Part III.

Part III.Mindanao, Including Basilan.Chapter XXXV.Brief Geographical Description.Configuration—Mountains—Rivers—Lakes—Division into districts—Administration—Productions—Basilan.Mindanao is of a very irregular shape, which it is not easy to describe. It has some resemblance to a winged skate, with a long tail, one of theRaiidæ, which is common in Manila Bay. The head of the skate is turned to the east; the peninsula of Surigao forms the northern wing, and Punta Panguian the tip of the southern wing, out of which, however, a great piece has been bitten, corresponding to the Gulf of Davao. The body is represented by the main part of the island, and the tail commences at the isthmus of Tucúran and stretches westward for a degree of longitude. This straight part is the old kingdom of Sibuguey. On the north of it, however, a huge excrescence appears; this is the peninsula of Dapitan, and on the south, opposite to it, there is a similar projection, which is cut in two by the Gulf of Dumanquilas.Mt. Silingan represents the spike or hook usually found on the tails of these fish, and from here the tail bends southward and westward through an arc of 60°. This part represents the peninsula of Zamboanga, and the town of that name is situated at the tip of the tail. A continuous chain of mountains down the centre of the tail represents the vertebræ.Beginning on the east, we find a long stretch of coast from Surigao to Cape San Agustin with only one or twoanchorages for small vessels. The rest of the coast is exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean, and from November to April is quite open to the N.E. monsoon. It is also subject to tidal waves or rollers just as are the coasts of Peru and Chili. A destructiveboreenters the river mouths and inlets, and heavy seas get up off all the headlands. In the channels between Surigao and the islands off the northern coasts, rapid currents are formed and overfalls render navigation dangerous for country vessels. In fact, during the strength of the N.E. monsoon the east coast, from Placer to the Bay of Mayo, is hemmed in with surf, and without a single port. Behind point Taucanan, however, is found Port Balete and Port Pujada. This latter is the best port in the island, being well sheltered from the N. and N.E. The country about it is well watered, and produces timber trees of great size and fine quality. The waters contain plenty of fish, and turtle, also some mother-of-pearl shells. The forests give the best kinds ofalmáciga, and wax.The hill-men are partly independent but pacific, and the Visaya population is considerable in the district of Mati.In general, the east coast is rocky, and very foul in many places. The land is fertile and well-wooded. Gold is found in the Cordillera, and on its eastern slopes all the way from Surigao to Punta Tagobong. One of the northern towns is called Placer on this account. The inaccessibility of the east coast during the strength of the N.E. monsoon has retarded the civilisation of Surigao which was settled in the early years of the conquest. The Caraga-Visaya, who inhabit a considerable district on this coast, are old Christians and have always been ready to fight for their faith.Practically parallel to this coast is a chain of mountains which begins at Surigao and extends down to Punta San Agustin with hardly a break. I shall call this the eastern Cordillera. In this chain, near the northern end, lies Lake Mainit (Hot Lake), having steep sides with twenty fathoms close to the edge, and two hundred fathoms in the middle. This cavity has, no doubt, been formed by volcanic action, like the lake of Taal. On the slopes of the mountains around it are many thermal springs which run into the lake, and in rainy weather the summits are always shrouded in vapour by the evaporation of the rain.The lake is subject to tremendous floods. Dr. Montano, who visited it in December, 1880, speaks of a rise of twelve fathoms. He also says that a ground-swell gets up in this sheltered lake; this must be from some modified volcanic action still going on. As usual in Philippine crater-lakes, this is a great breeding-place for alligators.The Eastern Cordillera being so near the coast, there are of course no navigable rivers running into the Pacific, but the streams become impassable torrents during the heavy rains which begin in June, and prevent communication by land for many days or even weeks at a stretch.Approximately parallel to the Eastern Cordillera, and at about fifty geographical miles distance, there stands another range which I shall call the Central Cordillera. A line drawn from Punta Diuata to the middle of the Gulf of Sarangani, nearly due north and south, intersects Mt. Sinalagao, Mt. Panamoyan, the active volcano, Mt. Apo and Mt. Matutuan, which appear to be the loftiest peaks of the range.From Mt. Panamoyan in about 7° 50′ N. Lat. a spur strikes eastwards at right angles to the range, reaching half-way across the valley. This spur then turns to the south parallel to the range for some twenty miles, and from the middle of the east and west part, another spur turns south for about 20 miles, thus forming a letterEwith the points looking south.In the wide valley between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, and taking the drainage of the whole watershed is the River Agusan. Rising about the 7th parallel on the slopes of Mt. Tagoppo, this river runs a very sinuous course in a general northerly direction, but inclining slightly to the west, receiving innumerable tributaries on either side. At about 8° 15′ N. Lat. the Agusan expands or overflows, forming a series of shallow lakes, choked up with driftwood and vegetation, and varying in extent with the rainfall.Continually gathering volume, it runs into the Bay of Butuan about 9° N. Lat.At Moncayo, in 7° 45′ N. Lat., the Agusan is one hundred yards wide, and is navigable for canoes even much higher up.The spur previously spoken of as striking east and south from Mt. Panamoyan, forms two small watersheds. The western one gives rise to the River Libaganon, and the eastern to the River Salug. Both these rivers run in asoutherly direction, and unite to form the River Tagum, which runs for a short distance S.E. and falls into the head of the Gulf of Davao.A little way south of Mt. Panamoyan some mountain streams dash down the sides of the Cordillera and running through a gap unite to form the River Davao which flows in a south-easterly direction till it reaches the plain, when it changes its course and runs east into the Gulf of Davao. From Point Sipaca, in 9° N. Lat., a range of mountains stretches in a southerly direction for about sixty miles.Amongstthese are Mt. Sipaca, Mt. Saorag, and Mt. Quimanquil. With the Central Cordillera this range forms a watershed, and the torrents on the steep sides of Sinalagao and Quimanquil dash down and take a southerly direction to form the headwaters of the River Pulangui and ultimately become the Rio Grande. In 7° 50′ N. Lat. two important affluents join, the River Sauaga and the River Malupati, a few miles lower the Calibatojan and the Kaya-Kaya bring their tribute, and the united flood with rapid current casts itself headlong into the deep Cañon of Locosocan and runs in this for over four miles to Salagalpon, where another cataract occurs. The river continues for miles a rushing torrent amongst huge boulders, at the bottom of this cleft, so narrow in places, where the rocks jut out and nearly meet overhead, that it seems like a tunnel. In 7° 46′ N. Lat. there is a small volcano close to the left bank which, whenever it rains, becomes active and gives off stifling fumes of sulphur. At Mantanil, in 7° 40′ N., the river can be navigated on bamboo rafts, handled by skilled Manobo pilots, but not without much risk; for some distance down there are twobuchis, or sinks, where the water runs down into subterraneous passages through the river-bed, forming dangerous whirlpools. There are also several rapids which require great dexterity to pass safely. The banks are still high; but, on approaching the confluence of the Kulaman river, on the left bank, the gorge is much lower, and on arriving at Ilang the country opens out.South of the confluence of the River Molita, vintas can navigate the river, and a little lower down, at the confluence of the River Simuni, is the place reached by the gunboatTaalin 1863 on a 6-foot draught. The river now runs in a southerly and westerly direction, with dozens of bends till about 6° 45′ N. Lat., when, on reaching Lake Liguasan (really a Pinag) a shallow and weedy expanse of water, itturns to the west, and then north-west. At Tumbao it bifurcates, and enters the Bay of Illana by two mouths forming a long narrow delta of deep and rich alluvial soil.From Tumbao to Tamontaca is the most beautiful and fertile part of this river. On both banks grow cocoa-palms, areca-palms, banana and cacao-trees, coffee-bushes, and hemp plants in abundance, and amongst them are groups of native houses forming a continuous village, of which the placid river, here fifty yards wide, forms the main street. These houses are mostly occupied by friendly Moros.Nearly parallel to the Sipaca-Soarag-Quimanquil range a second range stretches irregularly in a north and south line, ending at the coast near Cagayan. Amongst these mountains is Mt Quitanglag. From Pt. Sulanan the western extremity of the Bay of Macajalar, a third range stretches south, then south-east, then south again for some thirty miles. Between this range and the Bay of Iligan there is a fourth range of hills. These four ranges form three valleys or watersheds, each of which has its river, with a general course from south to north, all three running into the Bay of Macajalar.The most easterly is the River of Tagoloan which has fourteen tributaries, the next is the River Cagayan with only three, then the River Capay with seven tributaries, all on the left bank.Proceeding westward we come to the great and deep Lake of Lanao, described under the heading Moros, but which has never been surveyed, and then to the Gulf of Panguil, which, on the map, looks like a forearm and clenched fist, which nearly cuts Mindanao in two. The isthmus is only fourteen miles across in a straight line.This was formerly a regular pirates’ track, over which they hauled their vessels, but it was till lately guarded by a chain of forts connected by a military road called the Trocha of Tucuran.Two rivers running in a general direction from west to east and having between them a dozen tributaries, run into the Gulf of Panguil. The most northerly of the two is the Mipangi and the other is the Lintogo.We now arrive at the peninsula of Sibuguey which I have likened to the tail of the skate. Around Lake Lanao there is an irregular loop of hills, and from the western end of this starts a cordillera which stretches right down the centre of the peninsula of Sibuguey and Zamboanga. Aline drawn from Punta Sicayati (in the Dapitan excrescence) to the eastern shore of the Gulf of Dumanquilas will intersect a range of mountains which cross the Cordillera of Sibuguey nearly at right angles and with equal arms north and south. But the end of the northern arm bifurcates and throws out two ranges N.E. and N.W.In the watershed thus formed three rivers take their rise, and have a general course from south to north but bearing a little to the westward. The easternmost of these is called the Dapitan, and runs into the bay of the same name. The next is the Dipolog, which runs into the sea west of Punta Sicayab; and the last is the Lubungan, running in about two leagues more to the west.The other rivers in the peninsula are so unimportant that I do not enumerate them. Like those on the east coast they become raging torrents in the rainy season.On the northern and southern coasts, which are more protected than the eastern, sheltered anchorages are to be found here and there, but no such fine natural harbours exist as abound in Southern Luzon. There is, however, less need for them, as it is very rare that the typhoons, which are so destructive in Luzon and the Visayas, cause damage in Mindanao, except at its northern and eastern corner. But for service on these coasts, vessels of a light draught of water are the most useful, as they can more easily find sheltered anchorage.Mindanao is not nearly so unhealthy as is commonly supposed. Zamboanga and neighbourhood, Davao, Surigao, Talisay, and several other places, are really quite healthy for Europeans, if they take care of themselves.Earthquakes are frequent. They would sometimes be destructive, but there is so little in the way of buildings to destroy.Divisions for Administrative Purposes.Zamboanga is the chief military station and the residence of the commandant-general of the island.Mindanao is divided into five districts:—1st. District chief town Zamboanga (capital of the island).2nd. District chief town Misamis (includes Lake Lanao).3rd. District chief town Surigao (includes the whole kingdom of Caraga, also the valley of the Agusan).4th. District chief town Davao (shores of the bay and peninsula of San Agustin).5th. District chief town Cotta-bato (valley of the Rio Grande and ancient Sultanate of Buhayen).The island of Basilan forms a sixth district under the commandant-general of Mindanao.Each of these districts was under a politico-military governor and other officials, as follows:—1st District, Major, Naval Lieutenant, Captain of Port.2nd District, Lieut.-Colonel.3rd District, Lieut.-Colonel.4th District, Major.5th District, Lieut.-Colonel.6th District, Naval Lieutenant, Naval Station.Besides these politico-military governors there were the following officers in charge of military districts:—Mumungan in 2nd district (Fort Weyler and vicinity to look after the Moros of Lake Lanao) Major.Dapitan in 2nd district (To look after the Moros of Sindangan Bay) Major.Bislig in 3rd district (To look after the Mandayas and Manobos) Captain.To attend to the administration of justice there was a third-class judge in each district. From their decisions there was an appeal to the Audiencia at Cebú, and from there to the Supreme Court, Madrid.In Zamboanga where there is (or was) a custom-house, there resided a Treasury delegate of the second class. In each of the other districts there is one of the fourth class.The southern naval division has its headquarters at Isabela de Basilan.Productions of Mindanao.The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently that the savage races have been settled in thereducciones. The population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply themselves to agriculture.The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been reported in Mindoro and Cebú.The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.Basilan.The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of 170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island, which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle’s head and the former a turtle’s tail, so that the shape of the island on the map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length from the point of the beak to the tip of thetail is about thirty-two geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui, on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan (now called Isabela) River.To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.There is a church, and missionaries’ residence. The island is hilly but fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no manufactures worth mentioning.The Christian population is as follows:—Inhabitants.Town of Isabela921Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan130Hamlet of Santa Barbara50Reduccion of Panigayan25Reduccion of Tabuc12Scattered Christians12Members of the Naval Station86variable.Garrison of the Fort401276The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered valiant and hardy.The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them and corrupt them.Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, butescaped, and, by force of character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the missionaries.The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went by sea right round it in 1893.

Chapter XXXV.Brief Geographical Description.Configuration—Mountains—Rivers—Lakes—Division into districts—Administration—Productions—Basilan.Mindanao is of a very irregular shape, which it is not easy to describe. It has some resemblance to a winged skate, with a long tail, one of theRaiidæ, which is common in Manila Bay. The head of the skate is turned to the east; the peninsula of Surigao forms the northern wing, and Punta Panguian the tip of the southern wing, out of which, however, a great piece has been bitten, corresponding to the Gulf of Davao. The body is represented by the main part of the island, and the tail commences at the isthmus of Tucúran and stretches westward for a degree of longitude. This straight part is the old kingdom of Sibuguey. On the north of it, however, a huge excrescence appears; this is the peninsula of Dapitan, and on the south, opposite to it, there is a similar projection, which is cut in two by the Gulf of Dumanquilas.Mt. Silingan represents the spike or hook usually found on the tails of these fish, and from here the tail bends southward and westward through an arc of 60°. This part represents the peninsula of Zamboanga, and the town of that name is situated at the tip of the tail. A continuous chain of mountains down the centre of the tail represents the vertebræ.Beginning on the east, we find a long stretch of coast from Surigao to Cape San Agustin with only one or twoanchorages for small vessels. The rest of the coast is exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean, and from November to April is quite open to the N.E. monsoon. It is also subject to tidal waves or rollers just as are the coasts of Peru and Chili. A destructiveboreenters the river mouths and inlets, and heavy seas get up off all the headlands. In the channels between Surigao and the islands off the northern coasts, rapid currents are formed and overfalls render navigation dangerous for country vessels. In fact, during the strength of the N.E. monsoon the east coast, from Placer to the Bay of Mayo, is hemmed in with surf, and without a single port. Behind point Taucanan, however, is found Port Balete and Port Pujada. This latter is the best port in the island, being well sheltered from the N. and N.E. The country about it is well watered, and produces timber trees of great size and fine quality. The waters contain plenty of fish, and turtle, also some mother-of-pearl shells. The forests give the best kinds ofalmáciga, and wax.The hill-men are partly independent but pacific, and the Visaya population is considerable in the district of Mati.In general, the east coast is rocky, and very foul in many places. The land is fertile and well-wooded. Gold is found in the Cordillera, and on its eastern slopes all the way from Surigao to Punta Tagobong. One of the northern towns is called Placer on this account. The inaccessibility of the east coast during the strength of the N.E. monsoon has retarded the civilisation of Surigao which was settled in the early years of the conquest. The Caraga-Visaya, who inhabit a considerable district on this coast, are old Christians and have always been ready to fight for their faith.Practically parallel to this coast is a chain of mountains which begins at Surigao and extends down to Punta San Agustin with hardly a break. I shall call this the eastern Cordillera. In this chain, near the northern end, lies Lake Mainit (Hot Lake), having steep sides with twenty fathoms close to the edge, and two hundred fathoms in the middle. This cavity has, no doubt, been formed by volcanic action, like the lake of Taal. On the slopes of the mountains around it are many thermal springs which run into the lake, and in rainy weather the summits are always shrouded in vapour by the evaporation of the rain.The lake is subject to tremendous floods. Dr. Montano, who visited it in December, 1880, speaks of a rise of twelve fathoms. He also says that a ground-swell gets up in this sheltered lake; this must be from some modified volcanic action still going on. As usual in Philippine crater-lakes, this is a great breeding-place for alligators.The Eastern Cordillera being so near the coast, there are of course no navigable rivers running into the Pacific, but the streams become impassable torrents during the heavy rains which begin in June, and prevent communication by land for many days or even weeks at a stretch.Approximately parallel to the Eastern Cordillera, and at about fifty geographical miles distance, there stands another range which I shall call the Central Cordillera. A line drawn from Punta Diuata to the middle of the Gulf of Sarangani, nearly due north and south, intersects Mt. Sinalagao, Mt. Panamoyan, the active volcano, Mt. Apo and Mt. Matutuan, which appear to be the loftiest peaks of the range.From Mt. Panamoyan in about 7° 50′ N. Lat. a spur strikes eastwards at right angles to the range, reaching half-way across the valley. This spur then turns to the south parallel to the range for some twenty miles, and from the middle of the east and west part, another spur turns south for about 20 miles, thus forming a letterEwith the points looking south.In the wide valley between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, and taking the drainage of the whole watershed is the River Agusan. Rising about the 7th parallel on the slopes of Mt. Tagoppo, this river runs a very sinuous course in a general northerly direction, but inclining slightly to the west, receiving innumerable tributaries on either side. At about 8° 15′ N. Lat. the Agusan expands or overflows, forming a series of shallow lakes, choked up with driftwood and vegetation, and varying in extent with the rainfall.Continually gathering volume, it runs into the Bay of Butuan about 9° N. Lat.At Moncayo, in 7° 45′ N. Lat., the Agusan is one hundred yards wide, and is navigable for canoes even much higher up.The spur previously spoken of as striking east and south from Mt. Panamoyan, forms two small watersheds. The western one gives rise to the River Libaganon, and the eastern to the River Salug. Both these rivers run in asoutherly direction, and unite to form the River Tagum, which runs for a short distance S.E. and falls into the head of the Gulf of Davao.A little way south of Mt. Panamoyan some mountain streams dash down the sides of the Cordillera and running through a gap unite to form the River Davao which flows in a south-easterly direction till it reaches the plain, when it changes its course and runs east into the Gulf of Davao. From Point Sipaca, in 9° N. Lat., a range of mountains stretches in a southerly direction for about sixty miles.Amongstthese are Mt. Sipaca, Mt. Saorag, and Mt. Quimanquil. With the Central Cordillera this range forms a watershed, and the torrents on the steep sides of Sinalagao and Quimanquil dash down and take a southerly direction to form the headwaters of the River Pulangui and ultimately become the Rio Grande. In 7° 50′ N. Lat. two important affluents join, the River Sauaga and the River Malupati, a few miles lower the Calibatojan and the Kaya-Kaya bring their tribute, and the united flood with rapid current casts itself headlong into the deep Cañon of Locosocan and runs in this for over four miles to Salagalpon, where another cataract occurs. The river continues for miles a rushing torrent amongst huge boulders, at the bottom of this cleft, so narrow in places, where the rocks jut out and nearly meet overhead, that it seems like a tunnel. In 7° 46′ N. Lat. there is a small volcano close to the left bank which, whenever it rains, becomes active and gives off stifling fumes of sulphur. At Mantanil, in 7° 40′ N., the river can be navigated on bamboo rafts, handled by skilled Manobo pilots, but not without much risk; for some distance down there are twobuchis, or sinks, where the water runs down into subterraneous passages through the river-bed, forming dangerous whirlpools. There are also several rapids which require great dexterity to pass safely. The banks are still high; but, on approaching the confluence of the Kulaman river, on the left bank, the gorge is much lower, and on arriving at Ilang the country opens out.South of the confluence of the River Molita, vintas can navigate the river, and a little lower down, at the confluence of the River Simuni, is the place reached by the gunboatTaalin 1863 on a 6-foot draught. The river now runs in a southerly and westerly direction, with dozens of bends till about 6° 45′ N. Lat., when, on reaching Lake Liguasan (really a Pinag) a shallow and weedy expanse of water, itturns to the west, and then north-west. At Tumbao it bifurcates, and enters the Bay of Illana by two mouths forming a long narrow delta of deep and rich alluvial soil.From Tumbao to Tamontaca is the most beautiful and fertile part of this river. On both banks grow cocoa-palms, areca-palms, banana and cacao-trees, coffee-bushes, and hemp plants in abundance, and amongst them are groups of native houses forming a continuous village, of which the placid river, here fifty yards wide, forms the main street. These houses are mostly occupied by friendly Moros.Nearly parallel to the Sipaca-Soarag-Quimanquil range a second range stretches irregularly in a north and south line, ending at the coast near Cagayan. Amongst these mountains is Mt Quitanglag. From Pt. Sulanan the western extremity of the Bay of Macajalar, a third range stretches south, then south-east, then south again for some thirty miles. Between this range and the Bay of Iligan there is a fourth range of hills. These four ranges form three valleys or watersheds, each of which has its river, with a general course from south to north, all three running into the Bay of Macajalar.The most easterly is the River of Tagoloan which has fourteen tributaries, the next is the River Cagayan with only three, then the River Capay with seven tributaries, all on the left bank.Proceeding westward we come to the great and deep Lake of Lanao, described under the heading Moros, but which has never been surveyed, and then to the Gulf of Panguil, which, on the map, looks like a forearm and clenched fist, which nearly cuts Mindanao in two. The isthmus is only fourteen miles across in a straight line.This was formerly a regular pirates’ track, over which they hauled their vessels, but it was till lately guarded by a chain of forts connected by a military road called the Trocha of Tucuran.Two rivers running in a general direction from west to east and having between them a dozen tributaries, run into the Gulf of Panguil. The most northerly of the two is the Mipangi and the other is the Lintogo.We now arrive at the peninsula of Sibuguey which I have likened to the tail of the skate. Around Lake Lanao there is an irregular loop of hills, and from the western end of this starts a cordillera which stretches right down the centre of the peninsula of Sibuguey and Zamboanga. Aline drawn from Punta Sicayati (in the Dapitan excrescence) to the eastern shore of the Gulf of Dumanquilas will intersect a range of mountains which cross the Cordillera of Sibuguey nearly at right angles and with equal arms north and south. But the end of the northern arm bifurcates and throws out two ranges N.E. and N.W.In the watershed thus formed three rivers take their rise, and have a general course from south to north but bearing a little to the westward. The easternmost of these is called the Dapitan, and runs into the bay of the same name. The next is the Dipolog, which runs into the sea west of Punta Sicayab; and the last is the Lubungan, running in about two leagues more to the west.The other rivers in the peninsula are so unimportant that I do not enumerate them. Like those on the east coast they become raging torrents in the rainy season.On the northern and southern coasts, which are more protected than the eastern, sheltered anchorages are to be found here and there, but no such fine natural harbours exist as abound in Southern Luzon. There is, however, less need for them, as it is very rare that the typhoons, which are so destructive in Luzon and the Visayas, cause damage in Mindanao, except at its northern and eastern corner. But for service on these coasts, vessels of a light draught of water are the most useful, as they can more easily find sheltered anchorage.Mindanao is not nearly so unhealthy as is commonly supposed. Zamboanga and neighbourhood, Davao, Surigao, Talisay, and several other places, are really quite healthy for Europeans, if they take care of themselves.Earthquakes are frequent. They would sometimes be destructive, but there is so little in the way of buildings to destroy.Divisions for Administrative Purposes.Zamboanga is the chief military station and the residence of the commandant-general of the island.Mindanao is divided into five districts:—1st. District chief town Zamboanga (capital of the island).2nd. District chief town Misamis (includes Lake Lanao).3rd. District chief town Surigao (includes the whole kingdom of Caraga, also the valley of the Agusan).4th. District chief town Davao (shores of the bay and peninsula of San Agustin).5th. District chief town Cotta-bato (valley of the Rio Grande and ancient Sultanate of Buhayen).The island of Basilan forms a sixth district under the commandant-general of Mindanao.Each of these districts was under a politico-military governor and other officials, as follows:—1st District, Major, Naval Lieutenant, Captain of Port.2nd District, Lieut.-Colonel.3rd District, Lieut.-Colonel.4th District, Major.5th District, Lieut.-Colonel.6th District, Naval Lieutenant, Naval Station.Besides these politico-military governors there were the following officers in charge of military districts:—Mumungan in 2nd district (Fort Weyler and vicinity to look after the Moros of Lake Lanao) Major.Dapitan in 2nd district (To look after the Moros of Sindangan Bay) Major.Bislig in 3rd district (To look after the Mandayas and Manobos) Captain.To attend to the administration of justice there was a third-class judge in each district. From their decisions there was an appeal to the Audiencia at Cebú, and from there to the Supreme Court, Madrid.In Zamboanga where there is (or was) a custom-house, there resided a Treasury delegate of the second class. In each of the other districts there is one of the fourth class.The southern naval division has its headquarters at Isabela de Basilan.Productions of Mindanao.The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently that the savage races have been settled in thereducciones. The population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply themselves to agriculture.The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been reported in Mindoro and Cebú.The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.Basilan.The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of 170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island, which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle’s head and the former a turtle’s tail, so that the shape of the island on the map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length from the point of the beak to the tip of thetail is about thirty-two geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui, on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan (now called Isabela) River.To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.There is a church, and missionaries’ residence. The island is hilly but fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no manufactures worth mentioning.The Christian population is as follows:—Inhabitants.Town of Isabela921Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan130Hamlet of Santa Barbara50Reduccion of Panigayan25Reduccion of Tabuc12Scattered Christians12Members of the Naval Station86variable.Garrison of the Fort401276The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered valiant and hardy.The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them and corrupt them.Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, butescaped, and, by force of character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the missionaries.The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went by sea right round it in 1893.

Chapter XXXV.Brief Geographical Description.Configuration—Mountains—Rivers—Lakes—Division into districts—Administration—Productions—Basilan.

Configuration—Mountains—Rivers—Lakes—Division into districts—Administration—Productions—Basilan.

Mindanao is of a very irregular shape, which it is not easy to describe. It has some resemblance to a winged skate, with a long tail, one of theRaiidæ, which is common in Manila Bay. The head of the skate is turned to the east; the peninsula of Surigao forms the northern wing, and Punta Panguian the tip of the southern wing, out of which, however, a great piece has been bitten, corresponding to the Gulf of Davao. The body is represented by the main part of the island, and the tail commences at the isthmus of Tucúran and stretches westward for a degree of longitude. This straight part is the old kingdom of Sibuguey. On the north of it, however, a huge excrescence appears; this is the peninsula of Dapitan, and on the south, opposite to it, there is a similar projection, which is cut in two by the Gulf of Dumanquilas.Mt. Silingan represents the spike or hook usually found on the tails of these fish, and from here the tail bends southward and westward through an arc of 60°. This part represents the peninsula of Zamboanga, and the town of that name is situated at the tip of the tail. A continuous chain of mountains down the centre of the tail represents the vertebræ.Beginning on the east, we find a long stretch of coast from Surigao to Cape San Agustin with only one or twoanchorages for small vessels. The rest of the coast is exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean, and from November to April is quite open to the N.E. monsoon. It is also subject to tidal waves or rollers just as are the coasts of Peru and Chili. A destructiveboreenters the river mouths and inlets, and heavy seas get up off all the headlands. In the channels between Surigao and the islands off the northern coasts, rapid currents are formed and overfalls render navigation dangerous for country vessels. In fact, during the strength of the N.E. monsoon the east coast, from Placer to the Bay of Mayo, is hemmed in with surf, and without a single port. Behind point Taucanan, however, is found Port Balete and Port Pujada. This latter is the best port in the island, being well sheltered from the N. and N.E. The country about it is well watered, and produces timber trees of great size and fine quality. The waters contain plenty of fish, and turtle, also some mother-of-pearl shells. The forests give the best kinds ofalmáciga, and wax.The hill-men are partly independent but pacific, and the Visaya population is considerable in the district of Mati.In general, the east coast is rocky, and very foul in many places. The land is fertile and well-wooded. Gold is found in the Cordillera, and on its eastern slopes all the way from Surigao to Punta Tagobong. One of the northern towns is called Placer on this account. The inaccessibility of the east coast during the strength of the N.E. monsoon has retarded the civilisation of Surigao which was settled in the early years of the conquest. The Caraga-Visaya, who inhabit a considerable district on this coast, are old Christians and have always been ready to fight for their faith.Practically parallel to this coast is a chain of mountains which begins at Surigao and extends down to Punta San Agustin with hardly a break. I shall call this the eastern Cordillera. In this chain, near the northern end, lies Lake Mainit (Hot Lake), having steep sides with twenty fathoms close to the edge, and two hundred fathoms in the middle. This cavity has, no doubt, been formed by volcanic action, like the lake of Taal. On the slopes of the mountains around it are many thermal springs which run into the lake, and in rainy weather the summits are always shrouded in vapour by the evaporation of the rain.The lake is subject to tremendous floods. Dr. Montano, who visited it in December, 1880, speaks of a rise of twelve fathoms. He also says that a ground-swell gets up in this sheltered lake; this must be from some modified volcanic action still going on. As usual in Philippine crater-lakes, this is a great breeding-place for alligators.The Eastern Cordillera being so near the coast, there are of course no navigable rivers running into the Pacific, but the streams become impassable torrents during the heavy rains which begin in June, and prevent communication by land for many days or even weeks at a stretch.Approximately parallel to the Eastern Cordillera, and at about fifty geographical miles distance, there stands another range which I shall call the Central Cordillera. A line drawn from Punta Diuata to the middle of the Gulf of Sarangani, nearly due north and south, intersects Mt. Sinalagao, Mt. Panamoyan, the active volcano, Mt. Apo and Mt. Matutuan, which appear to be the loftiest peaks of the range.From Mt. Panamoyan in about 7° 50′ N. Lat. a spur strikes eastwards at right angles to the range, reaching half-way across the valley. This spur then turns to the south parallel to the range for some twenty miles, and from the middle of the east and west part, another spur turns south for about 20 miles, thus forming a letterEwith the points looking south.In the wide valley between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, and taking the drainage of the whole watershed is the River Agusan. Rising about the 7th parallel on the slopes of Mt. Tagoppo, this river runs a very sinuous course in a general northerly direction, but inclining slightly to the west, receiving innumerable tributaries on either side. At about 8° 15′ N. Lat. the Agusan expands or overflows, forming a series of shallow lakes, choked up with driftwood and vegetation, and varying in extent with the rainfall.Continually gathering volume, it runs into the Bay of Butuan about 9° N. Lat.At Moncayo, in 7° 45′ N. Lat., the Agusan is one hundred yards wide, and is navigable for canoes even much higher up.The spur previously spoken of as striking east and south from Mt. Panamoyan, forms two small watersheds. The western one gives rise to the River Libaganon, and the eastern to the River Salug. Both these rivers run in asoutherly direction, and unite to form the River Tagum, which runs for a short distance S.E. and falls into the head of the Gulf of Davao.A little way south of Mt. Panamoyan some mountain streams dash down the sides of the Cordillera and running through a gap unite to form the River Davao which flows in a south-easterly direction till it reaches the plain, when it changes its course and runs east into the Gulf of Davao. From Point Sipaca, in 9° N. Lat., a range of mountains stretches in a southerly direction for about sixty miles.Amongstthese are Mt. Sipaca, Mt. Saorag, and Mt. Quimanquil. With the Central Cordillera this range forms a watershed, and the torrents on the steep sides of Sinalagao and Quimanquil dash down and take a southerly direction to form the headwaters of the River Pulangui and ultimately become the Rio Grande. In 7° 50′ N. Lat. two important affluents join, the River Sauaga and the River Malupati, a few miles lower the Calibatojan and the Kaya-Kaya bring their tribute, and the united flood with rapid current casts itself headlong into the deep Cañon of Locosocan and runs in this for over four miles to Salagalpon, where another cataract occurs. The river continues for miles a rushing torrent amongst huge boulders, at the bottom of this cleft, so narrow in places, where the rocks jut out and nearly meet overhead, that it seems like a tunnel. In 7° 46′ N. Lat. there is a small volcano close to the left bank which, whenever it rains, becomes active and gives off stifling fumes of sulphur. At Mantanil, in 7° 40′ N., the river can be navigated on bamboo rafts, handled by skilled Manobo pilots, but not without much risk; for some distance down there are twobuchis, or sinks, where the water runs down into subterraneous passages through the river-bed, forming dangerous whirlpools. There are also several rapids which require great dexterity to pass safely. The banks are still high; but, on approaching the confluence of the Kulaman river, on the left bank, the gorge is much lower, and on arriving at Ilang the country opens out.South of the confluence of the River Molita, vintas can navigate the river, and a little lower down, at the confluence of the River Simuni, is the place reached by the gunboatTaalin 1863 on a 6-foot draught. The river now runs in a southerly and westerly direction, with dozens of bends till about 6° 45′ N. Lat., when, on reaching Lake Liguasan (really a Pinag) a shallow and weedy expanse of water, itturns to the west, and then north-west. At Tumbao it bifurcates, and enters the Bay of Illana by two mouths forming a long narrow delta of deep and rich alluvial soil.From Tumbao to Tamontaca is the most beautiful and fertile part of this river. On both banks grow cocoa-palms, areca-palms, banana and cacao-trees, coffee-bushes, and hemp plants in abundance, and amongst them are groups of native houses forming a continuous village, of which the placid river, here fifty yards wide, forms the main street. These houses are mostly occupied by friendly Moros.Nearly parallel to the Sipaca-Soarag-Quimanquil range a second range stretches irregularly in a north and south line, ending at the coast near Cagayan. Amongst these mountains is Mt Quitanglag. From Pt. Sulanan the western extremity of the Bay of Macajalar, a third range stretches south, then south-east, then south again for some thirty miles. Between this range and the Bay of Iligan there is a fourth range of hills. These four ranges form three valleys or watersheds, each of which has its river, with a general course from south to north, all three running into the Bay of Macajalar.The most easterly is the River of Tagoloan which has fourteen tributaries, the next is the River Cagayan with only three, then the River Capay with seven tributaries, all on the left bank.Proceeding westward we come to the great and deep Lake of Lanao, described under the heading Moros, but which has never been surveyed, and then to the Gulf of Panguil, which, on the map, looks like a forearm and clenched fist, which nearly cuts Mindanao in two. The isthmus is only fourteen miles across in a straight line.This was formerly a regular pirates’ track, over which they hauled their vessels, but it was till lately guarded by a chain of forts connected by a military road called the Trocha of Tucuran.Two rivers running in a general direction from west to east and having between them a dozen tributaries, run into the Gulf of Panguil. The most northerly of the two is the Mipangi and the other is the Lintogo.We now arrive at the peninsula of Sibuguey which I have likened to the tail of the skate. Around Lake Lanao there is an irregular loop of hills, and from the western end of this starts a cordillera which stretches right down the centre of the peninsula of Sibuguey and Zamboanga. Aline drawn from Punta Sicayati (in the Dapitan excrescence) to the eastern shore of the Gulf of Dumanquilas will intersect a range of mountains which cross the Cordillera of Sibuguey nearly at right angles and with equal arms north and south. But the end of the northern arm bifurcates and throws out two ranges N.E. and N.W.In the watershed thus formed three rivers take their rise, and have a general course from south to north but bearing a little to the westward. The easternmost of these is called the Dapitan, and runs into the bay of the same name. The next is the Dipolog, which runs into the sea west of Punta Sicayab; and the last is the Lubungan, running in about two leagues more to the west.The other rivers in the peninsula are so unimportant that I do not enumerate them. Like those on the east coast they become raging torrents in the rainy season.On the northern and southern coasts, which are more protected than the eastern, sheltered anchorages are to be found here and there, but no such fine natural harbours exist as abound in Southern Luzon. There is, however, less need for them, as it is very rare that the typhoons, which are so destructive in Luzon and the Visayas, cause damage in Mindanao, except at its northern and eastern corner. But for service on these coasts, vessels of a light draught of water are the most useful, as they can more easily find sheltered anchorage.Mindanao is not nearly so unhealthy as is commonly supposed. Zamboanga and neighbourhood, Davao, Surigao, Talisay, and several other places, are really quite healthy for Europeans, if they take care of themselves.Earthquakes are frequent. They would sometimes be destructive, but there is so little in the way of buildings to destroy.Divisions for Administrative Purposes.Zamboanga is the chief military station and the residence of the commandant-general of the island.Mindanao is divided into five districts:—1st. District chief town Zamboanga (capital of the island).2nd. District chief town Misamis (includes Lake Lanao).3rd. District chief town Surigao (includes the whole kingdom of Caraga, also the valley of the Agusan).4th. District chief town Davao (shores of the bay and peninsula of San Agustin).5th. District chief town Cotta-bato (valley of the Rio Grande and ancient Sultanate of Buhayen).The island of Basilan forms a sixth district under the commandant-general of Mindanao.Each of these districts was under a politico-military governor and other officials, as follows:—1st District, Major, Naval Lieutenant, Captain of Port.2nd District, Lieut.-Colonel.3rd District, Lieut.-Colonel.4th District, Major.5th District, Lieut.-Colonel.6th District, Naval Lieutenant, Naval Station.Besides these politico-military governors there were the following officers in charge of military districts:—Mumungan in 2nd district (Fort Weyler and vicinity to look after the Moros of Lake Lanao) Major.Dapitan in 2nd district (To look after the Moros of Sindangan Bay) Major.Bislig in 3rd district (To look after the Mandayas and Manobos) Captain.To attend to the administration of justice there was a third-class judge in each district. From their decisions there was an appeal to the Audiencia at Cebú, and from there to the Supreme Court, Madrid.In Zamboanga where there is (or was) a custom-house, there resided a Treasury delegate of the second class. In each of the other districts there is one of the fourth class.The southern naval division has its headquarters at Isabela de Basilan.Productions of Mindanao.The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently that the savage races have been settled in thereducciones. The population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply themselves to agriculture.The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been reported in Mindoro and Cebú.The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.Basilan.The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of 170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island, which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle’s head and the former a turtle’s tail, so that the shape of the island on the map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length from the point of the beak to the tip of thetail is about thirty-two geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui, on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan (now called Isabela) River.To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.There is a church, and missionaries’ residence. The island is hilly but fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no manufactures worth mentioning.The Christian population is as follows:—Inhabitants.Town of Isabela921Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan130Hamlet of Santa Barbara50Reduccion of Panigayan25Reduccion of Tabuc12Scattered Christians12Members of the Naval Station86variable.Garrison of the Fort401276The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered valiant and hardy.The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them and corrupt them.Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, butescaped, and, by force of character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the missionaries.The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went by sea right round it in 1893.

Mt. Silingan represents the spike or hook usually found on the tails of these fish, and from here the tail bends southward and westward through an arc of 60°. This part represents the peninsula of Zamboanga, and the town of that name is situated at the tip of the tail. A continuous chain of mountains down the centre of the tail represents the vertebræ.

Beginning on the east, we find a long stretch of coast from Surigao to Cape San Agustin with only one or twoanchorages for small vessels. The rest of the coast is exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean, and from November to April is quite open to the N.E. monsoon. It is also subject to tidal waves or rollers just as are the coasts of Peru and Chili. A destructiveboreenters the river mouths and inlets, and heavy seas get up off all the headlands. In the channels between Surigao and the islands off the northern coasts, rapid currents are formed and overfalls render navigation dangerous for country vessels. In fact, during the strength of the N.E. monsoon the east coast, from Placer to the Bay of Mayo, is hemmed in with surf, and without a single port. Behind point Taucanan, however, is found Port Balete and Port Pujada. This latter is the best port in the island, being well sheltered from the N. and N.E. The country about it is well watered, and produces timber trees of great size and fine quality. The waters contain plenty of fish, and turtle, also some mother-of-pearl shells. The forests give the best kinds ofalmáciga, and wax.

The hill-men are partly independent but pacific, and the Visaya population is considerable in the district of Mati.

In general, the east coast is rocky, and very foul in many places. The land is fertile and well-wooded. Gold is found in the Cordillera, and on its eastern slopes all the way from Surigao to Punta Tagobong. One of the northern towns is called Placer on this account. The inaccessibility of the east coast during the strength of the N.E. monsoon has retarded the civilisation of Surigao which was settled in the early years of the conquest. The Caraga-Visaya, who inhabit a considerable district on this coast, are old Christians and have always been ready to fight for their faith.

Practically parallel to this coast is a chain of mountains which begins at Surigao and extends down to Punta San Agustin with hardly a break. I shall call this the eastern Cordillera. In this chain, near the northern end, lies Lake Mainit (Hot Lake), having steep sides with twenty fathoms close to the edge, and two hundred fathoms in the middle. This cavity has, no doubt, been formed by volcanic action, like the lake of Taal. On the slopes of the mountains around it are many thermal springs which run into the lake, and in rainy weather the summits are always shrouded in vapour by the evaporation of the rain.

The lake is subject to tremendous floods. Dr. Montano, who visited it in December, 1880, speaks of a rise of twelve fathoms. He also says that a ground-swell gets up in this sheltered lake; this must be from some modified volcanic action still going on. As usual in Philippine crater-lakes, this is a great breeding-place for alligators.

The Eastern Cordillera being so near the coast, there are of course no navigable rivers running into the Pacific, but the streams become impassable torrents during the heavy rains which begin in June, and prevent communication by land for many days or even weeks at a stretch.

Approximately parallel to the Eastern Cordillera, and at about fifty geographical miles distance, there stands another range which I shall call the Central Cordillera. A line drawn from Punta Diuata to the middle of the Gulf of Sarangani, nearly due north and south, intersects Mt. Sinalagao, Mt. Panamoyan, the active volcano, Mt. Apo and Mt. Matutuan, which appear to be the loftiest peaks of the range.

From Mt. Panamoyan in about 7° 50′ N. Lat. a spur strikes eastwards at right angles to the range, reaching half-way across the valley. This spur then turns to the south parallel to the range for some twenty miles, and from the middle of the east and west part, another spur turns south for about 20 miles, thus forming a letterEwith the points looking south.

In the wide valley between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, and taking the drainage of the whole watershed is the River Agusan. Rising about the 7th parallel on the slopes of Mt. Tagoppo, this river runs a very sinuous course in a general northerly direction, but inclining slightly to the west, receiving innumerable tributaries on either side. At about 8° 15′ N. Lat. the Agusan expands or overflows, forming a series of shallow lakes, choked up with driftwood and vegetation, and varying in extent with the rainfall.

Continually gathering volume, it runs into the Bay of Butuan about 9° N. Lat.

At Moncayo, in 7° 45′ N. Lat., the Agusan is one hundred yards wide, and is navigable for canoes even much higher up.

The spur previously spoken of as striking east and south from Mt. Panamoyan, forms two small watersheds. The western one gives rise to the River Libaganon, and the eastern to the River Salug. Both these rivers run in asoutherly direction, and unite to form the River Tagum, which runs for a short distance S.E. and falls into the head of the Gulf of Davao.

A little way south of Mt. Panamoyan some mountain streams dash down the sides of the Cordillera and running through a gap unite to form the River Davao which flows in a south-easterly direction till it reaches the plain, when it changes its course and runs east into the Gulf of Davao. From Point Sipaca, in 9° N. Lat., a range of mountains stretches in a southerly direction for about sixty miles.Amongstthese are Mt. Sipaca, Mt. Saorag, and Mt. Quimanquil. With the Central Cordillera this range forms a watershed, and the torrents on the steep sides of Sinalagao and Quimanquil dash down and take a southerly direction to form the headwaters of the River Pulangui and ultimately become the Rio Grande. In 7° 50′ N. Lat. two important affluents join, the River Sauaga and the River Malupati, a few miles lower the Calibatojan and the Kaya-Kaya bring their tribute, and the united flood with rapid current casts itself headlong into the deep Cañon of Locosocan and runs in this for over four miles to Salagalpon, where another cataract occurs. The river continues for miles a rushing torrent amongst huge boulders, at the bottom of this cleft, so narrow in places, where the rocks jut out and nearly meet overhead, that it seems like a tunnel. In 7° 46′ N. Lat. there is a small volcano close to the left bank which, whenever it rains, becomes active and gives off stifling fumes of sulphur. At Mantanil, in 7° 40′ N., the river can be navigated on bamboo rafts, handled by skilled Manobo pilots, but not without much risk; for some distance down there are twobuchis, or sinks, where the water runs down into subterraneous passages through the river-bed, forming dangerous whirlpools. There are also several rapids which require great dexterity to pass safely. The banks are still high; but, on approaching the confluence of the Kulaman river, on the left bank, the gorge is much lower, and on arriving at Ilang the country opens out.

South of the confluence of the River Molita, vintas can navigate the river, and a little lower down, at the confluence of the River Simuni, is the place reached by the gunboatTaalin 1863 on a 6-foot draught. The river now runs in a southerly and westerly direction, with dozens of bends till about 6° 45′ N. Lat., when, on reaching Lake Liguasan (really a Pinag) a shallow and weedy expanse of water, itturns to the west, and then north-west. At Tumbao it bifurcates, and enters the Bay of Illana by two mouths forming a long narrow delta of deep and rich alluvial soil.

From Tumbao to Tamontaca is the most beautiful and fertile part of this river. On both banks grow cocoa-palms, areca-palms, banana and cacao-trees, coffee-bushes, and hemp plants in abundance, and amongst them are groups of native houses forming a continuous village, of which the placid river, here fifty yards wide, forms the main street. These houses are mostly occupied by friendly Moros.

Nearly parallel to the Sipaca-Soarag-Quimanquil range a second range stretches irregularly in a north and south line, ending at the coast near Cagayan. Amongst these mountains is Mt Quitanglag. From Pt. Sulanan the western extremity of the Bay of Macajalar, a third range stretches south, then south-east, then south again for some thirty miles. Between this range and the Bay of Iligan there is a fourth range of hills. These four ranges form three valleys or watersheds, each of which has its river, with a general course from south to north, all three running into the Bay of Macajalar.

The most easterly is the River of Tagoloan which has fourteen tributaries, the next is the River Cagayan with only three, then the River Capay with seven tributaries, all on the left bank.

Proceeding westward we come to the great and deep Lake of Lanao, described under the heading Moros, but which has never been surveyed, and then to the Gulf of Panguil, which, on the map, looks like a forearm and clenched fist, which nearly cuts Mindanao in two. The isthmus is only fourteen miles across in a straight line.

This was formerly a regular pirates’ track, over which they hauled their vessels, but it was till lately guarded by a chain of forts connected by a military road called the Trocha of Tucuran.

Two rivers running in a general direction from west to east and having between them a dozen tributaries, run into the Gulf of Panguil. The most northerly of the two is the Mipangi and the other is the Lintogo.

We now arrive at the peninsula of Sibuguey which I have likened to the tail of the skate. Around Lake Lanao there is an irregular loop of hills, and from the western end of this starts a cordillera which stretches right down the centre of the peninsula of Sibuguey and Zamboanga. Aline drawn from Punta Sicayati (in the Dapitan excrescence) to the eastern shore of the Gulf of Dumanquilas will intersect a range of mountains which cross the Cordillera of Sibuguey nearly at right angles and with equal arms north and south. But the end of the northern arm bifurcates and throws out two ranges N.E. and N.W.

In the watershed thus formed three rivers take their rise, and have a general course from south to north but bearing a little to the westward. The easternmost of these is called the Dapitan, and runs into the bay of the same name. The next is the Dipolog, which runs into the sea west of Punta Sicayab; and the last is the Lubungan, running in about two leagues more to the west.

The other rivers in the peninsula are so unimportant that I do not enumerate them. Like those on the east coast they become raging torrents in the rainy season.

On the northern and southern coasts, which are more protected than the eastern, sheltered anchorages are to be found here and there, but no such fine natural harbours exist as abound in Southern Luzon. There is, however, less need for them, as it is very rare that the typhoons, which are so destructive in Luzon and the Visayas, cause damage in Mindanao, except at its northern and eastern corner. But for service on these coasts, vessels of a light draught of water are the most useful, as they can more easily find sheltered anchorage.

Mindanao is not nearly so unhealthy as is commonly supposed. Zamboanga and neighbourhood, Davao, Surigao, Talisay, and several other places, are really quite healthy for Europeans, if they take care of themselves.

Earthquakes are frequent. They would sometimes be destructive, but there is so little in the way of buildings to destroy.Divisions for Administrative Purposes.

Zamboanga is the chief military station and the residence of the commandant-general of the island.

Mindanao is divided into five districts:—

The island of Basilan forms a sixth district under the commandant-general of Mindanao.

Each of these districts was under a politico-military governor and other officials, as follows:—

Besides these politico-military governors there were the following officers in charge of military districts:—

To attend to the administration of justice there was a third-class judge in each district. From their decisions there was an appeal to the Audiencia at Cebú, and from there to the Supreme Court, Madrid.

In Zamboanga where there is (or was) a custom-house, there resided a Treasury delegate of the second class. In each of the other districts there is one of the fourth class.

The southern naval division has its headquarters at Isabela de Basilan.

Productions of Mindanao.The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently that the savage races have been settled in thereducciones. The population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply themselves to agriculture.The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been reported in Mindoro and Cebú.The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.

Productions of Mindanao.

The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently that the savage races have been settled in thereducciones. The population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply themselves to agriculture.The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been reported in Mindoro and Cebú.The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.

The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there.

There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper.

Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been reported in Mindoro and Cebú.

The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours.

Basilan.The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of 170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island, which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle’s head and the former a turtle’s tail, so that the shape of the island on the map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length from the point of the beak to the tip of thetail is about thirty-two geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui, on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan (now called Isabela) River.To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.There is a church, and missionaries’ residence. The island is hilly but fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no manufactures worth mentioning.The Christian population is as follows:—Inhabitants.Town of Isabela921Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan130Hamlet of Santa Barbara50Reduccion of Panigayan25Reduccion of Tabuc12Scattered Christians12Members of the Naval Station86variable.Garrison of the Fort401276The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered valiant and hardy.The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them and corrupt them.Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, butescaped, and, by force of character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the missionaries.The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went by sea right round it in 1893.

Basilan.

The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of 170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island, which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle’s head and the former a turtle’s tail, so that the shape of the island on the map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length from the point of the beak to the tip of thetail is about thirty-two geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui, on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan (now called Isabela) River.To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.There is a church, and missionaries’ residence. The island is hilly but fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no manufactures worth mentioning.The Christian population is as follows:—Inhabitants.Town of Isabela921Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan130Hamlet of Santa Barbara50Reduccion of Panigayan25Reduccion of Tabuc12Scattered Christians12Members of the Naval Station86variable.Garrison of the Fort401276The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered valiant and hardy.The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them and corrupt them.Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, butescaped, and, by force of character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the missionaries.The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went by sea right round it in 1893.

To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel.

There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine.

There is a church, and missionaries’ residence. The island is hilly but fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no manufactures worth mentioning.

The Christian population is as follows:—

Inhabitants.Town of Isabela921Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan130Hamlet of Santa Barbara50Reduccion of Panigayan25Reduccion of Tabuc12Scattered Christians12Members of the Naval Station86variable.Garrison of the Fort401276

The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered valiant and hardy.

The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Joló, and any outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the Moros of Joló, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them and corrupt them.

Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, butescaped, and, by force of character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the missionaries.

The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went by sea right round it in 1893.

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