FOOTNOTES:

1. The grooved, eye-pointed needle used with a shuttle to form the lockstitch (E. Howe patent, held by E. Howe);2. The four-motion feeding mechanism (A. B. Wilson patent, held by Wheeler and Wilson company);3. The needle moving vertically above a horizontal work-plate (Bachelder patent), a continuous feeding device by belt or wheel (Bachelder patent), ayielding presser resting on the cloth (Bachelder patent), the spring or curved arm to hold the cloth by a yielding pressure (Morey and Johnson patent), the heart-shaped cam as applied to moving the needle bar (Singer patent); all these patents, held by the Singer Company.[66]

1. The grooved, eye-pointed needle used with a shuttle to form the lockstitch (E. Howe patent, held by E. Howe);

2. The four-motion feeding mechanism (A. B. Wilson patent, held by Wheeler and Wilson company);

3. The needle moving vertically above a horizontal work-plate (Bachelder patent), a continuous feeding device by belt or wheel (Bachelder patent), ayielding presser resting on the cloth (Bachelder patent), the spring or curved arm to hold the cloth by a yielding pressure (Morey and Johnson patent), the heart-shaped cam as applied to moving the needle bar (Singer patent); all these patents, held by the Singer Company.[66]

The Grover and Baker company contributed several patents of relative importance, but its most important claim for admission was the fact that Potter had promoted the idea.

The consent of all four member-parties was required before any license could be granted, and all were required to have a license—even the member companies. The fee was $15 per machine. A portion of this money was set aside to pay the cost of prosecuting infringers, Howe received his initial fee, and the rest was divided between the four parties. The advantage to the licensee was that he was required to pay only one fee. Most license applications were granted; only those manufacturing a machine specifically imitating the product of a licensed manufacturer were refused.

The three company members each continued to manufacture, improve, and perfect its own machine. Other than the joint control of the patents, there was no pooling of interests, and each company competed to attract purchasers to buy its particular type of machine, as did the companies who were licensed by them.

In 1860, the year Howe’s patent was renewed, the general license fee was reduced from $15 to $7, and Howe’s special royalty was reduced to $1 per machine. Howe remained a member until his patent ran out in 1867. The other members continued the “Combination” until 1877, when the Bachelder patent, which had been extended twice, finally expired. By that time the fundamental features of the sewing machine were no longer controlled by anyone. Open competition by the smaller manufacturers was possible, and a slight reduction in price followed. Many new companies came into being—some destined to be very short-lived.

From the beginning to the end of the “Combination” there was an army of independents, including infringers and imitators, who kept up a constant complaint against it, maintaining that its existence tended to retard the improvement of the sewing machine and that the public suffered thereby. In the period immediately following the termination of thehowever, only a few improvements of any importance weremade, and most of these were by the member companies.

FOOTNOTES:[64]These included the American Magnetic Sewing Machine Co.; A. Bartholf; Nichols and Bliss; J. A. Lerow; Woolridge, Keene, and Moore; and A. B. Howe.New York Daily Tribune, Sept. 3, 1853.[65]“Who Invented the Sewing-Machine,” unsigned article inThe Galaxy, vol. 4, August 31, 1867, pp. 471-481.[66]Singer has sometimes been credited as the inventor of the various improvements covered by the patents that the Singer company purchased and later contributed to the efforts of the Combination.

[64]These included the American Magnetic Sewing Machine Co.; A. Bartholf; Nichols and Bliss; J. A. Lerow; Woolridge, Keene, and Moore; and A. B. Howe.New York Daily Tribune, Sept. 3, 1853.

[65]“Who Invented the Sewing-Machine,” unsigned article inThe Galaxy, vol. 4, August 31, 1867, pp. 471-481.

[66]Singer has sometimes been credited as the inventor of the various improvements covered by the patents that the Singer company purchased and later contributed to the efforts of the Combination.

Figure 38.Figure 38.—Gibbs’ patent model, 1857.(Smithsonian photo 45504-E.)

Figure 38.—Gibbs’ patent model, 1857.(Smithsonian photo 45504-E.)

While the “Combination”was attempting to solve the problems of patent litigation, another problem faced the would-be home users of this new invention. The budget limitations of the average family caused a demand for a less expensive machine, for this first consumer appliance was a most desirable commodity.[67]

There were many attempts to satisfy this demand, but one of the best and most successful grew out of a young man’s curiosity. James E. A. Gibbs’ first exposure to the sewing machine was in 1855 when, at the age of 24, he saw a simple woodcut illustration of a Grover and Baker machine. The woodcut represented only the upper part of the machine. Nothing in the illustration indicated that more than one thread was used, and none of the stitch-forming mechanism was visible. Gibbs assumed that the stitch was formed with one thread; he then proceeded to imagine a mechanism that would make a stitch with one thread. His solution was described in his own statement:

As I was then living in a very out of the way place, far from railroads and public conveyances of all kinds, modern improvements seldom reached our locality, and not being likely to have my curiosity satisfied otherwise, I set to work to see what I could learn from the woodcut, which was not accompanied by any description. I first discovered that the needle was attached to a needle arm, and consequently could not pass entirely through the material, but must retreat through the same hole by which it entered. From this I saw that I could not make a stitch similar to handwork, but must have some other mode of fastening the thread on the underside, and among other possible methods of doing this, the chainstitch occurred to me as a likely means of accomplishing the end.I next endeavored to discover how this stitch was or could be made, and from the woodcut I saw that the driving shaft which had the driving wheel on the outer end, passed along under the cloth plate of the machine. I knew that the mechanism which made the stitch must be connected with and actuated by this driving shaft. After studying the position and relations of the needle and shaft with each other, I conceived the idea of the revolving hook on the end of the shaft, which might take hold of the thread and manipulate it into a chainstitch. My ideas were, of course, very crude and indefinite, but it will be seen that I then had the correct conception of the invention afterwards embodied in my machine.[68]

I next endeavored to discover how this stitch was or could be made, and from the woodcut I saw that the driving shaft which had the driving wheel on the outer end, passed along under the cloth plate of the machine. I knew that the mechanism which made the stitch must be connected with and actuated by this driving shaft. After studying the position and relations of the needle and shaft with each other, I conceived the idea of the revolving hook on the end of the shaft, which might take hold of the thread and manipulate it into a chainstitch. My ideas were, of course, very crude and indefinite, but it will be seen that I then had the correct conception of the invention afterwards embodied in my machine.[68]

Figure 39.Figure 39.—One of the first commercial machinesproduced by the Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co. in 1857, this machine bears no serial number, although the name “James E. A. Gibbs” is inscribed in two places on the cloth plate. It was used as the patent model for Gibbs’ improvement on his 1857 patent issued the following year on August 10, 1858. (Smithsonian photo P. 6393.)

Figure 39.—One of the first commercial machinesproduced by the Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co. in 1857, this machine bears no serial number, although the name “James E. A. Gibbs” is inscribed in two places on the cloth plate. It was used as the patent model for Gibbs’ improvement on his 1857 patent issued the following year on August 10, 1858. (Smithsonian photo P. 6393.)

Gibbs had no immediate interest in the sewing machine other than to satisfy his curiosity. He did not think of it again until January 1856 when he was visiting his father in Rockbridge County, Virginia. While in a tailor’s shop there, he happened to see a Singer machine. Gibbs was very much impressed, but thought the machine entirely too heavy, complicated, and cumbersome, and the price exorbitant. It was then that he recalled the machine he had devised. Remembering how simple it was, he decided to work in earnest to produce a less-expensive type of sewing machine.

Gibbs had little time to spend on this invention since his family was dependent upon him for support, but he managed to find time at night and during inclement weather. In contemporary references, Gibbs is referred to as a farmer, but since he is also reported to have had employers, it may be surmised that he was a farmhand. In any event, his decision to try to produce a less-expensive sewing machine suffered from a lack of proper tools and adequate materials. Most of the machine had to be constructed of wood, and he was forced to make his own needles. By the end of April 1856, however, his model was sufficiently completed to arouse the interest of his employers, who agreed to furnish the money necessary to patent the machine.

Gibbs went to Washington, where he examined sewing-machine models in the Patent Office and other machines then on the market. Completing his investigations, Gibbs made a trip to Philadelphia and showed his invention to a builder of models of new inventions, James Willcox. Much impressed with the machine, Willcox arranged for Gibbs to work with his son, Charles Willcox, in a small room in the rear of his shop. After taking out two minor patents (on December 16, 1856, and January 20, 1857), Gibbs obtained his important one, U.S. patent No. 17,427 on June 2, 1857 (fig. 38). His association with Charles Willcox led to the formation of the Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Company, and they began manufacturing chainstitch machines in 1857 (fig. 39). The machine used a straight needle to make a chainstitch. At the forward end of the main shaft was a hook which, as it rotated, carried the loop of needle-thread, elongated and held it expanded while the feed moved the cloth until the needle at the next stroke descended through the loop so held. When the needle descended through the first loop, the point of the hook was again in position to catch the second loop, at which time the first loop was cast off and the second loop drawn through it, the first loop having been drawn up against the lower edge of the cloth to form a chain.

Figure 40.Figure 40.—A dolphinsewing machine based on Clark’s patent of 1858. This design was first used by T. J. W. Robertson in 1855, but in his patent issued on May 22 of that year no claim was made for the machine design, only for the chainstitch mechanism. The same style was used by D. W. Clark in several of his chainstitch patents, but he also made no claim for the design, stating that the machine “may be made in any desired ornamental form.” The dolphin-style machines are all chainstitch models of solid brass, originally gilt. Although only about five inches long, they are full-size machines using a full-size needle. (Smithsonian photo 45505.)

Figure 40.—A dolphinsewing machine based on Clark’s patent of 1858. This design was first used by T. J. W. Robertson in 1855, but in his patent issued on May 22 of that year no claim was made for the machine design, only for the chainstitch mechanism. The same style was used by D. W. Clark in several of his chainstitch patents, but he also made no claim for the design, stating that the machine “may be made in any desired ornamental form.” The dolphin-style machines are all chainstitch models of solid brass, originally gilt. Although only about five inches long, they are full-size machines using a full-size needle. (Smithsonian photo 45505.)

A Gibbs sewing machine, on a simple iron-frame stand with treadle, sold for approximately $50 in the late 1850s,[69]while a Wheeler and Wilson[70]machine or a Grover and Baker[71]with the same type of stand sold for approximately $100. After the introduction of the Gibbs machine, the Singer company[72]brought out a light family machine in 1858 that was also first sold for $100. It was then reduced to $50, but it was not popular because it was too light (see discussion of Singer machines, pp. 34-35). In 1859, Singer brought out its second, more successful family machine, which sold for $75.

Like the other companies licensed by the “Combination,” Willcox and Gibbs company paid a royalty for the use of the patents it held. Although the Willcox and Gibbs machine was a single-thread chainstitch machine and the company held the Gibbs patents, the company was required to be licensed to use the basic feed, vertical needle, and other relatedpatents held by the “Sewing-Machine Combination.”

With the approach of the Civil War, Gibbs returned to Virginia. Poor health prevented him from taking an active part in the war, but he worked throughout the conflict in a factory processing saltpeter for gunpowder. Afterward, Gibbs returned to Philadelphia and found that Willcox had faithfully protected his sewing-machine interests during his long absence. The firm prospered, and Gibbs finally retired to Virginia a wealthy man. Interestingly, Gibbs named the Virginia village to which he returned in later life “Raphine”—derived, somewhat incorrectly, from the Greek word “to sew.”

The Willcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Company is one of the few old companies still in existence. It discontinued making and selling family-style machines many years ago and directed its energies toward specialized commercial sewing machines, many of which are based on the original chainstitch principle.

There was also an ever-increasing number of other patentees and manufacturers who, in the late 1850s and 1860s, attempted to produce a sewing machine that would circumvent both the “Combination” and the high cost of manufacturing a more complicated type of machine. Some of the more interesting of these are pictured and described in figures 40 through 54.

Figure 41.Figure 41.—The cherubsewing machine was another Robertson first which was adopted by Clark. Robertson’s patent of October 20, 1857, once again makes no claim for the design; neither does Clark’s patent of January 5, 1858, illustrated here. The machine is approximately the same size as the dolphin and is made in the same manner and of the same materials. Two cherubs form the main support, one also supporting the spool and leashing a dragonfly which backs the needle mechanism. (Smithsonian photo 45504-D.)Figure 42.Figure 42.—The foliage sewing machineoriginated with D. W. Clark. Once again he did not include the design in his June 8, 1858, patent, which was aimed at improving the feeding mechanism. Like most hand-turned models, these required a clamp to fasten them to the table when in operation. (Smithsonian photo 45504-C.)

Figure 41.—The cherubsewing machine was another Robertson first which was adopted by Clark. Robertson’s patent of October 20, 1857, once again makes no claim for the design; neither does Clark’s patent of January 5, 1858, illustrated here. The machine is approximately the same size as the dolphin and is made in the same manner and of the same materials. Two cherubs form the main support, one also supporting the spool and leashing a dragonfly which backs the needle mechanism. (Smithsonian photo 45504-D.)

Figure 42.Figure 42.—The foliage sewing machineoriginated with D. W. Clark. Once again he did not include the design in his June 8, 1858, patent, which was aimed at improving the feeding mechanism. Like most hand-turned models, these required a clamp to fasten them to the table when in operation. (Smithsonian photo 45504-C.)

Figure 42.—The foliage sewing machineoriginated with D. W. Clark. Once again he did not include the design in his June 8, 1858, patent, which was aimed at improving the feeding mechanism. Like most hand-turned models, these required a clamp to fasten them to the table when in operation. (Smithsonian photo 45504-C.)

Figure 43.Figure 43.—The sewing shearswas another popular machine of unusual style. Some models were designed to both cut and sew, but most derived their names from the method of motivating power. The earliest example of the sewing-shears machine was invented by Joseph Hendrick, who stated in his patent that he was attempting to produce “a simple, portable, cheap, and efficient machine.” His patent model of October 5, 1858, is illustrated. (Smithsonian photo 45504-F.)Figure 44.Figure 44.—The horse sewing machineis among the most unusual of the patents issued for mechanical improvements. Although James Perry, the patentee, made several claims for the looper, feeder, and tension, he made no mention of the unusual design of the machine, for which a patent was issued on November 23, 1858. Although it was probably one of a kind, the horse machine illustrates the extent to which the inventor’s mind struggled for original design. (Smithsonian photo 45505-C.)

Figure 43.—The sewing shearswas another popular machine of unusual style. Some models were designed to both cut and sew, but most derived their names from the method of motivating power. The earliest example of the sewing-shears machine was invented by Joseph Hendrick, who stated in his patent that he was attempting to produce “a simple, portable, cheap, and efficient machine.” His patent model of October 5, 1858, is illustrated. (Smithsonian photo 45504-F.)

Figure 44.Figure 44.—The horse sewing machineis among the most unusual of the patents issued for mechanical improvements. Although James Perry, the patentee, made several claims for the looper, feeder, and tension, he made no mention of the unusual design of the machine, for which a patent was issued on November 23, 1858. Although it was probably one of a kind, the horse machine illustrates the extent to which the inventor’s mind struggled for original design. (Smithsonian photo 45505-C.)

Figure 44.—The horse sewing machineis among the most unusual of the patents issued for mechanical improvements. Although James Perry, the patentee, made several claims for the looper, feeder, and tension, he made no mention of the unusual design of the machine, for which a patent was issued on November 23, 1858. Although it was probably one of a kind, the horse machine illustrates the extent to which the inventor’s mind struggled for original design. (Smithsonian photo 45505-C.)

Figure 45.Figure 45.—Many inventorsattempted to cut the cost of manufacturing a complicated machine. One of these was Albert H. Hook, whose machine is only about four inches high and two inches wide. His patent, granted November 30, 1858, simplified the construction and arrangement of the various parts. Although Hook used a barbed needle reminiscent of the one used by Thimonnier, his method of forming the stitch was entirely different. The thread was passed through the necessary guides, and when the cloth was in place the needle was thrust up from below. Passing through the fabric, the needle descended, carrying with it a loop of thread. As the process was repeated, a chainstitch was formed with the enchained loop on the under side. In spite of its simple mechanism, Hook’s machine was not a commercial success. (Smithsonian photo 45505-D.)Figure 46.Figure 46.—In addition to mechanical patents, a number of design patents were also issued for sewing machines. These fall into a separate series in the Patent Office’s numerical records. This unusual example featured two semidraped female figures holding the spool of thread, a mermaid holding the needle, a serpent which served as the presser foot, and a heart-shaped baster plate. The design was patented by W. N. Brown, October 25, 1859, but no examples other than the patent model are known to have been made. (Smithsonian photo 45504-A.)

Figure 45.—Many inventorsattempted to cut the cost of manufacturing a complicated machine. One of these was Albert H. Hook, whose machine is only about four inches high and two inches wide. His patent, granted November 30, 1858, simplified the construction and arrangement of the various parts. Although Hook used a barbed needle reminiscent of the one used by Thimonnier, his method of forming the stitch was entirely different. The thread was passed through the necessary guides, and when the cloth was in place the needle was thrust up from below. Passing through the fabric, the needle descended, carrying with it a loop of thread. As the process was repeated, a chainstitch was formed with the enchained loop on the under side. In spite of its simple mechanism, Hook’s machine was not a commercial success. (Smithsonian photo 45505-D.)

Figure 46.Figure 46.—In addition to mechanical patents, a number of design patents were also issued for sewing machines. These fall into a separate series in the Patent Office’s numerical records. This unusual example featured two semidraped female figures holding the spool of thread, a mermaid holding the needle, a serpent which served as the presser foot, and a heart-shaped baster plate. The design was patented by W. N. Brown, October 25, 1859, but no examples other than the patent model are known to have been made. (Smithsonian photo 45504-A.)

Figure 46.—In addition to mechanical patents, a number of design patents were also issued for sewing machines. These fall into a separate series in the Patent Office’s numerical records. This unusual example featured two semidraped female figures holding the spool of thread, a mermaid holding the needle, a serpent which served as the presser foot, and a heart-shaped baster plate. The design was patented by W. N. Brown, October 25, 1859, but no examples other than the patent model are known to have been made. (Smithsonian photo 45504-A.)

Figure 47.Figure 47.—The squirrel machinewas another interesting design patent. S. B. Ellithorp had received a mechanical patent for a two-thread, stationary-bobbin machine on August 26, 1857. That same month he published a picture of his machine, shown here as republished in theSewing Machine News, vol. 7, no. 11, November 1885. The machine was designed in the shape of “the ordinary gray squirrel so common throughout this country—an animal that is selected as a type of provident care and forethought, for its habits of frugality and for making provision for seasons of scarcity and want in times of plenty—and the different parts of the animal are each put to a useful purpose; the moving power being placed within its body, the needle stock through its head, one of its fore feet serving to guide the thread, and the other to hold down the cloth while being sewed, and the tip of its tail forming a support to the spool from which the thread is supplied.”Although the design patent was not secured until June 7, 1859, the inventor was reported to have been perfecting his machine for manufacture in 1857. Ellithorp planned “to place them in market at a price that will permit families and individuals that have heretofore been deterred from purchasing a machine by the excessive and exorbitant price charged for those now in use, to possess one.” Patent rights were sold under the name of Ellithorp & Fox, but the machine was never manufactured on a large scale, if at all. No squirrel machines are known to have survived. (Smithsonian photo 53112.)

Figure 47.—The squirrel machinewas another interesting design patent. S. B. Ellithorp had received a mechanical patent for a two-thread, stationary-bobbin machine on August 26, 1857. That same month he published a picture of his machine, shown here as republished in theSewing Machine News, vol. 7, no. 11, November 1885. The machine was designed in the shape of “the ordinary gray squirrel so common throughout this country—an animal that is selected as a type of provident care and forethought, for its habits of frugality and for making provision for seasons of scarcity and want in times of plenty—and the different parts of the animal are each put to a useful purpose; the moving power being placed within its body, the needle stock through its head, one of its fore feet serving to guide the thread, and the other to hold down the cloth while being sewed, and the tip of its tail forming a support to the spool from which the thread is supplied.”

Although the design patent was not secured until June 7, 1859, the inventor was reported to have been perfecting his machine for manufacture in 1857. Ellithorp planned “to place them in market at a price that will permit families and individuals that have heretofore been deterred from purchasing a machine by the excessive and exorbitant price charged for those now in use, to possess one.” Patent rights were sold under the name of Ellithorp & Fox, but the machine was never manufactured on a large scale, if at all. No squirrel machines are known to have survived. (Smithsonian photo 53112.)

Figure 48.Figure 48.—Heyer’s pocket sewing machinepatent model, November 17, 1863. This patent model is one piece, and measures about two inches in height and two inches in length. It will stitch—but only coarse, loosely woven fabrics. As can be expected, a great deal of manual dexterity is required to compensate for the omission of mechanical parts. Heyer advertised patent rights for sale, but evidence of manufactured machines of this type has yet to be discovered. (Smithsonian photo 18115-D[a].)Figure 49.Figure 49.—Heyer’s machineas illustrated inScientific American, July 30, 1864. The smallest and most original of all the attempts to simplify machine sewing, Heyer’s machine, which made a chainstitch, was constructed of a single strip of metal. TheScientific Americanstated: “It is simply a steel spring ingeniously bent and arranged and it is said to sew small articles very well. The whole affair can easily be carried in the coat pocket.”One method of operation, vibrating with the finger, was illustrated. The machine could be operated also by holding it in the hand and pressuring it between two fingers. Cloth was inserted atc, and the prongs of the spring feedfcarried it along after each stitch. It was stated that the needle could be cut from the same strip of metal, but it was advised also that the needle could be made as a separate piece and attached. (Smithsonian photo 48221.)Figure 50.Figure 50.—Although Bean’s and Rodgers’running-stitch machines, the second and fourth U.S. sewing-machine patents, experienced little commercial success, small manufactured machines based on Aaron Palmer’s patent of May 13, 1862, were popular in the 1860s. The patent model above is a small brass implement with crimping gears that forced the fabric onto an ordinary sewing needle. The full needle was then removed from its position, and the thread was pulled through the fabric by hand. (Smithsonian photo 45524.)

Figure 48.—Heyer’s pocket sewing machinepatent model, November 17, 1863. This patent model is one piece, and measures about two inches in height and two inches in length. It will stitch—but only coarse, loosely woven fabrics. As can be expected, a great deal of manual dexterity is required to compensate for the omission of mechanical parts. Heyer advertised patent rights for sale, but evidence of manufactured machines of this type has yet to be discovered. (Smithsonian photo 18115-D[a].)

Figure 49.Figure 49.—Heyer’s machineas illustrated inScientific American, July 30, 1864. The smallest and most original of all the attempts to simplify machine sewing, Heyer’s machine, which made a chainstitch, was constructed of a single strip of metal. TheScientific Americanstated: “It is simply a steel spring ingeniously bent and arranged and it is said to sew small articles very well. The whole affair can easily be carried in the coat pocket.”One method of operation, vibrating with the finger, was illustrated. The machine could be operated also by holding it in the hand and pressuring it between two fingers. Cloth was inserted atc, and the prongs of the spring feedfcarried it along after each stitch. It was stated that the needle could be cut from the same strip of metal, but it was advised also that the needle could be made as a separate piece and attached. (Smithsonian photo 48221.)

Figure 49.—Heyer’s machineas illustrated inScientific American, July 30, 1864. The smallest and most original of all the attempts to simplify machine sewing, Heyer’s machine, which made a chainstitch, was constructed of a single strip of metal. TheScientific Americanstated: “It is simply a steel spring ingeniously bent and arranged and it is said to sew small articles very well. The whole affair can easily be carried in the coat pocket.”

One method of operation, vibrating with the finger, was illustrated. The machine could be operated also by holding it in the hand and pressuring it between two fingers. Cloth was inserted atc, and the prongs of the spring feedfcarried it along after each stitch. It was stated that the needle could be cut from the same strip of metal, but it was advised also that the needle could be made as a separate piece and attached. (Smithsonian photo 48221.)

Figure 50.Figure 50.—Although Bean’s and Rodgers’running-stitch machines, the second and fourth U.S. sewing-machine patents, experienced little commercial success, small manufactured machines based on Aaron Palmer’s patent of May 13, 1862, were popular in the 1860s. The patent model above is a small brass implement with crimping gears that forced the fabric onto an ordinary sewing needle. The full needle was then removed from its position, and the thread was pulled through the fabric by hand. (Smithsonian photo 45524.)

Figure 50.—Although Bean’s and Rodgers’running-stitch machines, the second and fourth U.S. sewing-machine patents, experienced little commercial success, small manufactured machines based on Aaron Palmer’s patent of May 13, 1862, were popular in the 1860s. The patent model above is a small brass implement with crimping gears that forced the fabric onto an ordinary sewing needle. The full needle was then removed from its position, and the thread was pulled through the fabric by hand. (Smithsonian photo 45524.)

THE FAIRY SEWING-MACHINE. A HOLIDAY GIFT FOR THE WORK-TABLEFigure 51.—One of the early commercial manufacturersof the Palmer patent was Madame Demorest, a New York dressmaker. She advertised her Fairy sewing machine inGodey’s Lady’s Book, vol. 66, 1863, and stated: “In the first place it will attract attention from its diminutive, fairy-like size, and with the same ease with which it can be carried, an important matter to a seamstress or dressmaker employed from house to house ... What no other sewing machine attempts to do, it runs, and does not stitch, it sews the more delicate materials an ordinary sewing machine cuts or draws....” (Smithsonian photo 43690.)

Figure 51.—One of the early commercial manufacturersof the Palmer patent was Madame Demorest, a New York dressmaker. She advertised her Fairy sewing machine inGodey’s Lady’s Book, vol. 66, 1863, and stated: “In the first place it will attract attention from its diminutive, fairy-like size, and with the same ease with which it can be carried, an important matter to a seamstress or dressmaker employed from house to house ... What no other sewing machine attempts to do, it runs, and does not stitch, it sews the more delicate materials an ordinary sewing machine cuts or draws....” (Smithsonian photo 43690.)

Figure 52.Figure 52.—The Fairy sewing machinesold for five dollars and was adequate for its advertised purpose, sewing or running very lightweight fabrics. The machine was marked with the Palmer patent, the date May 13, 1862, and the name “Mme. Demorest.”A machine identical to the Fairy, but bearing both Palmer patent dates, May 13, 1862, and June 19, 1863, and the name “Gold Medal,” was manufactured by a less-scrupulous company. This machine was advertised as follows: “A first class sewing machine, handsomely ornamented, with all working parts silver plated. Put up in a highly polished mahogany case, packed ready for shipment. Price $10.00. This machine uses a common sewing needle, is very simple. A child can operate it. Cash with order.” Some buyers felt they were swindled, as they had expected a heavy-duty machine, but no recourse could be taken against the advertiser. Another similar machine was also manufactured under the name “Little Gem.” (Smithsonian photo 45525.)

Figure 52.—The Fairy sewing machinesold for five dollars and was adequate for its advertised purpose, sewing or running very lightweight fabrics. The machine was marked with the Palmer patent, the date May 13, 1862, and the name “Mme. Demorest.”

A machine identical to the Fairy, but bearing both Palmer patent dates, May 13, 1862, and June 19, 1863, and the name “Gold Medal,” was manufactured by a less-scrupulous company. This machine was advertised as follows: “A first class sewing machine, handsomely ornamented, with all working parts silver plated. Put up in a highly polished mahogany case, packed ready for shipment. Price $10.00. This machine uses a common sewing needle, is very simple. A child can operate it. Cash with order.” Some buyers felt they were swindled, as they had expected a heavy-duty machine, but no recourse could be taken against the advertiser. Another similar machine was also manufactured under the name “Little Gem.” (Smithsonian photo 45525.)

Figure 53.Figure 53 and 54.—Running-stitch machineswere also attempted by several other inventors. Shaw & Clark, manufacturers of chainstitch machines, patented this running-stitch machine on April 21, 1863. From the appearance of the patent model, it was already in commercial production. On May 26, 1863, John D. Dale also received a patent for an improvement related to the method of holding the needle and regulating the stitches in a running-stitch machine. Dale’s patent model was a commercial machine.John Heberling patented several improvements in 1878 and 1880. His machine, which was a little larger and in appearance resembled a more conventional type of sewing machine, was a commercial success. (Shaw & Clark: Smithsonian photo P. 6395; Dale: Smithsonian photo P. 6394.)Figure 54.

Figure 53 and 54.—Running-stitch machineswere also attempted by several other inventors. Shaw & Clark, manufacturers of chainstitch machines, patented this running-stitch machine on April 21, 1863. From the appearance of the patent model, it was already in commercial production. On May 26, 1863, John D. Dale also received a patent for an improvement related to the method of holding the needle and regulating the stitches in a running-stitch machine. Dale’s patent model was a commercial machine.

John Heberling patented several improvements in 1878 and 1880. His machine, which was a little larger and in appearance resembled a more conventional type of sewing machine, was a commercial success. (Shaw & Clark: Smithsonian photo P. 6395; Dale: Smithsonian photo P. 6394.)

FOOTNOTES:[67]Scientific American(Jan. 29, 1859), vol. 14, no. 21, p. 165. In a description of the new Willcox and Gibbs sewing machine the following observation is made: “It is astonishing how, in a few years, the sewing machine has made such strides in popular favor, and become, from being a mechanical wonder, a household necessity and extensive object of manufacture. While the higher priced varieties have such a large sale, it is no wonder that the cheaper ones sell in such tremendous quantities, and that our inventors are always trying to produce something new and cheap.”[68]Op. cit. (footnote 53), pp. 129-131.[69]Scientific American, vol. 15, no. 21 (January 29, 1859), p. 165, and Willcox and Gibbs advertising brochure, 1864.[70]Scientific American, vol. 12, no. 8 (November 1, 1856), p. 62.[71]Ibid., vol. 1, no. 19 (November 5, 1859), p. 303.[72]I. M. Singer & Co.’s Gazette, vol. 5, no. 4 (March 1, 1859), p. 4, and a brochure,Singer’s New Family Sewing Machine(in Singer Manufacturing Company, Historic Archives).

[67]Scientific American(Jan. 29, 1859), vol. 14, no. 21, p. 165. In a description of the new Willcox and Gibbs sewing machine the following observation is made: “It is astonishing how, in a few years, the sewing machine has made such strides in popular favor, and become, from being a mechanical wonder, a household necessity and extensive object of manufacture. While the higher priced varieties have such a large sale, it is no wonder that the cheaper ones sell in such tremendous quantities, and that our inventors are always trying to produce something new and cheap.”

[68]Op. cit. (footnote 53), pp. 129-131.

[69]Scientific American, vol. 15, no. 21 (January 29, 1859), p. 165, and Willcox and Gibbs advertising brochure, 1864.

[70]Scientific American, vol. 12, no. 8 (November 1, 1856), p. 62.

[71]Ibid., vol. 1, no. 19 (November 5, 1859), p. 303.

[72]I. M. Singer & Co.’s Gazette, vol. 5, no. 4 (March 1, 1859), p. 4, and a brochure,Singer’s New Family Sewing Machine(in Singer Manufacturing Company, Historic Archives).

While researching the history of the invention and the development of the sewing machine, many items of related interest concerning the machine’s economic value came to light. The manufacture of the machines was in itself a boost to the economy of the emerging “industrial United States,” as was the production of attachments for specialized stitching and the need for new types of needles and thread. Moreover, the machine’s ability to speed up production permitted it to permeate the entire field of products manufactured by any type of stitching, from umbrellas to tents. Since this aspect of the story was not completed for this study, no attempt will be made to include any definitive statements on the economic importance of the sewing machine at home or abroad. This related information is of sufficient interest, however, to warrant inclusion in this first Appendix. Perhaps these notes will suggest areas of future research for students of American technology.

Whether of the expensive or the inexpensive type, the sewing machine was much more than a popular household appliance. Its introduction had far-reaching effects on many different types of manufacturing establishments as well as on the export trade. The newly developing ready-made clothing industry was not only in a state of development to welcome the new machine but also was, in all probability, responsible for its immediate practical application and success.

Until the early part of the second quarter of the 19th century, the ready-made clothing trade in the United States was confined almost entirely to furnishing the clothing required by sailors about to ship out to sea. The stores that kept these supplies were usually in the neighborhood of wharf areas. But other than the needs of these seamen, there was little market for ready-made goods. Out of necessity many of the families in the early years in this country had made their own clothing. As wealth was acquired and taste could be cultivated, professional seamstresses and tailors were in increasing demand, moved into the cities and towns, and even visited the smaller villages for as long as their services were needed. At the same time a related trade was also growing in the cities, especially in New York City, that of dealing in second-hand clothing. Industrious persons bought up old clothes, cleaned, repaired and refinished them, and sold the clothing to immigrants and transients who wished to avoid the high cost of new custom-made clothing.

The repairing of this second-hand clothing led to the purchase of cheap cloth at auction— “half-burnt,” “wet-goods,” and other damaged yardage. When in excess of the repairing needs, this fabric was made into garments and sold with the second-hand items. Many visitors who passed through New York City were found to be potential buyers of this merchandise if a better class of ready-made clothes was made available. Manufacture began to increase. Tailors of the city began to keep an assortment of finished garments on hand. When visitors bought these, they were also very likely to buy additional garments for resale at home. The latter led to the establishment of the wholesale garment-manufacturing industry in New York about 1834-35.

Most of the ready-made clothing establishments were small operations, not large factories. Largequantities of cloth were purchased; cutting was done in multiple layers with tailor’s shears. Since many seamstresses were needed, the garments were farmed out to the girls in their homes. The manufacture of garments in quantity meant that the profit on each garment was larger than a tailor could make on a single custom-made item. The appeal of increased profits influenced many to enter the new industry and, due to the ensuing competition, the retail cost of each garment was lowered. Just as the new businesses were getting underway, the Panic of 1837 ruined most of them. But the lower cost and the convenience of ready-made clothing had left its mark. Not only was the garment-manufacturing business re-established soon after the Panic had subsided, but by 1841 the value of clothing sold at wholesale in New York was estimated at $2,500,000 and by 1850—a year before sewing machines were manufactured in any quantity—there were 4,278 clothing manufacturing establishments in the United States. Beside New York City, Cincinnati was also one of the important ready-made clothing centers. In 1850 the value of its products amounted to $4,427,500 and in 1860 to $6,381,190. Boston was another important center with a ready-made clothing production of $4,567,749 in 1860. Philadelphia, Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis all had a large wholesale clothing trade by 1860. Here was the ready market for a practical sewing machine.[73]

Clothing establishments grew and began to have agencies in small towns and the sewing work was distributed throughout the countryside. The new, competing sewing-machine companies were willing to deliver a machine for a small sum and to allow the buyer to pay a dollar or two a month until the full amount of the sale was paid. This was an extension of the hire-purchase plan (buying on credit) initiated by Clark of the Singer Company. The home seamstresses were eager to buy, for they were able to produce more piecework with a sewing machine and therefore earn more money. An example of the effect that the sewing machine had on the stitching time required was interestingly established through a series of experiments conducted by the Wheeler and Wilson company. Four hand sewers and four sewing-machine operators were used to provide the average figures in this comparative time study, the results of which were published in 1861;[74]

NUMBER OF STITCHES PER MINUTE

TIME FOR GARMENTS STITCHED

The factory manufacturer, with the sewing work done at the factory, was also developing. In 1860, Oliver F. Winchester, a shirt manufacturer of New Haven, Connecticut, stated that his factory turned out 800 dozen shirts per week, using 400 sewing machines and operators to do the work of 2,000 hand sewers. The price for hand sewing was then $3 per week, which made labor costs $6000 per week. The 400 machine operators received $4 per week, making the labor cost $1600 per week. Allowing $150 as the cost of each machine, the sewing machines more than paid for themselves in less than 14 weeks, increased the operators pay by $1 a week, and lowered the retail cost of the item.[75]The greatest savings of time, which was as much as fifty percent, was in the manufacture of light goods—such items as shirts, aprons, and calico dresses. The Commissioner of Patents weighed the monetary effect that this or any invention had on the economy against the monetary gain received by the patentee. When he found that the patentee had not been fairly compensated, he had the authority to grant a seven-year extension to the patent.[76]

The sewing machine also contributed to the popularity of certain fashions. Ready-made cloaks for women were a business of a few years’ standing when the sewing machine was adopted for their manufacture in 1853. Machine sewing reduced the cost of constructing the garment by about eighty percent, thereby decreasing its price and increasing its popularity. In New York City alone, the value of the “cloak and mantilla” manufacture in 1860 was $618,400.[77]Crinolines and hoopskirts were easier to stitch by machine than by hand, and these items had a spirited period of popularity due to the introduction of the sewing machine. Braiding, pleating, and tucking adorned many costume items because they could be produced by machine with ease and rapidity.

In addition to using the sewing machine for the manufacture of shirts, collars, and related men’s furnishings, the machine was also used in the production of men’s and boy’s suits and reportedly gave “a vast impetus to the trade.”[78]The Army, however, was not quite convinced of the sewing machine’s practical adaptation to its needs. Although a sewing machine was purchased for the Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot as early as 1851, they had only six by 1860. On March 31, 1859, General Jesup of the Philadelphia Depot wrote to a Nechard & Company stating that the machine sewing had been tried but was not used for clothing, only for stitching caps and chevrons. In another letter, on the same day, to “Messers Hebrard & Co., Louisiana Steam Clothing Factory, N. Orleans,” Jesup states: “Machine sewing has been tried with us, and though it meets the requirements of a populous and civilized life, it has been found not to answer for the hard wear and tear and limited means of our frontier service. Particular attention has been paid to this subject, and we have abandoned the use of machines for coats, jackets and trousers, etc. and use them on caps and bands that are not exposed to much hard usage....”[79]At this period prior to the Civil War, the Army manufactured its own clothing. As the demands of war increased, more and more of the Army’s clothing supplies were furnished on open contract—with no specifications as to stitching.[80]Machine stitching, in fact, is found in most of the Civil War uniforms. One of the problems that most probably affected the durability of the machine stitching in the 1850s was the sewing thread, a problem that was not solved until the 1860s and which is discussed later under “thread for the machine.”

Figure 55.Figure 55.—Blake’s leather-stitching machinepatent model of July 6, 1858; the inventor claimed the arrangement of the mechanism used and an auxiliary arm capable of entering the shoe, which enabled the outer sole to be stitched both to the inner sole and to the upper part of the shoe. (Smithsonian photo 50361.)

Figure 55.—Blake’s leather-stitching machinepatent model of July 6, 1858; the inventor claimed the arrangement of the mechanism used and an auxiliary arm capable of entering the shoe, which enabled the outer sole to be stitched both to the inner sole and to the upper part of the shoe. (Smithsonian photo 50361.)

Another industry that was aided by the new invention was that of shoe manufacture. Although the earliest sewing-machine patents in the United States reflect the inventors’ efforts to solve the difficult task of leather stitching, and, although machines were used to a limited extent in stitching some parts ofthe shoe in the early and mid-1850s, it was not until 1858 that a machine was invented that could stitch the sole to the inner sole and to the upper part of the shoe. This was the invention of Lyman R. Blake and was patented by him on July 8, 1858; the patent model is shown in figure 55. Blake formed a chainstitch by using a hooked needle, which descended from above, to draw a thread through the supporting arm. Serving as the machine’s bedplate, the arm was shaped to accommodate the stitching of all the parts of the shoe.

Figure 56.Figure 56.—Harris’patent thread cutter, 1872. (Smithsonian photo P-6397.)

Figure 56.—Harris’patent thread cutter, 1872. (Smithsonian photo P-6397.)

Figure 57.Figure 57.—West’spatent thread cutter, 1874. (Smithsonian photo P-63100.)

Figure 57.—West’spatent thread cutter, 1874. (Smithsonian photo P-63100.)

Figure 58.Figure 58.—Karr’spatent needle threader, 1871. (Smithsonian photo P-63101.)

Figure 58.—Karr’spatent needle threader, 1871. (Smithsonian photo P-63101.)

The increased number of shoes required by the Army during the Civil War spurred the use of the sewing machine in their manufacture. The first “machine sewed bootees” were purchased by the Army in 1861. Inventors continued their efforts; the most prominent of these was Gordon McKay, who worked on an improvement of the Blake machine with Robert Mathies in 1862 and then with Blake in 1864. Reportedly, the Government at first preferred the machine-stitched shoes as they lasted eight times longer than those stitched by hand; during the war the Army purchased 473,000 pairs, but in 1871 the Quartermaster General wrote:

No complaints regarding the quality of these shoes were received up to February 1867 when a Board of Survey, which convened at Hart’s Island, New York Harbor reported upon the inferior quality of certain machine sewed bootees of the McKay patent, issued to the enlisted men at that post. The acting Quartermaster General, Col. D. H. Rucker, April 10, 1867, addressed a letter to all the officers in charge of depots, with instructions not to issue any more of the shoes in question, but to report to this office the quantity remaining in store. From these reports it appears that there were in store at that time 362,012 pairs M. S. Bootees, all of which were ordered to be, and have since been sold at public auction.[81]

The exact complaint against the shoes was not recorded. Possibly the entire shoe was stitched by machine. It was found that although machine-stitched shoes were more durable in some respects and the upper parts of most shoes continued to be machine stitched, pegged soles for the more durable varieties remained the fashion for a decade or more, as did custom hand-stitched shoes for those who could afford them.

The use of sewing machines in all types of manufacturing that required stitching of any type continued to grow each year. While the principal purpose for which they were utilized continued to be the manufacture of clothing items, by the year 1900 they were also used for awnings, tents, and sails; cloth bags; bookbinding and related book manufacture; flags and banners; pocketbooks, trunks, and valises; saddlery and harnesses; mattresses; umbrellas; linen and rubber belting and hose; to the aggregate sum of nearly a billion dollars—$979,988,413.[82]

The growing popularity of the sewing machine offered still another boost to the economy—the development of many minor, related manufacturingindustries. The repetitive need for machine needles, the development of various types of attachments to simplify the many sewing tasks, and the ever-increasing need for more and better sewing thread—the sewing machine consumed from two to five times as much thread as stitching by hand—created new manufacturing establishments and new jobs.

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