IV.LEPIDOPTERA.This order of insects is known popularly by the names of Butterfly and Moth. Linnæus gave them the name ofLepidoptera, meaning insects with scaly wings (λεπις, a scale; and πτερον, a wing). They are to be found in great numbers in all parts of the world. All the insects contained in the order are, in their perfect state, remarkable for the elegance of their shape, the rapidity and airiness of their flight, and the multiplicity and beauty of their colours. Before they arrive at this perfect state, the Lepidoptera have to undergo three complete transformations. They leave the egg in the larva or caterpillar state; they pass next to the state of pupa, or chrysalis; they then assume, after a variable time, their final or perfect form. We will study them in their three different states in succession.The Larva, or Caterpillar.When the winter has stripped the leaves off the trees, the Lepidoptera are seen no more; but as soon as the leaves begin to show themselves on the trees and shrubs, this tribe of the insect race again makes its appearance. Caterpillars of all kinds are gnawing at the leaves, even before they are fully developed. Many of them have just emerged from the eggs which the perfect insects had laid at an earlier period; others have passed the winter in this state.When they come out of the egg the young caterpillars are in shape more or less elongated and cylindrical. Their body is composed of twelve segments, or rings. In front is the head; then come three segments, on which are the front legs, and which constitute the thorax; the other segments constitute the abdomen. The head is formed of two scaly parts. It is often very deeply hollowed out on its upper side, and divided into two lobes, which contain in the angle formed by their separation the different parts of the mouth. The head is uniform, rarely having, so far as our caterpillars are concerned, any protuberance; but in the tropical species it is often armed with prickles, spikes, and extraordinary appendages. They are provided with six small simple eyes, isolated from each other. The mouth is armed laterally with a pair of very solid horny mandibles, articulated by means of vigorous muscles, and moving horizontally. It is the function of the mandibles, as with the jaws, to divide the creature's food. On the middle of a broad under-lip one may perceive a little elongated tubular organ, pierced with a microscopic orifice. This organ is the spinning apparatus, which the animal uses in fabricating the threads which it will one day require. It is a tube composed of longitudinal fibres. It presents only one orifice, cut obliquely, and capable of applying itself exactly to the body on which the larva is placed. From the contractile nature of this organ and the form of its orifice, combined with the faculty the insect possesses of moving it in all directions, result the great differences we observe in the diameter and form of the threads.Fig. 94.—Scaly legs of the Caterpillar of the Gipsy Moth (Liparis dispar).The external organs of the trunk and abdomen are the legs, the spiracles, and various occasional appendages. The legs are of two different kinds. The one, to the number of six, attached by pairs to the trunk, are covered with a shiny cartilage, and armed with hooks. These are the true legs.Fig. 94represents, after Réaumur's "Mémoire sur les Différentes Parties des Chenilles,"[36]the scaly legs of the caterpillar of the Gipsy Moth. The others are membranous, fleshy, generally conical or cylindrical, contractile, and taking, according to the will of the animal, very different forms.Fig. 95represents, after the same Memoir of Réaumur's, the different forms of the membranous legs of the silkworm caterpillar. This plate gives a sufficiently goodidea of the shape of these organs, and of the hooks, circular or semi-circular, with which they are furnished.Fig. 95.—Membranous legs of the Silkworm (Bombyx mori).Fig. 95.—Membranous legs of the Silkworm (Bombyx mori).InFig. 96are represented, after the same author, two membranous legs of a large caterpillar, of which the hooks of the feet are fastened into a branch of a shrub.Fig. 96.—Membranous legs of a large Caterpillar embracing a twig.Caterpillars have from two to ten false legs, the scaly legs being always six in number. The pro-legs, as the fleshy ones are called, are divided intohinderandintermediate. The former are two in number; the intermediate are rarely more than eight in number.In the caterpillars which have the full number of legs—that is to say, sixteen—there are two empty spaces, where the body has no support: the one between the legs and the pro-legs, formed by the fourth and fifth segment; the other, between the intermediate pro-legs and the anal legs, formed by the tenth and eleventh ring.The variations which caterpillars present, so far as the number and situations of their pro-legs are concerned, are the following:—The greatest number among them have ten pro-legs; others have only eight; others only six—these may be called semi-loopers; othersonly four, one pair being situated on the last ring, and the other on the ninth, as in the case of looper caterpillars. And, lastly, there are others which have only two pro-legs.The various forms, numbers, and positions of these organs, produce great differences in the mode of locomotion of caterpillars. Those provided with ten or eight membranous legs have in walking only a very slight undulating motion. Their bodies are parallel to the plane which supports them. They can walk very quickly; but their steps are short and quickly repeated. Others, on the contrary, in proportion as the number of their false legs diminish, and the spaces between the legs increase, walk in a more irregular and quaint manner.Fig. 97.—Looper Caterpillar.If the reader will glance atFig. 97, taken from Réaumur's "Mémoire sur les Chenilles en général,"[37]which represents a looper caterpillar, with four membranous legs, he will see that there is a considerable space between the posterior legs and the first pair of pro-legs, along which the body has no points of support. If one of these caterpillars, lying quiet and at full length, determines to walk, in order to take its first step (Fig. 98) it begins by humping its back, curving into an arch that part which has no legs, and finishes by assuming the position seen inFig. 99. In the former position it has its two intermediate legs against the posterior legs, and, in consequence, it has brought forward the hinder part of its body, a distance equal to the interval of the five segments which separate them. There it hooks on by itsintermediateandhindlegs. Then it has only to raise and straighten the five rings which had formed the loop, and to advance its head to a distance equal to the length of fivesegments. The step is thus made, the caterpillar making the same movements in taking the second and following steps.Fig. 98.—Caterpillar curved into an arch.Fig. 99.—Caterpillar at full length.This sort of gait has gained for them the name of Geometers, because they seem to measure the road over which they travel. When they make a step, they apply the part of their body which they have just curved up to the ground, in exactly the same way as a land surveyor applies his chain to it.Fig. 100.—Caterpillar of the Canary-shouldered Thorn (Eugonia alniaria).Fig. 100.—Caterpillar of the Canary-shouldered Thorn (Eugonia alniaria).These looper caterpillars cannot shorten nor lengthen their segments at will, as other caterpillars, but only bend their bodies. There are many species whose bodies are cylindrical, stiff, and of the same colour as bark. Their attitudes deceive even the close observer. They embrace the stem of a leaf or twig with their hinder and intermediate legs, whilst the rest of their body, vertically elevated, remains stiff and immovable for hours together.Fig. 100shows the caterpillar of the Canary-shouldered Thorn (Eugonia alniaria) in this strange position. Now, this is a feat of strength which the most skilful of our acrobats, ordinary and extraordinary, which all the Leotards of the present day, and those who are to succeed them, can never accomplish. With such a persistency, this caterpillar cansustain its body in the air for a considerable time, in all the positions imaginable, between the vertical and the horizontal, and downwards again in any incline from the horizontal to the vertical. "If one considers," says Réaumur, "how far we are from having in the muscles of our arms a force capable of supporting us in such attitudes as these, we must own that the power of the muscles in these insects is prodigious."We will not dwell now on the variableness of the length of the body of caterpillars; on the fleshy appendages which are to be observed on them; on the hairs which either beautify or render them hideous, according to the fancy of the observer; nor on the various colours with which they are decorated. We will notice these various characteristics when giving the history of some species of remarkable Lepidoptera.Many caterpillars are solitary; others live in companies more or less numerous, either when young, or during the whole of their existence.With the exception of a great number of moths, which live at the expense of our furs, or woollen stuffs, and leather or fatty matters, all caterpillars feed on plants. From the root to the seeds, no part of the vegetable is safe from their attacks. The greatest number of the species, however, prefer the leaves. Those of the most acrid and poisonous are no more spared than those of the most harmless plants. There are caterpillars which eat the leaves of the Euphorbia, or spurge, for instance."I wished to try," says Réaumur, "the milk of this plant on my tongue. It produced hardly any effect upon it at first; but after a quarter of an hour I found my mouth on fire, and it was a heat which reiterated garglings with water during many hours in succession could not quench. This continued till the next day. The heat passed successively from one part of my mouth to another. I, however, saw many of my caterpillars drinking greedily the great drops of milk which were at the end of the broken stem I had presented to them."Is it not extraordinary that there are caterpillars which live on the nettle?—that they eat the leaves of this plant, armed as it is with stinging bristles, which cause such smarting and itching to the skin, and produce blisters upon it.It has often been said that each plant has its own peculiar species of caterpillar. All we can say is, that a certain number of vegetables only suit certain caterpillars. The species which eat roots are few; those which live in the interior of stalks or stems which they feed onare numerous, and those which nourish themselves on the pulp of fruits are rare. In general, after the leaves, the caterpillars prefer the flowers: in this they certainly do not show bad taste. Their growth is more or less rapid, according to the species, according to the nourishment they take, and according to the season of the year. Those whose food is succulent grow more rapidly than those which have for their food dry gramineous plants and coriaceous lichens. Most of them eat at night, and remain during the day motionless, and as it were in a state of torpor; others are so voracious that they are constantly eating. This voracity is indeed sometimes surprising. Malpighi has observed that a silkworm often eats in a day mulberry leaves equal to its own weight. How could we provide our horses and oxen with provender, if they required each day their own weight of hay and grass? There are even some caterpillars which are still more voracious than that. Réaumur weighed several caterpillars of a species which lives on the cabbage, and gave them bits of cabbage-leaves which weighed twice as much as their bodies. In less than twenty-four hours they had entirely consumed them. In this space of time their weight increased one-tenth. Fancy a man whose weight is 180 lbs. eating in one day 360 lbs. of meat, and gaining 18 lbs. in weight! Caterpillars eat by the aid of two jaws or mandibles so broad and solid that, considering the smallness of the insect, they are equivalent to all the teeth with which large animals are furnished. It is by the alternate movement of these mandibles that the caterpillars devour the leaves with so much greediness and ease.Fig. 101.—Looper Caterpillar eating the leaves of the Apricot (after Réaumur).Fig. 101.—Looper Caterpillar eating the leaves of the Apricot (after Réaumur)."A caterpillar, when it wants to gnaw the edge of a leaf," says Réaumur, "twists its body in such a way that at least one portion of the edge of this leaf is passed between its legs. These legs hold fast that portion of the leaf which is to be cut by the insect's jaws (Fig. 101). To give the first bite the caterpillar elongates its body, and carries its head as far forward as possible. The portion of the leaf which is between the open jaws is cut through the instant the teethmeet each other; the bites succeed each other quickly; there is not one, or scarcely one of them, that does not detach a bit, and each bit is swallowed almost as soon as cut off. At each fresh bite the head approaches the legs in such a way that during the succession of bites it describes an arc; it hollows out the portion of the leaf in a segment of a circle, and it is always in this order that it gnaws it."But there is a phenomenon in the life of caterpillars which we ought to point out, and which has attracted the attention of the most illustrious observers. All caterpillars change their skins many times during their life. It is not, indeed, enough to say that they change their skins; the skins or cases they cast are so complete that they might be taken for entire caterpillars. The hairs, the case of the legs, the claws with which the legs are provided, the hard and solid parts which cover the head, the jaws—all these are found in the skin which the insect abandons. What an operation for the poor little animal! This labour is so enormous, so troublesome, that one cannot form a just idea of it. One or two days before this grand crisis, the caterpillar leaves off eating, loses its usual activity, and becomes motionless and languid. Their colour fades, their skin dries little by little, they bow their backs, swell out their segments. At last this dried-up skin splits below the back, on the second or third ring, and lets us have a glimpse of a small portion of the new skin, easily to be recognised by the freshness and brightness of its colours."When once the split has been begun," says Réaumur, "it is easy for the insect to extend it; it continues to swell out that part of its body which is opposite the slit. Very soon this part raises itself above the sides of the split; it does the work of a wedge, which elongates it; thus the split soon extends from the end or the commencement of the first ring as far as the other side of the end of the fourth. The upper portion of the body which corresponds to these four rings is then laid bare, and the caterpillar has an opening sufficiently large to serve it as an egress through which it can entirely leave its old skin. It curves its fore part, and draws it backwards; by this movement it disengages its head from under its old envelope, and brings it up to the beginning of the slit; at once it raises it, and puts it out through this slit. The moment afterwards it stretches out its fore part and lowers its head. There now remains for the caterpillar nothing but to draw its hinder part from the old case."This excessively laborious operation is finished in less than a minute. The new livery which the caterpillar has just put on is fresh and bright in colour. But the animal is exhausted by its fast, and the efforts which it has made. It requires a few hours in which toregain its equilibrium, and at the same time its former activity and voracity.The Chrysalis, or Pupa.Having attained its full development, the caterpillar ceases to eat, as at the approach of a moult, it empties its intestinal canal by copious ejections; it loses its colours, and becomes dull and livid, and thus prepares itself to enter a new phase of its existence.Some, when about to transform themselves into chrysalides, suspend themselves to foreign bodies. Others spin a cocoon, composed of silk and other substances, which secures them against the attacks of their enemies and the action of the atmosphere. Those which suspend themselves can be divided under two heads, according to the mode of their suspension:—1. Those which suspend themselves perpendicularly by the tail. 2. Those which, after having fixed themselves by the same part, suspend themselves horizontally, by means of a silk thread passed round the body.Figs. 102, 103.—Caterpillars of the small Tortoise-shell ButterflyFigs. 102, 103.—Caterpillars of the small Tortoise-shellFigs. 104, 105.—Chrysalides of the small Tortoise-shell Butterfly freeing themselves from the Caterpillar skin.Figs. 104, 105.—Chrysalides of the small Tortoise-shell Butterfly freeing themselves from the Caterpillar skin.To understand the difficulty which the first of these operations presents, we must consider the problem which the caterpillar has to solve. In this problem there are two unknown quantities to be discovered. Firstly, the caterpillar must suspend itself firmly; and secondly, the pupa, having no communication with the object which supports it, must be suspended in the same manner. This problem is difficult, apparently impossible, to solve. It is only by watching these insects at work that one can discover the wonderful mysteries of their lives. Swammerdam, Valisnieri, and other observers who have studied insects, had not, however, observed the manœuvres of caterpillars in this curious phase of their existence. It is to Réaumur again that science is indebted for the most charming and valuable observations on this point. He got together a great number of caterpillars of the small Tortoise-shell Butterfly (Vanessa urticæ), black prickly caterpillars which are common on the stinging-nettle, where they live in companies, and suspend themselves by the tail. When the time approaches at which the caterpillars of this species ought to undergo their transformations, they usually leave the plant which had up to that time served them as food. After having wandered about a little, they select some convenient spot, where they hang themselves up head downwards (Figs.102,103).In order to hang itself in this way, the caterpillar begins by covering, with threads drawn in different directions, a pretty large extent of the surface of the body against which it wishes to fix itself. After having covered it thus with a kind of thin cobweb, it adds differentlayers of threads on a small portion of this surface, in such a manner that the upper one is always smaller than that upon which it is laid. In this manner a small hillock of silk is formed, the tissue of which is not at all compact. It resembles an assemblage of loose or badly interwoven threads. The membranous feet of the caterpillar are armed with hooks of different lengths, with the aid of which it suspends itself. By alternately contracting and elongating its body, it pushes its hindermost legs against the hillock of silk, presses against it the hooks of its feet, so as to get them better entangled, and lets its body fall in a vertical position.It remains hanging thus, often for twenty-four hours, during which time it is occupied in a difficult task, that of splitting its skin. In order to effect this, it incessantly curves and recurves its body (Fig. 102), until at last a split appears on the skin of the back, and through this split emerges a part of the body of the chrysalis. This acts as a wedge, and little by little the split widens from the head to the last of the true legs, and beyond them. Then the opening is sufficient to allow of the chrysalis drawing out its anterior portion from the envelope, which it immediately does. To set itself entirely free, the chrysalis lengthens and shortens itself alternately (Fig. 105). Each time that it shortens itself, and when it consequently distends the part of its body which is outside the old skin, that part acts againstthe edges of the slit, and gradually pushes the old skin upwards. Thus the caterpillar skin ascends, its plaits are pushed nearer and nearer together, and it is soon reduced to a packet so small that it covers only the end of the tail of the chrysalis (Fig. 106).But here comes the culminating point, the most difficult part of the operation. The chrysalis, which is shorter than the caterpillar, is at some distance from the silky network to which it must fix itself; it is only supported by that extremity of the caterpillar's skin which had not been split open. It has neither legs nor arms, and yet it must free itself from this remaining part of the skin, and reach the threads to which it is to suspend itself.Fig. 106.—Chrysalis of the small Tortoise-shellButterfly completing the operationof casting its larval skin.Fig. 107.—Chrysalis divested of the larva skin.The supple and contractile segments of the chrysalis serve for the limbs which are wanting to it. Between two of these segments, as with a pair of pincers, the insect seizes a portion of the folded skin, and with such a firm hold that it is able to support the whole of its body on it. It now curves its hinder parts slightly, and draws its tail entirely out of the sheath in which it was enclosed. It then reposes for an instant only, for it has not yet finished the laborious operation of its deliverance. It must free itself entirely from the dry skin which surrounds the extremity of its body.The insect curves the part which is below its tail in such a manner that that part can embrace and seize the packet to which it holds on. It then gives to its body a violent shock, which makes it spin round many times on its tail, and that with great rapidity. During all these pirouettes the chrysalis acts against the skin; the hooks of its legs fray the threads, and break them or disentanglethemselves from them. Sometimes the threads do not break at once. Then the animal recommences its revolutions in an opposite direction, and this time it is almost certain to succeed. Réaumur, however, saw a chrysalis which, after having tired itself in vain in its endeavours to get entirely free of its old skin, despairing of ever being able to manage it, abandoned it where it was so solidly fixed. We represent (Fig. 107), rather magnified, the chrysalis arrived at its final state, and suspended to a branch of a tree by a network of silk.[38]We come now to the mode of suspension employed by those caterpillars, which, after having fixed themselves by the tail, strengthen the support by means of a small silk cord passed round their body.It is again to Réaumur, that indefatigable observer of the habits of insects, that we go for the details of this manner of suspension. According to Réaumur, these caterpillars make and put on this belt in three different ways. But of these three ways the simplest, and the least liable to meet with accident, is that employed by the larva of the Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassicæ). When the time for its metamorphosis is only a few days distant, one may observe this caterpillar engaged in stretching threads on different parts of the case in which it is confined. It then chooses a spot, which it covers entirely with threads, some more compact than the others, and disposed in layers, which cross each other in different directions. These threads form a thin white cloth, against which the belly of the caterpillar and later that of the chrysalis are applied. Very soon we see a small hillock of silk rising. The caterpillar hooks itself on to this by the claws of its hinder feet, and sets to work to secure itself.To understand this process, it suffices to know that after having lengthened its body to a certain point, this caterpillar can turn back its head on to its back, and reach to the fifth ring, having its three pairs of true legs in the air. But without putting the caterpillar into such an unnatural position, let us take it in a position in which it is simply bent sideways in such a manner that its head, with the thread-spinning apparatus, which is below, can be applied opposite and pretty near to one of the legs belonging to the first pair of membranous legs. Our caterpillar begins by fixing on this point a thread, which is the first of those that are intended to tie it up securely.Fig. 108.—Caterpillars of the Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassicæ).Fig. 108.—Caterpillars of the Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassicæ)."This thread," says the illustrious author of the "Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire des Insectes, "must pass over the caterpillar's body,and be attached by its other end near the leg corresponding to that near which the first end was fastened. To spin the thread the proper length, and at the same time to fix it in its proper place, the caterpillar has only to bring round its head to the fifth segment. The thread will be drawn from the spinning apparatus as the head advances over half the circumference of the circle which it has to describe; and when it has described this, there will only remain for it to secure the second end of the thread against the support. Thus the head, which was at first placed against one of the legs, advances little by little on the outline of the fifth ring as far as to its middle (Fig. 108). It is the facility the caterpillar has of reversing its body that enables it to make its head perform this journey, in proportion as it moves it over the circumference of the ring, it twists its body. And at last, when it has brought it over the top of the segment, its body is exactly folded in two; it draws it little by little from this situation by bending towards the other side, and by causing its head to pass gently over the last quarter of the circle. At last the caterpillar finds itself bound on the second side; the head rests on the thread-covered plane, and the insect fixes the second end of the thread."Fig. 109.—Caterpillar of the Pieris brassicæ.Fig. 109.—Caterpillar of the Pieris brassicæ.It has only to repeat the same manœuvre as many times as thereare threads wanted to make a strong band. But each thread embraces the head, or rather the lower part of the head, for it knows how to make each thread it spins glide into the bend or crease of its neck by a little movement of its head. It must disengage its head from under the band, not a difficult operation. It causes it to slide along the threads near one of the places where they are fixed, and it is then in the position indicated by the foregoing engraving (Fig. 109).Fig. 110.—Pupæ of Pieris brassicæ.Fig. 110.—Pupæ of Pieris brassicæ.About thirty hours after the caterpillars have succeeded in making themselves fast, they have completed their transformation into chrysalides (Fig. 110), where the chrysalis of the above-mentioned caterpillar is seen in two different positions, and held by the same band which first supported the caterpillar.Those caterpillars which construct cocoons make them of silk and other substances. These cocoons are, for the most part, oval or elliptical, sometimes boat-shaped, and ordinarily white, yellow, or brown in colour. The threads may very slightly adhere together, or be closely united by a gummy substance with which the caterpillar lines the interior of the cocoon, and which it expels from the anus. Some cocoons are composed of a double envelope, others are of a uniform texture. Some are of a tissue so close that they entirely hide the chrysalis contained within; others form a very light covering, through which the chrysalis can be easily perceived (Fig. 111).Fig. 111.—Cocoon, after Réaumur.Fig. 111.—Cocoon, after Réaumur.Among caterpillars that make a very slight cocoon, some, as theCatocalas, gather together two or three leaves into a ball, to protect them. Others strengthen their cocoons, and render them opaque by adding earth or other substances, often obtained from their own bodies. Some, after having spun their cocoon, cast forth through the anus three or four masses of a matterresembling paste, which they apply with their head to the inside of the cocoon, and which, drying quickly, becomes pulverulent. Others employ for the same purpose the hairs with which their bodies are covered.The larva ofAcronycta aceris(Fig. 113) is covered with tufts of yellow hair. Réaumur made these caterpillars work under his own eye in glass vases. They make the layer which is to form the exterior surface of their shell, or cocoon, of pure silk, and when it is thick enough, tear out their hair, now from one place, now from another. But we will leave the illustrious observer to relate this operation himself, which must without doubt be painful to the poor animal:—Fig. 112.—Larvæ of Catocala fraxini.Fig. 112.—Larvæ of Catocala fraxini.Fig. 113.—Larva of Acronycta aceris.Fig. 114.—Larva of Acronycta aceris.Fig. 115.—Larva of Acronycta aceris taken out of its cocoon."Its two jaws are the pincers the caterpillar uses in seizing a portion of one or other of the tufts of hair; and when it has seized it, it tears it out without much difficulty. It at once places this against the tissue it has already commenced, in which it entangles it at first simply by pressure; itfixes it then more securely by spinning over it. It does not leave off tearing out its hairs till it has entirely stripped them off. When the caterpillar has taken between its jaws and torn out a whole tuft of hair, the head carries it and deposits it on some part of the lower surface of the cocoon; but it does not leave the hairs of such a large parcel together. The next moment one sees its head moving about very quickly; then taking a portion of the hairs from the little heap, it distributes them about on the neighbouring parts of the cocoon. If one opens one of these shells before the caterpillar has become a chrysalis, the larva, which is quite naked, and which was only known by its hair, can be no longer recognised."Fig. 116.—Larva of Chelonia caja.The caterpillar of the Tiger Moth, or Woolly Bear, called by RéaumurMarteorHerisson(Chelonia caja,Fig. 116), is covered with long inclined hairs. This caterpillar also makes use of its hairs for strengthening the tissue of its cocoon; but whether it feels the pain more acutely than the former, or whether it would suffer more, it does not tear out its hairs. It adopts another system; it cuts them. The caterpillar is then enveloped on all sides in its hair, which is to serve in the construction of its cocoon.Fig. 117.—Larva of Chelonia caja forming its cocoon.Another species uses its hairs in the composition of its cocoon; but it adopts an entirely peculiar way of tearing them out, when the tissue of its cocoon has become a species of network of pretty closely packed rings. Réaumur one day saw one part of the cocoon bristling with hairs. These were the hairs of a part of the back of the caterpillar, which it had pushed through the rings of its cocoon. The caterpillar then moved about as if rubbing this part of its back successively in opposite directions against the interior surface of the cocoon. In this way the hairs were very soon torn out and kept retained in the rings of the cocoon. This cocoon is then bristly inside, and does not at all suit the future chrysalis, which does not like to be touched by any but smooth surfaces. The caterpillar then works with its head, to lay the hairs along the interior surface, and to keep them down by threads, which it draws over them. At another time Réaumur saw a small hairy caterpillar, which appeared to live on lichens, using its hair in another way. It tore them out to make its cocoon, but it was not to lay them down and work them into a tissue. It set them straight up like the stakes of palisades, on the circumference of an oval space, in which it was placed. Shut up within this palisade, it spun a light white web. This web supports the hairs, causing the greater part ofthem to curve at their upper extremity, in such a manner as to form a sort of cradle.Fig. 118.—Small Caterpillar of the Pimpernel.Fig. 119.—Cocoon of the same.It remains for us now to speak of the caterpillars that make their cocoons of silk, together with other materials. Réaumur saw the Pimpernel caterpillar arranging and sticking together the leaves of that plant, and spinning underneath them a thin cocoon of white silk (Fig. 119).Fig. 120.—Larva of Cucullia verbasci.Some caterpillars make their cocoons on the surface of the earth, and even with earth. These cocoons are spherical or oblong. Their exterior is more or less well shaped, but their interior is always smooth, polished, shining like moistened earth, worked up together into a kind of paste, and carefully smoothed out. This cocoon is besides lined with a covering of silk of variable thickness. The shell is not made of earth alone; threads of silk may be seen in it, crossing each other, and binding together the particles of earth.Fig. 121.—Cocoon of the Cucullia verbasci.These subterranean workers do not allow their proceedings to be easily observed. Réaumur was fortunate enough to be able to notice their skill in the construction of their shells or cocoons. TheCucullia verbasci(Fig. 120) makes itself a thick and very compact cocoon of the form of an egg (Fig. 121). Réaumur took one of these out of the ground before it is fortified. He tore it partially open, and placed it in a glass vase containing sand, but the poor insect was not long in repairing the disorder caused by the rough hand of our naturalist. It only took four hours to restore its cocoon to its former state."It began," says Réaumur, "by coming almost entirely out, andleft only its hinder part within. It moved its head forwards as far as was necessary to enable it to seize a particle of earth. As soon as it had got its load, it re-entered the interior of the cocoon. It deposited the grain of earth, and came out again immediately, as it did at first, to pick up another grain, which it carried likewise into the interior of the cocoon. This operation it continued for more than an hour.... The provision of materials being got together, the caterpillar now devoted his whole attention to working them up. It began by spinning over one part of the edges of the opening. After having put over this a small band of very loose web, the caterpillar's head left the opening, the insect went right back again into its cocoon, and the head returned to the opening loaded with a little grain of earth, which it entangled in the silky threads. It then entangled in them two or three, or a greater number of grains, according to the quantity of threads it had spun. It bound them into these with other threads, after which it drew threads over the edges of another part. By thus going round the whole rim of the opening, and by carrying and fixing the grains of earth in the threads which were the last stretched over the opening, it rendered its diameter smaller and smaller."It was by working with its head that our mason gave to the new wall of its cocoon the necessary curvature. It was interesting to know how, as it could no longer put out its head, it could stop up the orifice."It knew how to change its manœuvres. When the opening was reduced to a circle of only a few lines in diameter, it drew threads from a point on the circumference to another on the other side.... Thus the opening was covered in with a rather open network.... As soon as this web was finished, it got a grain of earth (which it had laid by until it was wanted), brought it up, placed it against the web, and by pushing and pressing it, made it pass through the web until it reached the exterior, and so in succession the whole of the web was covered with grains of earth.... It was not satisfied with rendering the exterior of this place exactly like the rest of the shell; it fortified it thoroughly; it added to it, one after another, layers of grains of earth, till it was as solid and as thick as the rest."The larva ofPyralis corticalis, which is found on oak trees in the month of May, shows to what a point these little insects carry their industry in the construction of their cocoons, in the choice of their materials, in their manner of working them up, and in the forms they cause them to assume. Réaumur one day saw this caterpillar on a small branch, between two triangular appendages (Figs.122,123).This was the beginning of a cocoon. Each triangular blade was composed of a great number of small, thin, rectangular plates, taken from the bark of the twig. The caterpillar detached with its jaws a small band of bark, and fitted it on, and adjusted it with admirable precision against the edge already formed. It then fixed it securelywith silk threads. Réaumur saw this caterpillar work and erect in this way a large blade during an hour and a half.
IV.
LEPIDOPTERA.
This order of insects is known popularly by the names of Butterfly and Moth. Linnæus gave them the name ofLepidoptera, meaning insects with scaly wings (λεπις, a scale; and πτερον, a wing). They are to be found in great numbers in all parts of the world. All the insects contained in the order are, in their perfect state, remarkable for the elegance of their shape, the rapidity and airiness of their flight, and the multiplicity and beauty of their colours. Before they arrive at this perfect state, the Lepidoptera have to undergo three complete transformations. They leave the egg in the larva or caterpillar state; they pass next to the state of pupa, or chrysalis; they then assume, after a variable time, their final or perfect form. We will study them in their three different states in succession.
The Larva, or Caterpillar.
When the winter has stripped the leaves off the trees, the Lepidoptera are seen no more; but as soon as the leaves begin to show themselves on the trees and shrubs, this tribe of the insect race again makes its appearance. Caterpillars of all kinds are gnawing at the leaves, even before they are fully developed. Many of them have just emerged from the eggs which the perfect insects had laid at an earlier period; others have passed the winter in this state.
When they come out of the egg the young caterpillars are in shape more or less elongated and cylindrical. Their body is composed of twelve segments, or rings. In front is the head; then come three segments, on which are the front legs, and which constitute the thorax; the other segments constitute the abdomen. The head is formed of two scaly parts. It is often very deeply hollowed out on its upper side, and divided into two lobes, which contain in the angle formed by their separation the different parts of the mouth. The head is uniform, rarely having, so far as our caterpillars are concerned, any protuberance; but in the tropical species it is often armed with prickles, spikes, and extraordinary appendages. They are provided with six small simple eyes, isolated from each other. The mouth is armed laterally with a pair of very solid horny mandibles, articulated by means of vigorous muscles, and moving horizontally. It is the function of the mandibles, as with the jaws, to divide the creature's food. On the middle of a broad under-lip one may perceive a little elongated tubular organ, pierced with a microscopic orifice. This organ is the spinning apparatus, which the animal uses in fabricating the threads which it will one day require. It is a tube composed of longitudinal fibres. It presents only one orifice, cut obliquely, and capable of applying itself exactly to the body on which the larva is placed. From the contractile nature of this organ and the form of its orifice, combined with the faculty the insect possesses of moving it in all directions, result the great differences we observe in the diameter and form of the threads.
Fig. 94.—Scaly legs of the Caterpillar of the Gipsy Moth (Liparis dispar).
The external organs of the trunk and abdomen are the legs, the spiracles, and various occasional appendages. The legs are of two different kinds. The one, to the number of six, attached by pairs to the trunk, are covered with a shiny cartilage, and armed with hooks. These are the true legs.Fig. 94represents, after Réaumur's "Mémoire sur les Différentes Parties des Chenilles,"[36]the scaly legs of the caterpillar of the Gipsy Moth. The others are membranous, fleshy, generally conical or cylindrical, contractile, and taking, according to the will of the animal, very different forms.Fig. 95represents, after the same Memoir of Réaumur's, the different forms of the membranous legs of the silkworm caterpillar. This plate gives a sufficiently goodidea of the shape of these organs, and of the hooks, circular or semi-circular, with which they are furnished.
Fig. 95.—Membranous legs of the Silkworm (Bombyx mori).Fig. 95.—Membranous legs of the Silkworm (Bombyx mori).
InFig. 96are represented, after the same author, two membranous legs of a large caterpillar, of which the hooks of the feet are fastened into a branch of a shrub.
Fig. 96.—Membranous legs of a large Caterpillar embracing a twig.
Caterpillars have from two to ten false legs, the scaly legs being always six in number. The pro-legs, as the fleshy ones are called, are divided intohinderandintermediate. The former are two in number; the intermediate are rarely more than eight in number.
In the caterpillars which have the full number of legs—that is to say, sixteen—there are two empty spaces, where the body has no support: the one between the legs and the pro-legs, formed by the fourth and fifth segment; the other, between the intermediate pro-legs and the anal legs, formed by the tenth and eleventh ring.
The variations which caterpillars present, so far as the number and situations of their pro-legs are concerned, are the following:—
The greatest number among them have ten pro-legs; others have only eight; others only six—these may be called semi-loopers; othersonly four, one pair being situated on the last ring, and the other on the ninth, as in the case of looper caterpillars. And, lastly, there are others which have only two pro-legs.
The various forms, numbers, and positions of these organs, produce great differences in the mode of locomotion of caterpillars. Those provided with ten or eight membranous legs have in walking only a very slight undulating motion. Their bodies are parallel to the plane which supports them. They can walk very quickly; but their steps are short and quickly repeated. Others, on the contrary, in proportion as the number of their false legs diminish, and the spaces between the legs increase, walk in a more irregular and quaint manner.
Fig. 97.—Looper Caterpillar.
If the reader will glance atFig. 97, taken from Réaumur's "Mémoire sur les Chenilles en général,"[37]which represents a looper caterpillar, with four membranous legs, he will see that there is a considerable space between the posterior legs and the first pair of pro-legs, along which the body has no points of support. If one of these caterpillars, lying quiet and at full length, determines to walk, in order to take its first step (Fig. 98) it begins by humping its back, curving into an arch that part which has no legs, and finishes by assuming the position seen inFig. 99. In the former position it has its two intermediate legs against the posterior legs, and, in consequence, it has brought forward the hinder part of its body, a distance equal to the interval of the five segments which separate them. There it hooks on by itsintermediateandhindlegs. Then it has only to raise and straighten the five rings which had formed the loop, and to advance its head to a distance equal to the length of fivesegments. The step is thus made, the caterpillar making the same movements in taking the second and following steps.
This sort of gait has gained for them the name of Geometers, because they seem to measure the road over which they travel. When they make a step, they apply the part of their body which they have just curved up to the ground, in exactly the same way as a land surveyor applies his chain to it.
Fig. 100.—Caterpillar of the Canary-shouldered Thorn (Eugonia alniaria).Fig. 100.—Caterpillar of the Canary-shouldered Thorn (Eugonia alniaria).
These looper caterpillars cannot shorten nor lengthen their segments at will, as other caterpillars, but only bend their bodies. There are many species whose bodies are cylindrical, stiff, and of the same colour as bark. Their attitudes deceive even the close observer. They embrace the stem of a leaf or twig with their hinder and intermediate legs, whilst the rest of their body, vertically elevated, remains stiff and immovable for hours together.Fig. 100shows the caterpillar of the Canary-shouldered Thorn (Eugonia alniaria) in this strange position. Now, this is a feat of strength which the most skilful of our acrobats, ordinary and extraordinary, which all the Leotards of the present day, and those who are to succeed them, can never accomplish. With such a persistency, this caterpillar cansustain its body in the air for a considerable time, in all the positions imaginable, between the vertical and the horizontal, and downwards again in any incline from the horizontal to the vertical. "If one considers," says Réaumur, "how far we are from having in the muscles of our arms a force capable of supporting us in such attitudes as these, we must own that the power of the muscles in these insects is prodigious."
We will not dwell now on the variableness of the length of the body of caterpillars; on the fleshy appendages which are to be observed on them; on the hairs which either beautify or render them hideous, according to the fancy of the observer; nor on the various colours with which they are decorated. We will notice these various characteristics when giving the history of some species of remarkable Lepidoptera.
Many caterpillars are solitary; others live in companies more or less numerous, either when young, or during the whole of their existence.
With the exception of a great number of moths, which live at the expense of our furs, or woollen stuffs, and leather or fatty matters, all caterpillars feed on plants. From the root to the seeds, no part of the vegetable is safe from their attacks. The greatest number of the species, however, prefer the leaves. Those of the most acrid and poisonous are no more spared than those of the most harmless plants. There are caterpillars which eat the leaves of the Euphorbia, or spurge, for instance.
"I wished to try," says Réaumur, "the milk of this plant on my tongue. It produced hardly any effect upon it at first; but after a quarter of an hour I found my mouth on fire, and it was a heat which reiterated garglings with water during many hours in succession could not quench. This continued till the next day. The heat passed successively from one part of my mouth to another. I, however, saw many of my caterpillars drinking greedily the great drops of milk which were at the end of the broken stem I had presented to them."
Is it not extraordinary that there are caterpillars which live on the nettle?—that they eat the leaves of this plant, armed as it is with stinging bristles, which cause such smarting and itching to the skin, and produce blisters upon it.
It has often been said that each plant has its own peculiar species of caterpillar. All we can say is, that a certain number of vegetables only suit certain caterpillars. The species which eat roots are few; those which live in the interior of stalks or stems which they feed onare numerous, and those which nourish themselves on the pulp of fruits are rare. In general, after the leaves, the caterpillars prefer the flowers: in this they certainly do not show bad taste. Their growth is more or less rapid, according to the species, according to the nourishment they take, and according to the season of the year. Those whose food is succulent grow more rapidly than those which have for their food dry gramineous plants and coriaceous lichens. Most of them eat at night, and remain during the day motionless, and as it were in a state of torpor; others are so voracious that they are constantly eating. This voracity is indeed sometimes surprising. Malpighi has observed that a silkworm often eats in a day mulberry leaves equal to its own weight. How could we provide our horses and oxen with provender, if they required each day their own weight of hay and grass? There are even some caterpillars which are still more voracious than that. Réaumur weighed several caterpillars of a species which lives on the cabbage, and gave them bits of cabbage-leaves which weighed twice as much as their bodies. In less than twenty-four hours they had entirely consumed them. In this space of time their weight increased one-tenth. Fancy a man whose weight is 180 lbs. eating in one day 360 lbs. of meat, and gaining 18 lbs. in weight! Caterpillars eat by the aid of two jaws or mandibles so broad and solid that, considering the smallness of the insect, they are equivalent to all the teeth with which large animals are furnished. It is by the alternate movement of these mandibles that the caterpillars devour the leaves with so much greediness and ease.
Fig. 101.—Looper Caterpillar eating the leaves of the Apricot (after Réaumur).Fig. 101.—Looper Caterpillar eating the leaves of the Apricot (after Réaumur).
"A caterpillar, when it wants to gnaw the edge of a leaf," says Réaumur, "twists its body in such a way that at least one portion of the edge of this leaf is passed between its legs. These legs hold fast that portion of the leaf which is to be cut by the insect's jaws (Fig. 101). To give the first bite the caterpillar elongates its body, and carries its head as far forward as possible. The portion of the leaf which is between the open jaws is cut through the instant the teethmeet each other; the bites succeed each other quickly; there is not one, or scarcely one of them, that does not detach a bit, and each bit is swallowed almost as soon as cut off. At each fresh bite the head approaches the legs in such a way that during the succession of bites it describes an arc; it hollows out the portion of the leaf in a segment of a circle, and it is always in this order that it gnaws it."
But there is a phenomenon in the life of caterpillars which we ought to point out, and which has attracted the attention of the most illustrious observers. All caterpillars change their skins many times during their life. It is not, indeed, enough to say that they change their skins; the skins or cases they cast are so complete that they might be taken for entire caterpillars. The hairs, the case of the legs, the claws with which the legs are provided, the hard and solid parts which cover the head, the jaws—all these are found in the skin which the insect abandons. What an operation for the poor little animal! This labour is so enormous, so troublesome, that one cannot form a just idea of it. One or two days before this grand crisis, the caterpillar leaves off eating, loses its usual activity, and becomes motionless and languid. Their colour fades, their skin dries little by little, they bow their backs, swell out their segments. At last this dried-up skin splits below the back, on the second or third ring, and lets us have a glimpse of a small portion of the new skin, easily to be recognised by the freshness and brightness of its colours.
"When once the split has been begun," says Réaumur, "it is easy for the insect to extend it; it continues to swell out that part of its body which is opposite the slit. Very soon this part raises itself above the sides of the split; it does the work of a wedge, which elongates it; thus the split soon extends from the end or the commencement of the first ring as far as the other side of the end of the fourth. The upper portion of the body which corresponds to these four rings is then laid bare, and the caterpillar has an opening sufficiently large to serve it as an egress through which it can entirely leave its old skin. It curves its fore part, and draws it backwards; by this movement it disengages its head from under its old envelope, and brings it up to the beginning of the slit; at once it raises it, and puts it out through this slit. The moment afterwards it stretches out its fore part and lowers its head. There now remains for the caterpillar nothing but to draw its hinder part from the old case."
This excessively laborious operation is finished in less than a minute. The new livery which the caterpillar has just put on is fresh and bright in colour. But the animal is exhausted by its fast, and the efforts which it has made. It requires a few hours in which toregain its equilibrium, and at the same time its former activity and voracity.
The Chrysalis, or Pupa.
Having attained its full development, the caterpillar ceases to eat, as at the approach of a moult, it empties its intestinal canal by copious ejections; it loses its colours, and becomes dull and livid, and thus prepares itself to enter a new phase of its existence.
Some, when about to transform themselves into chrysalides, suspend themselves to foreign bodies. Others spin a cocoon, composed of silk and other substances, which secures them against the attacks of their enemies and the action of the atmosphere. Those which suspend themselves can be divided under two heads, according to the mode of their suspension:—1. Those which suspend themselves perpendicularly by the tail. 2. Those which, after having fixed themselves by the same part, suspend themselves horizontally, by means of a silk thread passed round the body.
Figs. 102, 103.—Caterpillars of the small Tortoise-shell ButterflyFigs. 102, 103.—Caterpillars of the small Tortoise-shell
Figs. 104, 105.—Chrysalides of the small Tortoise-shell Butterfly freeing themselves from the Caterpillar skin.Figs. 104, 105.—Chrysalides of the small Tortoise-shell Butterfly freeing themselves from the Caterpillar skin.
To understand the difficulty which the first of these operations presents, we must consider the problem which the caterpillar has to solve. In this problem there are two unknown quantities to be discovered. Firstly, the caterpillar must suspend itself firmly; and secondly, the pupa, having no communication with the object which supports it, must be suspended in the same manner. This problem is difficult, apparently impossible, to solve. It is only by watching these insects at work that one can discover the wonderful mysteries of their lives. Swammerdam, Valisnieri, and other observers who have studied insects, had not, however, observed the manœuvres of caterpillars in this curious phase of their existence. It is to Réaumur again that science is indebted for the most charming and valuable observations on this point. He got together a great number of caterpillars of the small Tortoise-shell Butterfly (Vanessa urticæ), black prickly caterpillars which are common on the stinging-nettle, where they live in companies, and suspend themselves by the tail. When the time approaches at which the caterpillars of this species ought to undergo their transformations, they usually leave the plant which had up to that time served them as food. After having wandered about a little, they select some convenient spot, where they hang themselves up head downwards (Figs.102,103).
In order to hang itself in this way, the caterpillar begins by covering, with threads drawn in different directions, a pretty large extent of the surface of the body against which it wishes to fix itself. After having covered it thus with a kind of thin cobweb, it adds differentlayers of threads on a small portion of this surface, in such a manner that the upper one is always smaller than that upon which it is laid. In this manner a small hillock of silk is formed, the tissue of which is not at all compact. It resembles an assemblage of loose or badly interwoven threads. The membranous feet of the caterpillar are armed with hooks of different lengths, with the aid of which it suspends itself. By alternately contracting and elongating its body, it pushes its hindermost legs against the hillock of silk, presses against it the hooks of its feet, so as to get them better entangled, and lets its body fall in a vertical position.
It remains hanging thus, often for twenty-four hours, during which time it is occupied in a difficult task, that of splitting its skin. In order to effect this, it incessantly curves and recurves its body (Fig. 102), until at last a split appears on the skin of the back, and through this split emerges a part of the body of the chrysalis. This acts as a wedge, and little by little the split widens from the head to the last of the true legs, and beyond them. Then the opening is sufficient to allow of the chrysalis drawing out its anterior portion from the envelope, which it immediately does. To set itself entirely free, the chrysalis lengthens and shortens itself alternately (Fig. 105). Each time that it shortens itself, and when it consequently distends the part of its body which is outside the old skin, that part acts againstthe edges of the slit, and gradually pushes the old skin upwards. Thus the caterpillar skin ascends, its plaits are pushed nearer and nearer together, and it is soon reduced to a packet so small that it covers only the end of the tail of the chrysalis (Fig. 106).
But here comes the culminating point, the most difficult part of the operation. The chrysalis, which is shorter than the caterpillar, is at some distance from the silky network to which it must fix itself; it is only supported by that extremity of the caterpillar's skin which had not been split open. It has neither legs nor arms, and yet it must free itself from this remaining part of the skin, and reach the threads to which it is to suspend itself.
The supple and contractile segments of the chrysalis serve for the limbs which are wanting to it. Between two of these segments, as with a pair of pincers, the insect seizes a portion of the folded skin, and with such a firm hold that it is able to support the whole of its body on it. It now curves its hinder parts slightly, and draws its tail entirely out of the sheath in which it was enclosed. It then reposes for an instant only, for it has not yet finished the laborious operation of its deliverance. It must free itself entirely from the dry skin which surrounds the extremity of its body.
The insect curves the part which is below its tail in such a manner that that part can embrace and seize the packet to which it holds on. It then gives to its body a violent shock, which makes it spin round many times on its tail, and that with great rapidity. During all these pirouettes the chrysalis acts against the skin; the hooks of its legs fray the threads, and break them or disentanglethemselves from them. Sometimes the threads do not break at once. Then the animal recommences its revolutions in an opposite direction, and this time it is almost certain to succeed. Réaumur, however, saw a chrysalis which, after having tired itself in vain in its endeavours to get entirely free of its old skin, despairing of ever being able to manage it, abandoned it where it was so solidly fixed. We represent (Fig. 107), rather magnified, the chrysalis arrived at its final state, and suspended to a branch of a tree by a network of silk.[38]
We come now to the mode of suspension employed by those caterpillars, which, after having fixed themselves by the tail, strengthen the support by means of a small silk cord passed round their body.
It is again to Réaumur, that indefatigable observer of the habits of insects, that we go for the details of this manner of suspension. According to Réaumur, these caterpillars make and put on this belt in three different ways. But of these three ways the simplest, and the least liable to meet with accident, is that employed by the larva of the Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassicæ). When the time for its metamorphosis is only a few days distant, one may observe this caterpillar engaged in stretching threads on different parts of the case in which it is confined. It then chooses a spot, which it covers entirely with threads, some more compact than the others, and disposed in layers, which cross each other in different directions. These threads form a thin white cloth, against which the belly of the caterpillar and later that of the chrysalis are applied. Very soon we see a small hillock of silk rising. The caterpillar hooks itself on to this by the claws of its hinder feet, and sets to work to secure itself.
To understand this process, it suffices to know that after having lengthened its body to a certain point, this caterpillar can turn back its head on to its back, and reach to the fifth ring, having its three pairs of true legs in the air. But without putting the caterpillar into such an unnatural position, let us take it in a position in which it is simply bent sideways in such a manner that its head, with the thread-spinning apparatus, which is below, can be applied opposite and pretty near to one of the legs belonging to the first pair of membranous legs. Our caterpillar begins by fixing on this point a thread, which is the first of those that are intended to tie it up securely.
Fig. 108.—Caterpillars of the Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassicæ).Fig. 108.—Caterpillars of the Cabbage Butterfly (Pieris brassicæ).
"This thread," says the illustrious author of the "Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire des Insectes, "must pass over the caterpillar's body,and be attached by its other end near the leg corresponding to that near which the first end was fastened. To spin the thread the proper length, and at the same time to fix it in its proper place, the caterpillar has only to bring round its head to the fifth segment. The thread will be drawn from the spinning apparatus as the head advances over half the circumference of the circle which it has to describe; and when it has described this, there will only remain for it to secure the second end of the thread against the support. Thus the head, which was at first placed against one of the legs, advances little by little on the outline of the fifth ring as far as to its middle (Fig. 108). It is the facility the caterpillar has of reversing its body that enables it to make its head perform this journey, in proportion as it moves it over the circumference of the ring, it twists its body. And at last, when it has brought it over the top of the segment, its body is exactly folded in two; it draws it little by little from this situation by bending towards the other side, and by causing its head to pass gently over the last quarter of the circle. At last the caterpillar finds itself bound on the second side; the head rests on the thread-covered plane, and the insect fixes the second end of the thread."
Fig. 109.—Caterpillar of the Pieris brassicæ.Fig. 109.—Caterpillar of the Pieris brassicæ.
It has only to repeat the same manœuvre as many times as thereare threads wanted to make a strong band. But each thread embraces the head, or rather the lower part of the head, for it knows how to make each thread it spins glide into the bend or crease of its neck by a little movement of its head. It must disengage its head from under the band, not a difficult operation. It causes it to slide along the threads near one of the places where they are fixed, and it is then in the position indicated by the foregoing engraving (Fig. 109).
Fig. 110.—Pupæ of Pieris brassicæ.Fig. 110.—Pupæ of Pieris brassicæ.
About thirty hours after the caterpillars have succeeded in making themselves fast, they have completed their transformation into chrysalides (Fig. 110), where the chrysalis of the above-mentioned caterpillar is seen in two different positions, and held by the same band which first supported the caterpillar.
Those caterpillars which construct cocoons make them of silk and other substances. These cocoons are, for the most part, oval or elliptical, sometimes boat-shaped, and ordinarily white, yellow, or brown in colour. The threads may very slightly adhere together, or be closely united by a gummy substance with which the caterpillar lines the interior of the cocoon, and which it expels from the anus. Some cocoons are composed of a double envelope, others are of a uniform texture. Some are of a tissue so close that they entirely hide the chrysalis contained within; others form a very light covering, through which the chrysalis can be easily perceived (Fig. 111).
Fig. 111.—Cocoon, after Réaumur.Fig. 111.—Cocoon, after Réaumur.
Among caterpillars that make a very slight cocoon, some, as theCatocalas, gather together two or three leaves into a ball, to protect them. Others strengthen their cocoons, and render them opaque by adding earth or other substances, often obtained from their own bodies. Some, after having spun their cocoon, cast forth through the anus three or four masses of a matterresembling paste, which they apply with their head to the inside of the cocoon, and which, drying quickly, becomes pulverulent. Others employ for the same purpose the hairs with which their bodies are covered.
The larva ofAcronycta aceris(Fig. 113) is covered with tufts of yellow hair. Réaumur made these caterpillars work under his own eye in glass vases. They make the layer which is to form the exterior surface of their shell, or cocoon, of pure silk, and when it is thick enough, tear out their hair, now from one place, now from another. But we will leave the illustrious observer to relate this operation himself, which must without doubt be painful to the poor animal:—
Fig. 112.—Larvæ of Catocala fraxini.Fig. 112.—Larvæ of Catocala fraxini.
Fig. 113.—Larva of Acronycta aceris.
Fig. 114.—Larva of Acronycta aceris.
Fig. 115.—Larva of Acronycta aceris taken out of its cocoon.
"Its two jaws are the pincers the caterpillar uses in seizing a portion of one or other of the tufts of hair; and when it has seized it, it tears it out without much difficulty. It at once places this against the tissue it has already commenced, in which it entangles it at first simply by pressure; itfixes it then more securely by spinning over it. It does not leave off tearing out its hairs till it has entirely stripped them off. When the caterpillar has taken between its jaws and torn out a whole tuft of hair, the head carries it and deposits it on some part of the lower surface of the cocoon; but it does not leave the hairs of such a large parcel together. The next moment one sees its head moving about very quickly; then taking a portion of the hairs from the little heap, it distributes them about on the neighbouring parts of the cocoon. If one opens one of these shells before the caterpillar has become a chrysalis, the larva, which is quite naked, and which was only known by its hair, can be no longer recognised."
Fig. 116.—Larva of Chelonia caja.
The caterpillar of the Tiger Moth, or Woolly Bear, called by RéaumurMarteorHerisson(Chelonia caja,Fig. 116), is covered with long inclined hairs. This caterpillar also makes use of its hairs for strengthening the tissue of its cocoon; but whether it feels the pain more acutely than the former, or whether it would suffer more, it does not tear out its hairs. It adopts another system; it cuts them. The caterpillar is then enveloped on all sides in its hair, which is to serve in the construction of its cocoon.
Fig. 117.—Larva of Chelonia caja forming its cocoon.
Another species uses its hairs in the composition of its cocoon; but it adopts an entirely peculiar way of tearing them out, when the tissue of its cocoon has become a species of network of pretty closely packed rings. Réaumur one day saw one part of the cocoon bristling with hairs. These were the hairs of a part of the back of the caterpillar, which it had pushed through the rings of its cocoon. The caterpillar then moved about as if rubbing this part of its back successively in opposite directions against the interior surface of the cocoon. In this way the hairs were very soon torn out and kept retained in the rings of the cocoon. This cocoon is then bristly inside, and does not at all suit the future chrysalis, which does not like to be touched by any but smooth surfaces. The caterpillar then works with its head, to lay the hairs along the interior surface, and to keep them down by threads, which it draws over them. At another time Réaumur saw a small hairy caterpillar, which appeared to live on lichens, using its hair in another way. It tore them out to make its cocoon, but it was not to lay them down and work them into a tissue. It set them straight up like the stakes of palisades, on the circumference of an oval space, in which it was placed. Shut up within this palisade, it spun a light white web. This web supports the hairs, causing the greater part ofthem to curve at their upper extremity, in such a manner as to form a sort of cradle.
It remains for us now to speak of the caterpillars that make their cocoons of silk, together with other materials. Réaumur saw the Pimpernel caterpillar arranging and sticking together the leaves of that plant, and spinning underneath them a thin cocoon of white silk (Fig. 119).
Fig. 120.—Larva of Cucullia verbasci.
Some caterpillars make their cocoons on the surface of the earth, and even with earth. These cocoons are spherical or oblong. Their exterior is more or less well shaped, but their interior is always smooth, polished, shining like moistened earth, worked up together into a kind of paste, and carefully smoothed out. This cocoon is besides lined with a covering of silk of variable thickness. The shell is not made of earth alone; threads of silk may be seen in it, crossing each other, and binding together the particles of earth.
Fig. 121.—Cocoon of the Cucullia verbasci.
These subterranean workers do not allow their proceedings to be easily observed. Réaumur was fortunate enough to be able to notice their skill in the construction of their shells or cocoons. TheCucullia verbasci(Fig. 120) makes itself a thick and very compact cocoon of the form of an egg (Fig. 121). Réaumur took one of these out of the ground before it is fortified. He tore it partially open, and placed it in a glass vase containing sand, but the poor insect was not long in repairing the disorder caused by the rough hand of our naturalist. It only took four hours to restore its cocoon to its former state.
"It began," says Réaumur, "by coming almost entirely out, andleft only its hinder part within. It moved its head forwards as far as was necessary to enable it to seize a particle of earth. As soon as it had got its load, it re-entered the interior of the cocoon. It deposited the grain of earth, and came out again immediately, as it did at first, to pick up another grain, which it carried likewise into the interior of the cocoon. This operation it continued for more than an hour.... The provision of materials being got together, the caterpillar now devoted his whole attention to working them up. It began by spinning over one part of the edges of the opening. After having put over this a small band of very loose web, the caterpillar's head left the opening, the insect went right back again into its cocoon, and the head returned to the opening loaded with a little grain of earth, which it entangled in the silky threads. It then entangled in them two or three, or a greater number of grains, according to the quantity of threads it had spun. It bound them into these with other threads, after which it drew threads over the edges of another part. By thus going round the whole rim of the opening, and by carrying and fixing the grains of earth in the threads which were the last stretched over the opening, it rendered its diameter smaller and smaller."
It was by working with its head that our mason gave to the new wall of its cocoon the necessary curvature. It was interesting to know how, as it could no longer put out its head, it could stop up the orifice.
"It knew how to change its manœuvres. When the opening was reduced to a circle of only a few lines in diameter, it drew threads from a point on the circumference to another on the other side.... Thus the opening was covered in with a rather open network.... As soon as this web was finished, it got a grain of earth (which it had laid by until it was wanted), brought it up, placed it against the web, and by pushing and pressing it, made it pass through the web until it reached the exterior, and so in succession the whole of the web was covered with grains of earth.... It was not satisfied with rendering the exterior of this place exactly like the rest of the shell; it fortified it thoroughly; it added to it, one after another, layers of grains of earth, till it was as solid and as thick as the rest."
The larva ofPyralis corticalis, which is found on oak trees in the month of May, shows to what a point these little insects carry their industry in the construction of their cocoons, in the choice of their materials, in their manner of working them up, and in the forms they cause them to assume. Réaumur one day saw this caterpillar on a small branch, between two triangular appendages (Figs.122,123).This was the beginning of a cocoon. Each triangular blade was composed of a great number of small, thin, rectangular plates, taken from the bark of the twig. The caterpillar detached with its jaws a small band of bark, and fitted it on, and adjusted it with admirable precision against the edge already formed. It then fixed it securelywith silk threads. Réaumur saw this caterpillar work and erect in this way a large blade during an hour and a half.