French ships190Influence of Sea Power in this war191Attack and defence of commerce193Peculiar characteristics of French privateering195Peace of Ryswick, 1697197Exhaustion of France: its causes198CHAPTER V.War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713.—Sea Battle Of Malaga.Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria201King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou202Death of the King of Spain202Louis XIV. accepts the bequests203He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands203Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria204Declarations of war205The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain206Affair of the Vigo galleons207Portugal joins the allies208Character of the naval warfare209Capture of Gibraltar by the English210Naval battle of Malaga, 1704211Decay of the French navy212Progress of the land war213Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca215Disgrace of Marlborough216England offers terms of peace217Peace of Utrecht, 1713218Terms of the peace219Results of the war to the different belligerents219Commanding position of Great Britain224Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength225Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power226Depressed condition of France227Commercial prosperity of England228Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying229Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711230War between Russia and Sweden231CHAPTER VI.The Regency in France.—Alberoni in Spain.—Policies of Walpole and Fleuri.—War of the Polish Succession.—English Contraband Trade in Spanish America.—Great Britain declares War against Spain.—1715-1739.Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV.232Accession of George I.232Regency of Philip of Orleans233Administration of Alberoni in Spain234Spaniards invade Sardinia235Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France235Spaniards invade Sicily236Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718237Failure and dismissal of Alberoni239Spain accepts terms239Great Britain interferes in the Baltic239Death of Philip of Orleans241Administration of Fleuri in France241Growth of French commerce242France in the East Indies243Troubles between England and Spain244English contraband trade in Spanish America245Illegal search of English ships246Walpole's struggles to preserve peace247War of the Polish Succession247Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies248Bourbon family compact248France acquires Bar and Lorraine249England declares war against Spain250Morality of the English action toward Spain250Decay of the French navy252Death of Walpole and of Fleuri253CHAPTER VII.War between Great Britain and Spain, 1739.—War of the Austrian Succession, 1740.—France joins Spain against Great Britain, 1744.—Sea Battles of Matthews, Anson, and Hawke.—Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748.Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783254Neglect of the navy by French government254Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards255Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India258Condition of the contending navies259Expeditions of Vernon and Anson261Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession262England allies herself to Austria262Naval affairs in the Mediterranean263Influence of Sea Power on the war264Naval battle off Toulon, 1744265Causes of English failure267Courts-martial following the action268Inefficient action of English navy269Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745269Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power269France overruns Belgium and invades Holland270Naval actions of Anson and Hawke271Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Étenduère272Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies273Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs275La Bourdonnais reduces Madras276Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748277Madras exchanged for Louisburg277Results of the war278Effect of Sea Power on the issue279CHAPTER VIII.Seven Years' War, 1756-1763.—England's Overwhelming Power and Conquests on the Seas, in North America, Europe, and East and West Indies.—Sea Battles: Byng off Minorca; Hawke and Conflans; Pocock and D'Aché in East Indies.Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled281Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy281He is recalled from India282His policy abandoned by the French282Agitation in North America283Braddock's expedition, 1755284Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace285French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756285Byng sails to relieve the place286Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756286Characteristics of the French naval policy287Byng returns to Gibraltar290He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot290Formal declarations of war by England and France291England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war291France is drawn into a continental struggle292The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins293Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England293Operations in North America293Fall of Louisburg, 1758294Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760294Influence of Sea Power on the continental war295English plans for the general naval operations296Choiseul becomes Minister in France297He plans an invasion of England297Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759298Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen299Consequent frustration of the invasion of England300Project to invade Scotland300Sailing of the Brest fleet300Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759302Accession of Charles III. to Spanish throne304Death of George II.304Clive in India305Battle of Plassey, 1757306Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India307Naval actions between Pocock and D'Aché, 1758, 1759307Destitute condition of French naval stations in India309The French fleet abandons the struggle310Final fall of the French power in India310Ruined condition of the French navy311Alliance between France and Spain313England declares war against Spain313Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies314French and Spaniards invade Portugal316The invasion repelled by England316Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters316Spain sues for peace317Losses of British mercantile shipping317Increase of British commerce318Commanding position of Great Britain319Relations of England and Portugal320Terms of the Treaty of Paris321Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain322Results of the maritime war323Results of the continental war324Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable324Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus325Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain326Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain327British success due to maritime superiority328Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets329CHAPTER IX.Course of Events from the Peace of Paris to 1778.—Maritime War Consequent upon the American Revolution.—Sea Battle off Ushant.French discontent with the Treaty of Paris330Revival of the French navy331Discipline among French naval officers of the time332Choiseul's foreign policy333Domestic troubles in Great Britain334Controversies with the North American colonies334Genoa cedes Corsica to France334Dispute between England and Spain about the Falkland Islands335Choiseul dismissed336Death of Louis XV.336Naval policy of Louis XVI.337Characteristics of the maritime war of 1778338Instructions of Louis XVI. to the French admirals339Strength of English navy341Characteristics of the military situation in America341The line of the Hudson342Burgoyne's expedition from Canada343Howe carries his army from New York to the Chesapeake343Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777343American privateering344Clandestine support of the Americans by France345Treaty between France and the Americans346Vital importance of the French fleet to the Americans347The military situation in the different quarters of the globe347Breach between France and England350Sailing of the British and French fleets350Battle of Ushant, 1778351Position of a naval commander-in-chief in battle353CHAPTER X.Maritime War in North America and West Indies, 1778-1781.—Its Influence upon the Course of the American Revolution.—Fleet Actions off Grenada, Dominica, and Chesapeake Bay.D'Estaing sails from Toulon for Delaware Bay, 1778359British ordered to evacuate Philadelphia359Rapidity of Lord Howe's movements360D'Estaing arrives too late360Follows Howe to New York360Fails to attack there and sails for Newport361Howe follows him there362Both fleets dispersed by a storm362D'Estaing takes his fleet to Boston363Howe's activity foils D'Estaing at all points363D'Estaing sails for the West Indies365The English seize Sta. Lucia365Ineffectual attempts of D'Estaing to dislodge them366D'Estaing captures Grenada367Naval battle of Grenada, 1779; English ships crippled367D'Estaing fails to improve his advantages370Reasons for his neglect371French naval policy372English operations in the Southern States375D'Estaing takes his fleet to Savannah375His fruitless assault on Savannah376D'Estaing returns to France376Fall of Charleston376De Guichen takes command in the West Indies376Rodney arrives to command English fleet377His military character377First action between Rodney and De Guichen, 1780378Breaking the line380Subsequent movements of Rodney and De Guichen381Rodney divides his fleet381Goes in person to New York381De Guichen returns to France381Arrival of French forces in Newport382Rodney returns to the West Indies382War between England and Holland382Disasters to the United States in 1780382De Grasse sails from Brest for the West Indies, 1781383Engagement with English fleet off Martinique383Cornwallis overruns the Southern States384He retires upon Wilmington, N.C., and thence to Virginia385Arnold on the James River385The French fleet leaves Newport to intercept Arnold385Meets the English fleet off the Chesapeake, 1781386French fleet returns to Newport387Cornwallis occupies Yorktown387De Grasse sails from Hayti for the Chesapeake388Action with the British fleet, 1781389Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781390Criticism of the British naval operations390Energy and address shown by De Grasse392Difficulties of Great Britain's position in the war of 1778392The military policy best fitted to cope with them393Position of the French squadron in Newport, R.I., 1780394Great Britain's defensive position and inferior numbers396Consequent necessity for a vigorous initiative396Washington's opinions as to the influence of Sea Power on the American contest397CHAPTER XI.Maritime War in Europe, 1779-1782.Objectives of the allied operations in Europe401Spain declares war against England401Allied fleets enter the English Channel, 1779402Abortive issue of the cruise403Rodney sails with supplies for Gibraltar403Defeats the Spanish squadron of Langara and relieves the place404The allies capture a great British convoy404The armed neutrality of the Baltic powers, 1780405England declares war against Holland406Gibraltar is revictualled by Admiral Derby407The allied fleets again in the Channel, 1781408They retire without effecting any damage to England408Destruction of a French convoy for the West Indies408Fall of Port Mahon, 1782409The allied fleets assemble at Algesiras409Grand attack of the allies on Gibraltar, which fails, 1782410Lord Howe succeeds in revictualling Gibraltar412Action between his fleet and that of the allies412Conduct of the war of 1778 by the English government412Influence of Sea Power416Proper use of the naval forces416CHAPTER XII.Events in the East Indies, 1778-1781.—Suffren sails from Brest for India, 1781.—His Brilliant Naval Campaign in the Indian Seas, 1782, 1783.Neglect of India by the French government419England at war with Mysore and with the Mahrattas420Arrival of the French squadron under Comte d'Orves420It effects nothing and returns to the Isle of France420Suffren sails from Brest with five ships-of-the-line, 1781421Attacks an English squadron in the Cape Verde Islands, 1781422Conduct and results of this attack424Distinguishing merits of Suffren as a naval leader425Suffren saves the Cape Colony from the English427He reaches the Isle of France427Succeeds to the chief command of the French fleet427Meets the British squadron under Hughes at Madras427Analysis of the naval strategic situation in India428The first battle between Suffren and Hughes, Feb. 17, 1782430Suffren's views of the naval situation in India433Tactical oversights made by Suffren434Inadequate support received by him from his captains435Suffren goes to Pondicherry, Hughes to Trincomalee436The second battle between Suffren and Hughes, April 12, 1782437Suffren's tactics in the action439Relative injuries received by the opposing fleets441Contemporaneous English criticisms upon Hughes's conduct442Destitute condition of Suffren's fleet443His activity and success in supplying wants443He communicates with Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore443Firmness and insight shown by Suffren445His refusal to obey orders from home to leave the Indian Coast446The third battle between Suffren and Hughes, July 6, 1782447Qualities shown by Hughes449Stubborn fighting by the British admiral and captains449Suffren deprives three captains of their commands449Dilatory conduct of Admiral Hughes450Suffren attacks and takes Trincomalee450Strategic importance of this success451Comparative condition of the two fleets in material for repairs451The English government despatches powerful reinforcements452The French court fails to support Suffren452The fourth battle between Suffren and Hughes, Sept. 3, 1782453Mismanagement and injuries of the French455Contrast between the captains in the opposing fleets456Two ships of Suffren's fleet grounded and lost457Arrival of British reinforcements under Admiral Bickerton458Approach of bad-weather season; Hughes goes to Bombay458Military situation of French and English in India459Delays of the French reinforcements under Bussy460Suffren takes his fleet to Achem, in Sumatra460He returns to the Indian coast461Arrival of Bussy461Decline of the French power on shore461The English besiege Bussy in Cuddalore by land and sea462Suffren relieves the place462The fifth battle between Suffren and Hughes, June 20, 1783463Decisive character of Suffren's action463News of the peace received at Madras463Suffren sails for France464His flattering reception everywhere464His distinguishing military qualities465His later career and death466CHAPTER XIII.Events in the West Indies after the Surrender of Yorktown.— Encounters of De Grasse with Hood.—The Sea Battle of the Saints.—1781-1782.Maritime struggle transferred from the continent to West Indies468De Grasse sails for the islands469French expedition against the island of St. Christopher, January, 1782469Hood attempts to relieve the garrison470Manœuvres of the two fleets471Action between De Grasse and Hood472Hood seizes the anchorage left by De Grasse473De Grasse attacks Hood at his anchorage474Hood maintains his position475Surrender of the garrison and island475Merits of Hood's action476Criticism upon De Grasse's conduct477Rodney arrives in West Indies from England479Junction of Rodney and Hood at Antigua479De Grasse returns to Martinique479Allied plans to capture Jamaica479Rodney takes his station at Sta. Lucia480The French fleet sails and is pursued by Rodney480Action of April 9, 1782481Criticism upon the action483The chase continued; accidents to French ships484The naval battle of the Saints, April 12, 1782485Rodney breaks the French line488Capture of the French commander-in-chief and five ships-of-the-line489Details of the action489Analysis of the effects of Rodney's manœuvre491Tactical bearing of improvements in naval equipment493Lessons of this short naval campaign495Rodney's failure to pursue the French fleet496Examination of his reasons and of the actual conditions497Probable effect of this failure upon the conditions of peace498Rodney's opinions upon the battle of April 12499Successes achieved by Rodney during his command500He is recalled by a new ministry500Exaggerated view of the effects of this battle upon the war500Subsequent career of De Grasse501Court-martial ordered upon the officers of the French fleet502Findings of the court502De Grasse appeals against the finding503He is severely rebuked by the king503Deaths of De Grasse, Rodney, and Hood504CHAPTER XIV.Critical Discussion of the Maritime War of 1778.The war of 1778 purely maritime505Peculiar interest therefore attaching to it506Successive steps in the critical study of a war507Distinction between "object" and "objective"507Parties to the war of 1778507Objects of the different belligerents508Foundations of the British Empire of the seas510Threatened by the revolt of the colonies510The British fleet inferior in numbers to the allies511Choice of objectives511The fleets indicated as the keys of the situation everywhere513Elements essential to an active naval war514The bases of operations in the war of 1778:—In Europe515On the American continent515In the West Indies516In the East Indies518Strategic bearing of the trade-winds and monsoons518The bases abroad generally deficient in resources519Consequent increased importance of the communications519The navies the guardians of the communications520Need of intermediate ports between Europe and India520Inquiry into the disposition of the naval forces521Difficulty of obtaining information at sea521Perplexity as to the destination of a naval expedition522Disadvantages of the defensive523England upon the defensive in 1778523Consequent necessity for wise and vigorous action524The key of the situation525British naval policy in the Napoleonic wars525British naval policy in the Seven Years' War527Difficulties attending this policy527Disposition of the British navy in the war of 1778528Resulting inferiority on many critical occasions528Effect on the navy of the failure to fortify naval bases529The distribution of the British navy exposes it to being out-numbered at many points531The British naval policy in 1778 and in other wars compared532Naval policy of the allies535Divergent counsels of the coalition536"Ulterior objects"537The allied navies systematically assume a defensive attitude538Dangers of this line of action538Glamour of commerce-destroying539The conditions of peace, 1783540Index543