Chapter II.

Chapter II.Spanish Government.Slight sketch of organization—Distribution of population—Collection of taxes—The stick.The supreme head of the administration was a Governor-General or Captain-General of the Philippines. The British Colonial Office has preserved this Spanish title in Jamaica where the supreme authority is still styled Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief.In recent years no civilian has been Governor-General of the Philippines, the appointment being given or sold to a Lieutenant-General, though in 1883 a Field-Marshal was sent out. But in 1874 Rear-Admiral Malcampo obtained the post, and a very weak and foolish Governor-General he turned out to be.In former times military men did not have a monopoly of such posts, and civilians, judges, priests, and bishops have held this appointment.The Governor-General had great powers. Practically, if not legally, he had the power of life and death, for he could proclaim martial law and try offenders by court-martial. He wasex officiopresident of every corporation or commission, and he could expel from the Islands any person, whether Spaniard, native, or foreigner, by a decree declaring that his presence was inconvenient.Slight Sketch of Organization.He could suspend or remove any official, and in fact was almost despotic. On the other hand he had to remember two important limitations. Unless he supported the religious orders against all comers he would have the Procurators of these wealthy corporations, who reside in Madrid, denouncing him to the Ministry as an anti-clerical, and afreemason, and perhaps offering a heavy bribe for his removal. If he made an attempt to put down corruption and embezzlement in the Administration, his endeavours would be thwarted in every possible way by the officials, and a formidable campaign of calumny and detraction would be inaugurated against him. The appointment was for a term of three years at a salary of $40,000 per annum, and certain very liberal travelling allowances.Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the Governors-General was at Malacañan, on the River Pasig in the ward of San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and bayonets for use in case of an emergency.When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising his hat—and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron, was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour.His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance and authority.There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He was usually a Brigadier-General.In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station.The two principal departments of the administration were the Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration.The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts, according to the accompanying table and map.Distribution of Population.Provinces.Males.Females.Total.Abra21,63121,01642,647Albay127,413130,120257,533Antique60,19363,910124,103Balábac1,912271,939Bataán25,60324,39649,999Batangas137,143137,932275,075Benguet (district)8,20612,10420,310Bohol109,472117,074226,546Bontoc40,51541,91482,429Bulacán127,455124,694252,149Burías8444128Cagayán37,15735,54072,697Calamianes8,2278,81417,041Camarines Norte15,93114,73030,661Camarines Sur78,54577,852156,400Cápiz114,827128,417243,244Cavite66,52365,541132,064Cebú201,066202,230403,296Corregidor (island of)216203419Cottabato7884941,282Dávao9837121,695Ilocos Norte76,91379,802156,715Ilocos Sur97,916103,133201,049Ilo-Ilo203,879206,551410,430Infanta (district)4,9474,9479,894Isabela de Basilan454338792Isabela de Luzon20,25118,36538,616Islas Batanes4,0044,7418,745Isla de Negros106,85197,818204,669Laguna66,33266,172132,504Lepanto8,25516,21924,474Leyte113,275107,240220,515Manila137,280120,994258,274Masbate and Ticao8,8358,33617,171Mindoro29,22028,90858,128Misamis46,02042,35688,376Mórong21,50621,55643,062Nueva Ecija63,45660,315123,771Nueva Vizcaya8,4957,61216,107Pampanga114,425111,884226,309Pangasinán149,141144,150293,291Principe (district)2,0852,0734,158Puerto Princesa350228578Romblón14,52813,62628,154Samar92,33086,560178,890Surigao28,37127,87556,246Tarlac42,43240,32582,757Tayabas27,88625,78253,668Unión55,80257,568113,370Zambales49,61744,93494,551Zamboanga7,6836,46114,1442,794,8762,762,7435,557,619The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877.This is the latest I have been able to find.In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus.It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent, and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebú and Ilo-Ilo have half-a-million.Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the Audiencia or High Court at Manila.From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the fees andsqueezesof their law courts they usually managed to amass fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading.This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards.Each town has its municipality consisting of twelveprincipales, all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lieutenants, thealguaciles(constables), the judges of the fields, of cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo or town clerk, who attends to the routine business.For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against attack, there is a body of local police calledCuadrilleros. These are armed with bolos and lances inthe smaller and poorer towns, but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are more numerous, and carry Remington rifles.The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public Instruction, Model Farms, etc.The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty families, the individuals of which were spoken of as hissácopes. His eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax.The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens volens.No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it is not surprising that they took steps to oblige theirsácopesto pay.I, however, in my fourteen years’ experience, never came across such a case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated, and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention to the rule limiting each man’s bet on one fight to $50. From this we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay their taxes.Collection of Taxes.Natives of the gorgeous East very commonly require a little persuasion to make them pay their taxes, and I have read of American millionaires who, in the absence of this system, could not be got to pay at all. Not many years ago, there was an enquiry as to certain practices resorted to by native tax-collectors in British India to induce the poor Indian to pay up; anybody who is curious to know the particulars can hunt them up in the Blue Books—they are unsuitable for publication.In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the “courbash”1was in use for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about that time (’Lord Cromer,’ by H. D. Traill): “The courbash used to be very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased.”But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters.It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth.Its Good Points.The Government and the laws partook of a patriarchal character, and notwithstanding certain exactions, the Spanish officials and the natives got on very well together. The Alcaldes remained for many years in one province, and knew all the principal people intimately. I doubt if there was any colony in the world where as much intercourse took place between the governors and the natives, certainly not in any British colony, nor in British India, where the gulf ever widens. In this case, governors and governed professed the same religion, and no caste distinctionsprevailed to raise a barrier between them. They could worship together, they could eat together, and marriages between Spaniards and the daughters of the native landowners were not unfrequent. These must be considered good points, and although the general corruption and ineptitude of the administration was undeniable, yet, bad as it was, it must be admitted that it was immeasurably superior to any government that any Malay community had ever established.1A whip made from hippopotamus hide.

Chapter II.Spanish Government.Slight sketch of organization—Distribution of population—Collection of taxes—The stick.

Slight sketch of organization—Distribution of population—Collection of taxes—The stick.

The supreme head of the administration was a Governor-General or Captain-General of the Philippines. The British Colonial Office has preserved this Spanish title in Jamaica where the supreme authority is still styled Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief.In recent years no civilian has been Governor-General of the Philippines, the appointment being given or sold to a Lieutenant-General, though in 1883 a Field-Marshal was sent out. But in 1874 Rear-Admiral Malcampo obtained the post, and a very weak and foolish Governor-General he turned out to be.In former times military men did not have a monopoly of such posts, and civilians, judges, priests, and bishops have held this appointment.The Governor-General had great powers. Practically, if not legally, he had the power of life and death, for he could proclaim martial law and try offenders by court-martial. He wasex officiopresident of every corporation or commission, and he could expel from the Islands any person, whether Spaniard, native, or foreigner, by a decree declaring that his presence was inconvenient.Slight Sketch of Organization.He could suspend or remove any official, and in fact was almost despotic. On the other hand he had to remember two important limitations. Unless he supported the religious orders against all comers he would have the Procurators of these wealthy corporations, who reside in Madrid, denouncing him to the Ministry as an anti-clerical, and afreemason, and perhaps offering a heavy bribe for his removal. If he made an attempt to put down corruption and embezzlement in the Administration, his endeavours would be thwarted in every possible way by the officials, and a formidable campaign of calumny and detraction would be inaugurated against him. The appointment was for a term of three years at a salary of $40,000 per annum, and certain very liberal travelling allowances.Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the Governors-General was at Malacañan, on the River Pasig in the ward of San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and bayonets for use in case of an emergency.When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising his hat—and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron, was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour.His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance and authority.There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He was usually a Brigadier-General.In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station.The two principal departments of the administration were the Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration.The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts, according to the accompanying table and map.Distribution of Population.Provinces.Males.Females.Total.Abra21,63121,01642,647Albay127,413130,120257,533Antique60,19363,910124,103Balábac1,912271,939Bataán25,60324,39649,999Batangas137,143137,932275,075Benguet (district)8,20612,10420,310Bohol109,472117,074226,546Bontoc40,51541,91482,429Bulacán127,455124,694252,149Burías8444128Cagayán37,15735,54072,697Calamianes8,2278,81417,041Camarines Norte15,93114,73030,661Camarines Sur78,54577,852156,400Cápiz114,827128,417243,244Cavite66,52365,541132,064Cebú201,066202,230403,296Corregidor (island of)216203419Cottabato7884941,282Dávao9837121,695Ilocos Norte76,91379,802156,715Ilocos Sur97,916103,133201,049Ilo-Ilo203,879206,551410,430Infanta (district)4,9474,9479,894Isabela de Basilan454338792Isabela de Luzon20,25118,36538,616Islas Batanes4,0044,7418,745Isla de Negros106,85197,818204,669Laguna66,33266,172132,504Lepanto8,25516,21924,474Leyte113,275107,240220,515Manila137,280120,994258,274Masbate and Ticao8,8358,33617,171Mindoro29,22028,90858,128Misamis46,02042,35688,376Mórong21,50621,55643,062Nueva Ecija63,45660,315123,771Nueva Vizcaya8,4957,61216,107Pampanga114,425111,884226,309Pangasinán149,141144,150293,291Principe (district)2,0852,0734,158Puerto Princesa350228578Romblón14,52813,62628,154Samar92,33086,560178,890Surigao28,37127,87556,246Tarlac42,43240,32582,757Tayabas27,88625,78253,668Unión55,80257,568113,370Zambales49,61744,93494,551Zamboanga7,6836,46114,1442,794,8762,762,7435,557,619The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877.This is the latest I have been able to find.In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus.It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent, and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebú and Ilo-Ilo have half-a-million.Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the Audiencia or High Court at Manila.From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the fees andsqueezesof their law courts they usually managed to amass fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading.This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards.Each town has its municipality consisting of twelveprincipales, all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lieutenants, thealguaciles(constables), the judges of the fields, of cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo or town clerk, who attends to the routine business.For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against attack, there is a body of local police calledCuadrilleros. These are armed with bolos and lances inthe smaller and poorer towns, but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are more numerous, and carry Remington rifles.The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public Instruction, Model Farms, etc.The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty families, the individuals of which were spoken of as hissácopes. His eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax.The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens volens.No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it is not surprising that they took steps to oblige theirsácopesto pay.I, however, in my fourteen years’ experience, never came across such a case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated, and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention to the rule limiting each man’s bet on one fight to $50. From this we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay their taxes.Collection of Taxes.Natives of the gorgeous East very commonly require a little persuasion to make them pay their taxes, and I have read of American millionaires who, in the absence of this system, could not be got to pay at all. Not many years ago, there was an enquiry as to certain practices resorted to by native tax-collectors in British India to induce the poor Indian to pay up; anybody who is curious to know the particulars can hunt them up in the Blue Books—they are unsuitable for publication.In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the “courbash”1was in use for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about that time (’Lord Cromer,’ by H. D. Traill): “The courbash used to be very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased.”But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters.It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth.Its Good Points.The Government and the laws partook of a patriarchal character, and notwithstanding certain exactions, the Spanish officials and the natives got on very well together. The Alcaldes remained for many years in one province, and knew all the principal people intimately. I doubt if there was any colony in the world where as much intercourse took place between the governors and the natives, certainly not in any British colony, nor in British India, where the gulf ever widens. In this case, governors and governed professed the same religion, and no caste distinctionsprevailed to raise a barrier between them. They could worship together, they could eat together, and marriages between Spaniards and the daughters of the native landowners were not unfrequent. These must be considered good points, and although the general corruption and ineptitude of the administration was undeniable, yet, bad as it was, it must be admitted that it was immeasurably superior to any government that any Malay community had ever established.

In recent years no civilian has been Governor-General of the Philippines, the appointment being given or sold to a Lieutenant-General, though in 1883 a Field-Marshal was sent out. But in 1874 Rear-Admiral Malcampo obtained the post, and a very weak and foolish Governor-General he turned out to be.

In former times military men did not have a monopoly of such posts, and civilians, judges, priests, and bishops have held this appointment.

The Governor-General had great powers. Practically, if not legally, he had the power of life and death, for he could proclaim martial law and try offenders by court-martial. He wasex officiopresident of every corporation or commission, and he could expel from the Islands any person, whether Spaniard, native, or foreigner, by a decree declaring that his presence was inconvenient.

Slight Sketch of Organization.He could suspend or remove any official, and in fact was almost despotic. On the other hand he had to remember two important limitations. Unless he supported the religious orders against all comers he would have the Procurators of these wealthy corporations, who reside in Madrid, denouncing him to the Ministry as an anti-clerical, and afreemason, and perhaps offering a heavy bribe for his removal. If he made an attempt to put down corruption and embezzlement in the Administration, his endeavours would be thwarted in every possible way by the officials, and a formidable campaign of calumny and detraction would be inaugurated against him. The appointment was for a term of three years at a salary of $40,000 per annum, and certain very liberal travelling allowances.Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the Governors-General was at Malacañan, on the River Pasig in the ward of San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and bayonets for use in case of an emergency.When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising his hat—and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron, was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour.His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance and authority.There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He was usually a Brigadier-General.In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station.The two principal departments of the administration were the Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration.The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts, according to the accompanying table and map.Distribution of Population.Provinces.Males.Females.Total.Abra21,63121,01642,647Albay127,413130,120257,533Antique60,19363,910124,103Balábac1,912271,939Bataán25,60324,39649,999Batangas137,143137,932275,075Benguet (district)8,20612,10420,310Bohol109,472117,074226,546Bontoc40,51541,91482,429Bulacán127,455124,694252,149Burías8444128Cagayán37,15735,54072,697Calamianes8,2278,81417,041Camarines Norte15,93114,73030,661Camarines Sur78,54577,852156,400Cápiz114,827128,417243,244Cavite66,52365,541132,064Cebú201,066202,230403,296Corregidor (island of)216203419Cottabato7884941,282Dávao9837121,695Ilocos Norte76,91379,802156,715Ilocos Sur97,916103,133201,049Ilo-Ilo203,879206,551410,430Infanta (district)4,9474,9479,894Isabela de Basilan454338792Isabela de Luzon20,25118,36538,616Islas Batanes4,0044,7418,745Isla de Negros106,85197,818204,669Laguna66,33266,172132,504Lepanto8,25516,21924,474Leyte113,275107,240220,515Manila137,280120,994258,274Masbate and Ticao8,8358,33617,171Mindoro29,22028,90858,128Misamis46,02042,35688,376Mórong21,50621,55643,062Nueva Ecija63,45660,315123,771Nueva Vizcaya8,4957,61216,107Pampanga114,425111,884226,309Pangasinán149,141144,150293,291Principe (district)2,0852,0734,158Puerto Princesa350228578Romblón14,52813,62628,154Samar92,33086,560178,890Surigao28,37127,87556,246Tarlac42,43240,32582,757Tayabas27,88625,78253,668Unión55,80257,568113,370Zambales49,61744,93494,551Zamboanga7,6836,46114,1442,794,8762,762,7435,557,619The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877.This is the latest I have been able to find.In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus.It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent, and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebú and Ilo-Ilo have half-a-million.Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the Audiencia or High Court at Manila.From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the fees andsqueezesof their law courts they usually managed to amass fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading.This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards.Each town has its municipality consisting of twelveprincipales, all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lieutenants, thealguaciles(constables), the judges of the fields, of cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo or town clerk, who attends to the routine business.For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against attack, there is a body of local police calledCuadrilleros. These are armed with bolos and lances inthe smaller and poorer towns, but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are more numerous, and carry Remington rifles.The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public Instruction, Model Farms, etc.The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty families, the individuals of which were spoken of as hissácopes. His eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax.The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens volens.No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it is not surprising that they took steps to oblige theirsácopesto pay.I, however, in my fourteen years’ experience, never came across such a case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated, and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention to the rule limiting each man’s bet on one fight to $50. From this we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay their taxes.

Slight Sketch of Organization.

He could suspend or remove any official, and in fact was almost despotic. On the other hand he had to remember two important limitations. Unless he supported the religious orders against all comers he would have the Procurators of these wealthy corporations, who reside in Madrid, denouncing him to the Ministry as an anti-clerical, and afreemason, and perhaps offering a heavy bribe for his removal. If he made an attempt to put down corruption and embezzlement in the Administration, his endeavours would be thwarted in every possible way by the officials, and a formidable campaign of calumny and detraction would be inaugurated against him. The appointment was for a term of three years at a salary of $40,000 per annum, and certain very liberal travelling allowances.Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the Governors-General was at Malacañan, on the River Pasig in the ward of San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and bayonets for use in case of an emergency.When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising his hat—and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron, was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour.His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance and authority.There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He was usually a Brigadier-General.In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station.The two principal departments of the administration were the Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration.The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts, according to the accompanying table and map.Distribution of Population.Provinces.Males.Females.Total.Abra21,63121,01642,647Albay127,413130,120257,533Antique60,19363,910124,103Balábac1,912271,939Bataán25,60324,39649,999Batangas137,143137,932275,075Benguet (district)8,20612,10420,310Bohol109,472117,074226,546Bontoc40,51541,91482,429Bulacán127,455124,694252,149Burías8444128Cagayán37,15735,54072,697Calamianes8,2278,81417,041Camarines Norte15,93114,73030,661Camarines Sur78,54577,852156,400Cápiz114,827128,417243,244Cavite66,52365,541132,064Cebú201,066202,230403,296Corregidor (island of)216203419Cottabato7884941,282Dávao9837121,695Ilocos Norte76,91379,802156,715Ilocos Sur97,916103,133201,049Ilo-Ilo203,879206,551410,430Infanta (district)4,9474,9479,894Isabela de Basilan454338792Isabela de Luzon20,25118,36538,616Islas Batanes4,0044,7418,745Isla de Negros106,85197,818204,669Laguna66,33266,172132,504Lepanto8,25516,21924,474Leyte113,275107,240220,515Manila137,280120,994258,274Masbate and Ticao8,8358,33617,171Mindoro29,22028,90858,128Misamis46,02042,35688,376Mórong21,50621,55643,062Nueva Ecija63,45660,315123,771Nueva Vizcaya8,4957,61216,107Pampanga114,425111,884226,309Pangasinán149,141144,150293,291Principe (district)2,0852,0734,158Puerto Princesa350228578Romblón14,52813,62628,154Samar92,33086,560178,890Surigao28,37127,87556,246Tarlac42,43240,32582,757Tayabas27,88625,78253,668Unión55,80257,568113,370Zambales49,61744,93494,551Zamboanga7,6836,46114,1442,794,8762,762,7435,557,619The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877.This is the latest I have been able to find.In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus.It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent, and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebú and Ilo-Ilo have half-a-million.Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the Audiencia or High Court at Manila.From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the fees andsqueezesof their law courts they usually managed to amass fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading.This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards.Each town has its municipality consisting of twelveprincipales, all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lieutenants, thealguaciles(constables), the judges of the fields, of cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo or town clerk, who attends to the routine business.For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against attack, there is a body of local police calledCuadrilleros. These are armed with bolos and lances inthe smaller and poorer towns, but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are more numerous, and carry Remington rifles.The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public Instruction, Model Farms, etc.The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty families, the individuals of which were spoken of as hissácopes. His eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax.The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens volens.No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it is not surprising that they took steps to oblige theirsácopesto pay.I, however, in my fourteen years’ experience, never came across such a case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated, and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention to the rule limiting each man’s bet on one fight to $50. From this we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay their taxes.

Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the Governors-General was at Malacañan, on the River Pasig in the ward of San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and bayonets for use in case of an emergency.

When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising his hat—and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron, was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour.

His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance and authority.

There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He was usually a Brigadier-General.

In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station.

The two principal departments of the administration were the Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration.

The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts, according to the accompanying table and map.

Distribution of Population.Provinces.Males.Females.Total.Abra21,63121,01642,647Albay127,413130,120257,533Antique60,19363,910124,103Balábac1,912271,939Bataán25,60324,39649,999Batangas137,143137,932275,075Benguet (district)8,20612,10420,310Bohol109,472117,074226,546Bontoc40,51541,91482,429Bulacán127,455124,694252,149Burías8444128Cagayán37,15735,54072,697Calamianes8,2278,81417,041Camarines Norte15,93114,73030,661Camarines Sur78,54577,852156,400Cápiz114,827128,417243,244Cavite66,52365,541132,064Cebú201,066202,230403,296Corregidor (island of)216203419Cottabato7884941,282Dávao9837121,695Ilocos Norte76,91379,802156,715Ilocos Sur97,916103,133201,049Ilo-Ilo203,879206,551410,430Infanta (district)4,9474,9479,894Isabela de Basilan454338792Isabela de Luzon20,25118,36538,616Islas Batanes4,0044,7418,745Isla de Negros106,85197,818204,669Laguna66,33266,172132,504Lepanto8,25516,21924,474Leyte113,275107,240220,515Manila137,280120,994258,274Masbate and Ticao8,8358,33617,171Mindoro29,22028,90858,128Misamis46,02042,35688,376Mórong21,50621,55643,062Nueva Ecija63,45660,315123,771Nueva Vizcaya8,4957,61216,107Pampanga114,425111,884226,309Pangasinán149,141144,150293,291Principe (district)2,0852,0734,158Puerto Princesa350228578Romblón14,52813,62628,154Samar92,33086,560178,890Surigao28,37127,87556,246Tarlac42,43240,32582,757Tayabas27,88625,78253,668Unión55,80257,568113,370Zambales49,61744,93494,551Zamboanga7,6836,46114,1442,794,8762,762,7435,557,619

The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877.

This is the latest I have been able to find.

In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus.

It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent, and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebú and Ilo-Ilo have half-a-million.

Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the Audiencia or High Court at Manila.

From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the fees andsqueezesof their law courts they usually managed to amass fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading.

This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards.

Each town has its municipality consisting of twelveprincipales, all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lieutenants, thealguaciles(constables), the judges of the fields, of cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo or town clerk, who attends to the routine business.

For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against attack, there is a body of local police calledCuadrilleros. These are armed with bolos and lances inthe smaller and poorer towns, but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are more numerous, and carry Remington rifles.

The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public Instruction, Model Farms, etc.

The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty families, the individuals of which were spoken of as hissácopes. His eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax.

The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens volens.

No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it is not surprising that they took steps to oblige theirsácopesto pay.

I, however, in my fourteen years’ experience, never came across such a case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated, and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention to the rule limiting each man’s bet on one fight to $50. From this we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay their taxes.

Collection of Taxes.Natives of the gorgeous East very commonly require a little persuasion to make them pay their taxes, and I have read of American millionaires who, in the absence of this system, could not be got to pay at all. Not many years ago, there was an enquiry as to certain practices resorted to by native tax-collectors in British India to induce the poor Indian to pay up; anybody who is curious to know the particulars can hunt them up in the Blue Books—they are unsuitable for publication.In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the “courbash”1was in use for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about that time (’Lord Cromer,’ by H. D. Traill): “The courbash used to be very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased.”But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters.It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth.

Collection of Taxes.

Natives of the gorgeous East very commonly require a little persuasion to make them pay their taxes, and I have read of American millionaires who, in the absence of this system, could not be got to pay at all. Not many years ago, there was an enquiry as to certain practices resorted to by native tax-collectors in British India to induce the poor Indian to pay up; anybody who is curious to know the particulars can hunt them up in the Blue Books—they are unsuitable for publication.In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the “courbash”1was in use for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about that time (’Lord Cromer,’ by H. D. Traill): “The courbash used to be very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased.”But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters.It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth.

In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the “courbash”1was in use for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about that time (’Lord Cromer,’ by H. D. Traill): “The courbash used to be very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased.”

But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters.

It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth.

Its Good Points.The Government and the laws partook of a patriarchal character, and notwithstanding certain exactions, the Spanish officials and the natives got on very well together. The Alcaldes remained for many years in one province, and knew all the principal people intimately. I doubt if there was any colony in the world where as much intercourse took place between the governors and the natives, certainly not in any British colony, nor in British India, where the gulf ever widens. In this case, governors and governed professed the same religion, and no caste distinctionsprevailed to raise a barrier between them. They could worship together, they could eat together, and marriages between Spaniards and the daughters of the native landowners were not unfrequent. These must be considered good points, and although the general corruption and ineptitude of the administration was undeniable, yet, bad as it was, it must be admitted that it was immeasurably superior to any government that any Malay community had ever established.

Its Good Points.

The Government and the laws partook of a patriarchal character, and notwithstanding certain exactions, the Spanish officials and the natives got on very well together. The Alcaldes remained for many years in one province, and knew all the principal people intimately. I doubt if there was any colony in the world where as much intercourse took place between the governors and the natives, certainly not in any British colony, nor in British India, where the gulf ever widens. In this case, governors and governed professed the same religion, and no caste distinctionsprevailed to raise a barrier between them. They could worship together, they could eat together, and marriages between Spaniards and the daughters of the native landowners were not unfrequent. These must be considered good points, and although the general corruption and ineptitude of the administration was undeniable, yet, bad as it was, it must be admitted that it was immeasurably superior to any government that any Malay community had ever established.

1A whip made from hippopotamus hide.

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