“Thus the Etesian wind, which is due north in Egypt, follows the course of the gulf, and blows with force in that direction all the summer; that is to say, that from the month of April till the month of October, the north-east wind prevails over the whole extent of the Red Sea, descending as far as the straits; and that from November to March, the wind has quite a contrary direction, and ascends the gulf from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, up to the Isthmus of Suez.
“It is observed, then, that a vessel starting from Suez, in any of the summer months encounters a very violent north-west wind, which will carry it direct from the gulf to Mocha. At Mocha the coast goes from east to west, as far as the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Thus a vessel sailing from Mocha will, in a short space of time, experience variable winds but mostly blowing from the west, and these winds will soon carry it to the straits. It therefore no longer wants the monsoon of the gulf, which blew from the north; and when it has passed into the Indian Ocean, it meets with another monsoon blowing in an opposite direction, during the six summer months, to the one which had favoured its progress in the Red Sea. This monsoon is no less favourable; it blows from the south-west, and carries the ship full sail, without delay or obstacle, into any required port of India.
“Returning, the same advantages may be secured by setting sail during the winter months with the monsoon peculiar to that sea, which then blowsfrom the north-east, and will carry the ship to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. When the straits are passed it will meet with a south-east wind in the gulf, exactly contrary to the one in the ocean, but the course of the ship is also contrary, and this south-east wind, following the direction of the gulf, will bring it to Suez. All this is clear, simple, and easily understood, and thus it is, that in the earliest ages the commerce of India was carried on without any difficulty.
“Thus the philosophy, the observation and the indefatigable perseverance of man, who endeavours to carry out every project which his interest suggests, triumphing over difficulties, have taught the navigators of the Arabian Gulf, that those periodical winds which they had, at first, regarded as insuperable obstacles to the trade of the Indian Ocean, are, when understood, the safest and the quickest means of performing the voyage.”
Mr. Rooke, an English officer, speaks in these terms, of the navigation of the Red Sea in a letter dated April 25, 1782.
“The construction and management of the vessels are equally singular, and I fear any description will fall infinitely short of the original; they were, I believe, designed by those who built them, to bear some resemblance to ships, but, having few of the properties of those machines, proceed on a principle totally different from any I before beheld; thatprimum mobileto which ships of other countries are indebted for their voyages is here of little use, and calms are more favourable than wind to forward their progress; ... they ... seem equallyaverse to a fair as to a contrary wind, remaining at anchor until it subsides into a calm, their busy scene then commences, the anchor is weighed and the vessel put in motion by means of the boat with about twenty oars in it, towing till a breeze springs up; when this begins to be more than what our seamen call a light air, they hurry to the shore and let go their anchor, and for this purpose always choose a berth the most environed by rocks and shoals, never thinking themselves secure but when in the midst of danger; their common time of anchoring was about two o’clock in the afternoon, for about that time the breeze generally freshened, and in proportion as that increases they put out anchors, till they have six in the water, and two or three hawsers besides, to tie them to the surrounding rocks: ... in what they called good weather, we had not above two anchors out, and if it fell calm after sunset they ventured to get one of them up, that they might be ready for the land breeze in the morning, which generally sprung up at two o’clock and blew till nine or ten.... I believe, without these land breezes we should never have arrived at Suez; a circumstance that very frequently happens to many vessels of this annual fleet, for if they do not make good their passage before the latter end of May, the northerly winds blow so constantly as to render it impossible, for vessels that cannot work to windward, to get up the narrow channel from Tor to Suez.
“When it is remembered that the journey from London to Madras has been performed in sixty-three days, it is surprising to see the English neglectso great an advantage when they have the power of securing it.”
Vice Admiral Rosily, who navigated the Red Sea in 1789, on board the frigate Venus, and who was consulted by M. Lepère, was far from admitting the dangers and difficulties of the Red Sea to be as great as is usually supposed. In fact, these dangers, conjured up solely by the ignorance of ancient and modern navigators, have been accredited by general opinion, or rather by general mistake. The frigate Venus traversed the Red Sea in all directions without experiencing either damage or difficulty. We may therefore rest assured, that no merchant vessel will encounter any difficulties but those which are inseparable from all narrow seas; the Adriatic, which is still narrower than the Red Sea, has never been considered impassable.
The coasts alone of the Red Sea are dangerous, but the number of anchorages is so great that the sailors of the country never navigate at night, but anchor every evening. In rough weather they remain at anchor sometimes for a week or a fortnight at the same place, without daring to gain the open sea or take advantage of any wind that would be favourable to an European ship.
The excellent work of Commander Moresby and Captain Rogers on the Red Sea, written by command of the East India Company, to resolve the question of its navigation, and in consequence of which the steam service of the Red Sea was established; this excellent work, we say, if it does not represent the monsoons to be as regular as is stated by Bruce, does not contradict the generality of thefacts given by that traveller, as may be judged from the following extracts:—
Of the Winds and Currents between Suez and Geddah, by Captain Moresby.“From Suez to Geddah, during the whole course of the year, the wind is generally north, and blows, at times, with great violence; but it abates usually at the change of the moon. During the winter months, from December to April, the south wind prevails, sometimes for a few days, and occasionally blows fresh, more particularly in the Sea of Suez, where it sometimes attains the force of a moderate gust. At this season gusts from the west are not uncommon in the Sea of Suez, and are much dreaded by the inhabitants in consequence of their violence. On the Arabian coast, near Geddah, to the south and north of that port, the north and north-west winds sometimes blow with great violence during the winter months, and bring with them clouds of dust from the land.“The south wind, which blows sometimes from October to May, generally occasions a current of twenty or thirty miles a day. After a gust from the north-west, when there is a light breeze, there is generally a current towards the north. It is then better to beat along the Arabian side than the Egyptian, as was the practice of ancient navigators, who considered the latter coast more healthy.“The average length of the passage from Geddah to Cosseir depends so much on circumstances, that it is impossible to assign any fixed term for it. Itis, however, rarely more than twenty or less than ten days. With the boats of the country it takes from twenty-five to thirty days, and sometimes more.”
Of the Winds and Currents between Suez and Geddah, by Captain Moresby.
“From Suez to Geddah, during the whole course of the year, the wind is generally north, and blows, at times, with great violence; but it abates usually at the change of the moon. During the winter months, from December to April, the south wind prevails, sometimes for a few days, and occasionally blows fresh, more particularly in the Sea of Suez, where it sometimes attains the force of a moderate gust. At this season gusts from the west are not uncommon in the Sea of Suez, and are much dreaded by the inhabitants in consequence of their violence. On the Arabian coast, near Geddah, to the south and north of that port, the north and north-west winds sometimes blow with great violence during the winter months, and bring with them clouds of dust from the land.
“The south wind, which blows sometimes from October to May, generally occasions a current of twenty or thirty miles a day. After a gust from the north-west, when there is a light breeze, there is generally a current towards the north. It is then better to beat along the Arabian side than the Egyptian, as was the practice of ancient navigators, who considered the latter coast more healthy.
“The average length of the passage from Geddah to Cosseir depends so much on circumstances, that it is impossible to assign any fixed term for it. Itis, however, rarely more than twenty or less than ten days. With the boats of the country it takes from twenty-five to thirty days, and sometimes more.”
On the Winds and Currents of the Red Sea throughout the Year, by Capt. Rogers.“From the beginning of October to the end of April, during what we may call the winter months, between the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Gebel Tor, in about latitude 15° 30´ north, the wind may be said to blow continually from the south, with the exception of a day or two at the time of the new or full moon, when it sometimes blows from the north. But frequently, for two months at a time, there is no change.“From Gebel Tor to latitude 19° or 20° the winds are variable at the same period, and blow as much from the north as from the south. One or other of these winds respectively prevails as you approach one or the other of these limits.“From 21° to 27° the north wind prevails during the same season, but half a lunation seldom passes without there being one or two days of south wind, especially from the end of November to the beginning of March.“From 27° to Suez, the wind is, almost constantly, north, and seldom interrupted by any wind from the south, unless it be in the months of December, January, and February.“In June, July, August, and September the north wind prevails without interruption, throughoutthe whole extent of the Red Sea, from Suez to Bab-el-Mandeb. Occasionally a change takes place, from the land side, principally in August and September, and during these months a fast sailer can make thirty-five miles a-day, beating from Mocha to Suez. In December, January, and February, a vessel will sometimes meet with a good wind from Mocha to Cosseir, and accomplish the run in six or seven days, whereas it is impossible to do the same from Cosseir to Mocha except in summer.”
On the Winds and Currents of the Red Sea throughout the Year, by Capt. Rogers.
“From the beginning of October to the end of April, during what we may call the winter months, between the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Gebel Tor, in about latitude 15° 30´ north, the wind may be said to blow continually from the south, with the exception of a day or two at the time of the new or full moon, when it sometimes blows from the north. But frequently, for two months at a time, there is no change.
“From Gebel Tor to latitude 19° or 20° the winds are variable at the same period, and blow as much from the north as from the south. One or other of these winds respectively prevails as you approach one or the other of these limits.
“From 21° to 27° the north wind prevails during the same season, but half a lunation seldom passes without there being one or two days of south wind, especially from the end of November to the beginning of March.
“From 27° to Suez, the wind is, almost constantly, north, and seldom interrupted by any wind from the south, unless it be in the months of December, January, and February.
“In June, July, August, and September the north wind prevails without interruption, throughoutthe whole extent of the Red Sea, from Suez to Bab-el-Mandeb. Occasionally a change takes place, from the land side, principally in August and September, and during these months a fast sailer can make thirty-five miles a-day, beating from Mocha to Suez. In December, January, and February, a vessel will sometimes meet with a good wind from Mocha to Cosseir, and accomplish the run in six or seven days, whereas it is impossible to do the same from Cosseir to Mocha except in summer.”
It appears from these extracts that the Red Sea is easily navigable, at all seasons, by sailing vessels, and that it is always possible so to arrange the periods of departure as to traverse it in both directions.
We ought also to take into account the inconveniences experienced in the voyage round the Cape, resulting from the settled calms succeeding the continued tempests, the diseases which decimate the crews, and the disasters which are so frequent on passing the equator. We should also take into consideration that, if the difficulties are greater during a good part of the year for vessels going up the Red Sea, vessels coming down are, for that very reason, sure to meet with favourable winds.
To leave no doubt on so important a question, and on which depends, in part, the success of the enterprise in contemplation, we will give a passage from a paper communicated to theSociété de Géographie, by Count d’Escayrac de Lauture, the motto of which is,
“Aperire terram gentibus.”
“If theminimumdistances which separate the ports of Europe from those of India, on the one part by the Cape of Good Hope, and on the other by the Canal of the two Seas, be compared with each other, enormous differences in favour of the latter route will be made manifest. These differences become still greater, when it is recollected that, in navigation, a straight line is far from being the shortest way from one point to another, and that navigators only reach their destination by successively following a certain number of courses, which form greater or lesser angles with each other.“So that instead of steering directly for the Cape of Good Hope, mariners starting from Europe or the Atlantic ports of North America to go to India, must make the Canaries or the Azores; get into the track of the trade winds of the northern hemisphere, reach the coast of Brazil, and make Cape Frio, or put in at Rio Janeiro. It is only then that they can make for the Cape of Good Hope, better named, perhaps, Cape Tempestuous. They clear at length the Agulhas Bank, reach Bourbon or the Mauritius, and thence proceed to India in the track of the monsoon.“Vessels from the Mediterranean have still greater disadvantages to contend against. It frequently takes them a fortnight to pass the straits of Gibraltar, in consequence of the west wind which prevails in those straits, and the rapid current which pours the waters of the ocean into the Mediterranean.“The consequence is, that the passage to India takes at least from five months to five months and ahalf. The passage back is rather more direct, without being to any perceptible degree shorter. The coast of Africa may then be followed more closely, thanks to the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. The place to put in at, in this case, is St. Helena.“If we now examine the conditions to which navigation is subjected in the three seas nearest to Suez, that is to say, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Oman, we shall find that in the Mediterranean the winds blow from the north during the greater part of the year, change to the south by east towards the spring, and return to the north, passing by the west and north-west. The case is nearly the same with regard to the Red Sea, where the north wind, which is the most frequent, drives the waters in the direction of Bab-el-Mandeb, so that when the calm succeeds, a current is observed running north. This is evidently produced by the waters which had been raised in the south endeavouring to regain their level. The south wind usually succeeds the calm.“The Gulf of Oman has two monsoons, that from the north-east, which prevails with more constancy in the winter, and that from the south-west, which blows with force in summer. The change from one monsoon to the other is effected, there as elsewhere, by a series of calms and gusts of wind.“From these circumstances it would appear most advantageous to sail to India by the canal in summer and autumn, and to return towards the spring.“The great shortening of the distance between the ports of Europe, and those of India, is not theonly advantage which commerce will derive by frequenting the canal of the two Seas. In fact, vessels will not only reach their destination in a shorter time, but will meet on their route with numerous ports to put in at, and, what is more important still, considerable markets. The voyager, after having followed the easy track of the Mediterranean, will sell a part of his cargo in the Canal of Suez, or at Geddah; will buy ivory at Massaoux, Souken and Berbera, which he will either exchange in India, for opium, or carry on to China to obtain silk or tea.“He will complete his homeward cargo with the colonial produce of Manilla, the Sunda Islands, and Ceylon, with cotton from India, or Egypt, with coffee from Abyssinia, or Yemen, with gum from Soudan or Hedjaz, with corn from Lower Egypt, or with rice from Damietta. And these multifarious operations, which now require years, will be safely and rapidly accomplished with little capital and small ships.“In fact, by reducing the time required for commercial operations we also reduce the general costs, make a much greater number of these operations possible in a given time, and, by that means, give facilities to small traders, by far the most numerous class.“By opening to navigation an easier and safer route, we bring into use ships of less tonnage, and more economically equipped; in one word, we throw open the road to India to the coasting trade—WE DEMOCRATISE COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.”
“If theminimumdistances which separate the ports of Europe from those of India, on the one part by the Cape of Good Hope, and on the other by the Canal of the two Seas, be compared with each other, enormous differences in favour of the latter route will be made manifest. These differences become still greater, when it is recollected that, in navigation, a straight line is far from being the shortest way from one point to another, and that navigators only reach their destination by successively following a certain number of courses, which form greater or lesser angles with each other.
“So that instead of steering directly for the Cape of Good Hope, mariners starting from Europe or the Atlantic ports of North America to go to India, must make the Canaries or the Azores; get into the track of the trade winds of the northern hemisphere, reach the coast of Brazil, and make Cape Frio, or put in at Rio Janeiro. It is only then that they can make for the Cape of Good Hope, better named, perhaps, Cape Tempestuous. They clear at length the Agulhas Bank, reach Bourbon or the Mauritius, and thence proceed to India in the track of the monsoon.
“Vessels from the Mediterranean have still greater disadvantages to contend against. It frequently takes them a fortnight to pass the straits of Gibraltar, in consequence of the west wind which prevails in those straits, and the rapid current which pours the waters of the ocean into the Mediterranean.
“The consequence is, that the passage to India takes at least from five months to five months and ahalf. The passage back is rather more direct, without being to any perceptible degree shorter. The coast of Africa may then be followed more closely, thanks to the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. The place to put in at, in this case, is St. Helena.
“If we now examine the conditions to which navigation is subjected in the three seas nearest to Suez, that is to say, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Oman, we shall find that in the Mediterranean the winds blow from the north during the greater part of the year, change to the south by east towards the spring, and return to the north, passing by the west and north-west. The case is nearly the same with regard to the Red Sea, where the north wind, which is the most frequent, drives the waters in the direction of Bab-el-Mandeb, so that when the calm succeeds, a current is observed running north. This is evidently produced by the waters which had been raised in the south endeavouring to regain their level. The south wind usually succeeds the calm.
“The Gulf of Oman has two monsoons, that from the north-east, which prevails with more constancy in the winter, and that from the south-west, which blows with force in summer. The change from one monsoon to the other is effected, there as elsewhere, by a series of calms and gusts of wind.
“From these circumstances it would appear most advantageous to sail to India by the canal in summer and autumn, and to return towards the spring.
“The great shortening of the distance between the ports of Europe, and those of India, is not theonly advantage which commerce will derive by frequenting the canal of the two Seas. In fact, vessels will not only reach their destination in a shorter time, but will meet on their route with numerous ports to put in at, and, what is more important still, considerable markets. The voyager, after having followed the easy track of the Mediterranean, will sell a part of his cargo in the Canal of Suez, or at Geddah; will buy ivory at Massaoux, Souken and Berbera, which he will either exchange in India, for opium, or carry on to China to obtain silk or tea.
“He will complete his homeward cargo with the colonial produce of Manilla, the Sunda Islands, and Ceylon, with cotton from India, or Egypt, with coffee from Abyssinia, or Yemen, with gum from Soudan or Hedjaz, with corn from Lower Egypt, or with rice from Damietta. And these multifarious operations, which now require years, will be safely and rapidly accomplished with little capital and small ships.
“In fact, by reducing the time required for commercial operations we also reduce the general costs, make a much greater number of these operations possible in a given time, and, by that means, give facilities to small traders, by far the most numerous class.
“By opening to navigation an easier and safer route, we bring into use ships of less tonnage, and more economically equipped; in one word, we throw open the road to India to the coasting trade—WE DEMOCRATISE COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.”
To these details, we will add our own personalobservations. We may say that the navigation of the Red Sea is always easy, from the straits to Raz Mohammed, because there are no rocks in the middle of the gulf, and it being always possible to beat when the monsoon is not favourable, and if some danger is to be feared at Raz Mohammed, from whirlwinds, currents and rocks, they will disappear as soon as a good lighthouse is erected, and a station of steam tugs established to assist vessels against the contrary winds.
Sailing may then be said to have attained the limit of its advantages, for it will profit by favourable winds to perform the transport service with economy; and in those parts of the passage where difficulties are to be encountered, steam will come in aid, by which danger and loss of time will be avoided.
Another objection which has been raised against the direct canal is, that being cut through moving downs, it will soon be encumbered by them, and that the expense of keeping it in order, will consequently be so great, that it will be necessary to abandon it, if it ever be undertaken.
To refute this objection we will recapitulate the facts in their actual integrity.
From Suez to the extremity of the Bitter Lakes, the soil is, it is true, sandy at the surface, but however sandy it may be, the winds do not produce any modification in the superficial state of this part of the Isthmus.
This is to be accounted for by the fine sand being kept moist by the sea water, which reaches the surface by percolation and capillary attraction; thesand, which is out of reach of the moisture, is coarse sand, or rather small gravel, bound together by magnesian earth, in such a manner that the wind has no effect upon it. So true is this, that at several places in this desert we found, in December, 1854, the traces left by the tents of the engineers who were employed there in 1847.
The best proof that can be given of the stability of the soil in this part of the desert is the situation of the banks of the ancient canal, which still remain all along, as far as the Bitter Lakes. The torrents of rain which sometimes fall in this locality, may well, in 1200 years, have worn ravines in these banks, and partly filled the canal. In some parts even, the banks have been carried away by sudden torrents, but nowhere are they buried by the sand. Vestiges of antiquity, two or three thousand years old, may still be seen at the surface of the soil on the very line through which the canal is to pass. It is only on approaching Lake Timsah that moveable downs are met with, which surround and cut it in several places, changing their shape rather than their position; all the other downs which are met with in the form of chains of hillocks, and which occupy the space comprised between the bar of El Guisr and Pelusium, have long been naturally fixed by various plants, which have sprung up there under the influence of heat and moisture. It is, then, only the downs in the vicinity of Lake Timsah which require to be fixed artificially. Now, the fixing of downs has already become a special branch of industry presenting great advantages. The hills of sand which devastated theLandesof Bordeaux, and advancedevery year into the interior of the country, rendering it barren, are now transformed into magnificent pine forests, which yield turpentine, pitch, various kinds of resin and timber.
This change, or rather this miracle, was effected by the simplest means. After an attentive examination of the facts, M. Bremontier, engineer-general, to whom we are indebted for the fixing of the downs, had observed that, in digging at the summit of the most elevated downs, the sand was moist at a fewcentimetresfrom the surface.
Struck by this circumstance, he saw at once that vegetation would be possible, if the sand could be prevented from being displaced by the wind. He consequently imagined various means of obtaining this result, and his efforts were crowned with complete success. He sowed on several downs the seeds of the maritime pine, which have now become magnificent forests.
After being assured, by long experience, of the advantages which might be derived from the fixing of the downs, M. Bremontier addressed a report to the Government of the Republic, in which are found the following valuations:—
“The surface of the downs, which form theLandesof Bordeaux,” says he, “being equal to 337,000Bordeaux journaux, of 840square toises, the amount required to fix the whole of these downs would be 8,000,000livres. Now, ajournal(0hect., 33) of sand planted with pines, gives an annual return of fifteenlivres, that of 337,000journauxwould therefore be of 5,055,000livres. It is supposed here that theJournalplanted withpines only yields three quintals of resin, and the price may be taken at five francs the quintal; but the plantations, at the end of seven or eight years, will produce an immense quantity of combustibles, and afterwards charcoal, boards, timber for building, and finally tar. It is true that the pines are not of full value until twenty or twenty-five years after planting; there will be, however, an interest of twelve and a half per cent. as a deduction from all expenses.”
Much more simple means are employed at present, to fix the downs by sowing, for it is mostly considered sufficient to plant branches of broom, furze, or pine in quincunx upon the down to be sown and to scatter various seeds broadcast, and cover them lightly with a rake. These are calledtufted seed plots. The expense of ahectareis 66fr., 80, which is made up as follows, as appears from the accounts kept by the engineers entrusted with these works:—
The gang is composed of—
At the eighth year they begin to yield interest on the capital and cost of keeping up (which is almost nothing), from the combustible that is obtained by removing the surplus, from making charcoal, &c. &c. At twenty years they begin to extract resin from the trees, at thirty years the produce is most abundant, and continues up to eighty years, when the wood is fit for building purposes. Then new seed plots are formed in proportion as the old trees are removed.
The annual produce of resin gathered from ahectareof pines is an average of fivemetric quintals, which, at the rate of twenty-twofrancsper quintal, gives a revenue of 110francs, and represents at least seventy per cent. of the capital employed.
It will be seen by this statement, that the fixing of the downs has become one of the most productive operations of Silviculture, and that it offers one of the most advantageous investments for capital.
It was therefore necessary for us to know, whether the downs which cover the northern part of the Isthmus could be fixed by the same process. Now, we have ascertained, 1st. That the greater part of these downs are naturally fixed by a multitude of different plants, which have found sufficient moisture for their support; 2nd. That the moveable downs of the basin of Lake Timsah conceal moisture at a very little depth below their surface; they may, therefore, be fixed by seed plots, and to do it there is the immense quantity of bushes and shrubs which grow in the low parts surrounding the lake, and which give to that region the appearance of a copse.
Not only will sufficient branches be found on the spot for the tufted seed plots, but moreover, all thecombustibles for the lime, and for the wants of the workmen, will be furnished abundantly.
It is true, that at the time we made our observations (January, 1855), tolerably abundant rains had recently moistened the soil; the success of the seed-plots, which would be destitute of moisture for the rest of the year, might therefore be doubted; but what is there to prevent the moist season being chosen for making these plots? and the seed once risen, the abundant moisture which is felt in this region, especially during the summer nights, will suffice to support vegetation, as is seen by the downs fixed naturally. Finally, to remove all objections, the fresh water canal which will end at Lake Timsah, will supply, if required, the means of affording, during the early days of the seed-plots, sufficient moisture for the success of the undertaking.
There is no possible doubt then as to the success which will be obtained in the fixing of the moveable downs, nor as to the pecuniary advantages which result from it, for the maritime pine answers well in Egypt, and other kinds of trees may be found still more productive. The cost of sowing will be less than in France, on account of the low price of labour, and the profits will be more considerable and more quickly obtained, on account of the hotter climate, and the consumption on the spot of all produce now wanting, and which is obliged to be procured from a distance.
We estimate the superfice of the downs to be fixed in this part of the Isthmus at about 2000hectares, but if seed-plots and replantations were made upon all the downs naturally fixed, 100,000hectaresofforest might thus be formed. It is for the Company to decide what extent of country it will be suitable to cultivate in this way. A final objection has been made to the Canal by assuming that steam navigation, by the agitation of the water which it produces, would quickly destroy the banks of the Canal,—banks formed in a moveable soil which would fill up the trough.
To guard against this inconvenience, which might, in fact, be apprehended, we have adopted very gentle slopes (two on the base line to one in height); then we have covered these slopes with stones for the whole height on which the agitation caused by the passage of steam-vessels could be felt. We have in our favour the example of the Caledonian Canal, thus furnished with a covering of stones formed of simple materials. This is what M. Flachat says, in the description that he gives of this Canal, according to the reports of the Commissioners of the House of Commons: “Steam navigation especially demands attention. Difficult, perhaps even impossible, upon ordinary canals, where it causes an agitation which rapidly destroys the banks, it is organized on the Caledonian Canal, and presents nothing but advantages. With a speed of 11,000 to 12,000met.per hour, all that has been observed isa general plashing, which is not more than that produced by a moderately gentle wind. The only precaution taken was, to collect on the banks and made ground all the large pebbles with which the land is filled, and to cover with them for a foot in height below the line of the water, the banks which, from the coarse composition of thesoil, were too easily disturbed by the agitation of the waves. But wherever the ground had a good proportion of sand, there was nothing to be done.” Finally, it has been assumed, that the Government of Great Britain, yielding to a national prejudice, would put obstacles in the way of the project of cutting through the Isthmus, if it should be ascertained to be feasible, and that the English capitalists would not be disposed to concur in the undertaking. The future alone can show what truth there is in this assumption; we cannot at all conceive the opposition of the Government of a great nation to a project to which the English have especially, in these latter times, drawn the attention of the commercial world and their own Government on account of the special advantages which it offers to England. We have already referred to the writings of the traveller Bruce and those of Captain Rooke. We will now cite other names.
Captain James Vetch, of the corps of Royal Engineers, author of a very remarkable pamphlet published in London in 1843, and Mr. Clarkson, Civil Engineer, propose to trace the Canal in a single straight line from Suez to Tineh.
The editor of the Engineers’ and Architects’ journal (1844) in giving an account of the labours of these engineers, adopts in starting from Suez, the line of the ancient canal as far as the Bitter Lakes, and from the head of these lakes at Katieh he takes the direction of the Mediterranean in passing by the great lake Sulak el Bardoil.
The author adds, “It is hardly reasonable to reckon upon a union of the European powers toeffect an undertaking in which England has such a preponderating interest, in the point of view of our domination in India. It is true that all the Nations bordering on the Mediterranean would find large profit therein, but much inferior however to ours.”
The Foreign Quarterly Review, one of the most esteemed periodicals of England, in an article where it treats of the cutting of the Isthmus, says that—“the expense compared with the grandeur of the result is so trivial, that it is astonishing that the thing has not yet been done, either by a company or by the Viceroy. The advantages of this undertaking would be immense; for, independently of the great commerce which would be done there, independently of the opening of Abyssinia and of the interior of Africa to the arts and civilization, the Red Sea abounds in natural riches, and the fishermen of the Mediterranean would transport themselves thither in crowds in pursuit of pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, sponges (the finest in the world), coral, fish oils, &c. &c.”
Mr. Anderson in his pamphlet already quoted, says: “In a political point of view, the advantages which the English Government will derive from the Canal are almost incalculable. From Malta troops could be transported to Bombay in three weeks, to Ceylon and Madras in four weeks, and to Calcutta in thirty-five days at most, instead of the four or five months now required by a sailing vessel. Under such circumstances it would require scarcely half the number of English troops for the efficient government of India. The facilityfor despatching ships of war with munitions and men would thus increase the stability of the British power, while the cost would be considerably diminished.”
“In a commercial point of view, the advantages would be still more considerable: British India contains a population of 150,000,000, including, with the subjects of the British Crown, its allies and tributaries. China does not contain less than 350,000,000 of inhabitants: to say nothing of the other rich and populous countries of the East. Let us suppose that in consequence of the progress and developement of commerce, each Indian and Chinese should augment his outlay in the purchase of English produce by one shilling; this modification alone, insignificant as it appears, would augment the amount of exports by 25,000,000. Now is it not evident that the opening of the Maritime Canal will greatly facilitate commercial relations, and tend to lower the price of all merchandize? the 500,000,000 of human beings peopling India and China are still sunk in ignorance and superstition. With steam navigation, which will be developed beyond all conception by the opening of the Canal, these people, brought into daily communication with European ideas, will enter by degrees into the current of science and civilization.”
We will terminate these quotations by an extract from a very remarkable work published in the “Papers for the People,” inserted in theRevue Britannique(for 1852), and in which the cutting through the Isthmus is regarded as a practical solution of the maintenance of the British power in India. We read there:—“Ifin spite of the concourse of several adverse circumstances, we firmly believe that our country will be able to effect the union of the two Seas, it is because this measure will soon become imperiously necessary for the maintenance of our empire ... all nations would find immense advantage in the creation of a new route opened to navigation; this evident advantage, offered to the European states nearer to Africa, has even been seriously adduced as a fit argument to divert England from an enterprise, the result of which might be problematical. We encounter here one of the old distrusts of that worn-out theory, that miserable tissue of mistakes that took upon itself to teach, that a people is only rich and flourishing in proportion as its neighbours are indigent and unfortunate. Doubtless the countries of Europe nearest to the East will derive a considerable profit from the opening of the Isthmus of Suez, but our egotism ought to find therein a motive for satisfaction; for we cannot be ignorant of the fact, that the developement of commerce, whatever the means employed, always ends by bringing the better part of the profits to the most intelligent and most numerous firms. For our own part, such is our belief. England, and more than one other nation by its example, appear to us called to great works which will throw into shade the most striking deeds of history. Among these works of the future, it appears to us that the cutting through the Isthmuses of Panama and Suez stand in the first rank, and which multiplying and strengthening the ties by which people of all climates, of all races, of allbeliefs are united to Great Britain, will connect for ever the general prosperity of nations with the happiness of our country, their security with its power, their independence with its liberty.”
We believe we have abundantly proved the possibility of constructing the Maritime Canal with its two entrances, one from the Mediterranean, the other from the Red Sea, and its interior harbour at Lake Timsah. The facilities and advantages which it offers to commerce and navigation as well as to Egypt can no longer be a matter of doubt, and let us say with the illustrious author of the memorial upon the Nicaragua Canal:—“Think of the almost miraculous effects which will be produced by the annual passage across this fine country of 2 to 3000 vessels, which would exchange their productions for those of the East, and cause life and riches to circulate everywhere. We may picture to ourselves those shores, now so solitary, peopled with towns and villages; those lakes now gloomy and silent, furrowed by ships; those rugged lands fertilised, and the interior canal carrying the benefits of civilization into the heart of the country.”
It only now remains to enter upon the financial and economical considerations of the undertaking; but before approaching this part of the question, it is necessary to complete the exposition of the scheme by describing the canal of communication and irrigation which will connect the interior of Egypt with the Maritime Canal.
This Canal must fulfil three conditions.
It should be of a section sufficiently large to admit the craft and steam boats that navigate the Nile, inorder to allow access to the interior harbour from all points of Egypt without the inconvenience of trans-shipment. The volume of water to be supplied to the Canal should be sufficient, after allowing for all losses by evaporation, infiltration, and the passage of the locks, for the irrigation of 100,000feddans(40,000hectares) during the winter, and 60,000feddans(24,000hectares) during the summer. Lastly, the level of the water ought to be maintained at the most favourable height for the natural irrigation of the immense tracts of land in the Isthmus which now remain barren for want of water.
To fulfil these conditions, the receipt of water for the alimentary and irrigating Canal may be established a little above Boulak at Kusr el Nil where the mouth of the Kalidj Zafranieh is, which loses itself to the north of Cairo in the Kalidj Manjeh, the ancient canal of Trajan and Amrou; this canal was partly re-excavated by Mehemet Ali to nearly the same dimensions as those required for the new Canal, and as far as Tell el Zoudieh. By following this track a great economy is already obtained. The Canal also exists farther on as far as Belbeïs, but of smaller dimensions; from Belbeïs, in order to maintain the water at a suitable height, the Canal is made to pass a little more to the East outside the cultivated lands, which will give the Company an opportunity of irrigating and fertilising the bordering tracts at present uncultivated. The canal then proceeds northward as far asRas el Wady(head of the valley), the Pitoum of the Bible. This course exists of small dimensions, but in several parts of its routeit may be turned to account. There will not be great expense in completing the line as far as Lake Timsah; life would thus be given to Cairo by traversing it with a navigable passage, of which it is destitute at present. It would then be necessary, during the time of the low water, to raise the waters of the Nile to a height of threemetresby means of steam pumps of 500 horse power; and when the barrage, for which His Highness Mohammed Saïd Pacha has a project, is completed, the reflux will facilitate, with the assistance of steam power, the introduction of the waters of the Nile into the Canal during the six months of the low waters.
The width of the Canal has been fixed at 25met., measured on the water line at the time of the inundation. This width is sufficient to allow two steam boats to pass each other without inconvenience. Moreover, precautionary measures may be adopted at the entrances of the locks, to prevent collisions, if it should become necessary hereafter.
The depth of the bed of the Canal below the natural surface of the ground in the first part or first dam, as far as the north of Tell el Zondieh, is 7metres, that is to say, at the level of the low waters of the river, and at 14metresabove the level of low water in the Mediterranean, the fall of the Canal has been fixed at 0,03 in a 1000metres, in order to secure a speed that shall not exceed Om., 65 per second, and that shall not destroy the banks of the Canal. This arrangement will enable us to supply, during the high waters of the increase, a volume of water for inundating the lands, of 40 to 50cubic metresper second, or 3,500,000 to 4,000,000cubic metres perdiem. As the inundation has to be continued during 100 days at the most, and eachfeddanof land ought to have a quantity of 8,400cubic metresof water, that is to say, twocubic metresof water to eachsquare metreof land, 47,600feddansmight thus be inundated during the 100 days. This quantity of water is given to irrigate the lands and leave upon them the deposits of the river, or the mud which is the manure of the Egyptian soil; but when the lands which the Company will bring into cultivation have been thus improved by two or three complete inundations, there will be a greater disposable quantity of water, and the number offeddansto be brought into cultivation may be augmented.
The lands being thus fertilised and cultivated in two ways; first by inundations as we have just said, afterwards by irrigation during the second part of the year, that is to say, during the low waters; then in order to secure sufficient water for the Canal of which the receipt of water is above the actual low water, steam machines will be employed at the backwater of the barrage.
In order to have during the heats of summer a volume of water that shall be sufficient for the irrigation of 60,000feddans(24,000hectares), for the loss by evaporation, and the waste at the last locks of Lake Timsah, there will be required—
The height that the water has to be raised being 2metres, and a pump of one horse power, raising 60litresper second for onemetre, pumps of five and six horse power will give the required quantity.
We establish therefore steam pumps of five and six horse power at the head of the Canal, as well as a barrage lock with gates both ways, in order to guard against the great risings of the Nile, and to retain the waters of the Canal when the river has subsided.
The Company will thus be able to fertilise 100,000feddans, of which 60,000 will be by irrigation, and which will give the richest produce.
The Canal follows the course of the Zafranieh as far as Tell el Yaoudieh, where there is a lock of 2met., 50 fall; it then leaves this ancient water-course to the left as far asRas-el-Wady: in this interval there are three other locks.
LeavingRas-el-Wady, the track of the Canal is directed so as to keep it as high as possible, and to avoid the downs which occupy the whole of the valley, and are constantly moving from south to north: all these downs should therefore be fixed by seed-plots, and their superfice may perhaps be approximately estimated at 50,000hectares. Thevalley calledWady-Tomilatcomprises two quite distinct parts; the first, fromAbasseh-Mollautto the east as far asRas-el-Wady, is well cultivated; the other from this point, as far as Lake Timsah, is uncultivated and covered with shrubs, which will furnish an excellent combustible for the manufacture of lime and bricks, as well as for the requirements of the workmen, until it is cultivated. At present the waters of the Nile spread naturally during the inundation for half the distance fromRas-el-Wadyto Lake Timsah. TheRas-el-Wadychannel extends along the valley with a depth of 7metres, and it opens into Lake Timsah with a double lock, forming together a fall of 7 metres.
Above this lock there is a water-course for irrigation running towards Suez, and a conduit of water on the Charmeroi system which goes towards Pelusium, so that, for the whole extent of the Isthmus, there will be water in abundance for the use of the workmen; the water-course for irrigation is 20metreswide, 8700metresin length, and has a fall of ,04 perkilom., which gives a difference of 3met., 48 in the level.
So that at Suez the water-line of the water-course will be 7met.,00 - 3,48 = 3,52. The depth of the canal being 1,50, it will be seen that its bed will be 2,02 above the level of low water, and near about that of high water. There will consequently be no fear of the infiltration of salt water.
The section of the water-course thus determined, will rule for one-third of its length, but its breadth will be reduced to 15metresfor a second third, and to 10metresfor the remaining third.
The water-course of Suez follows the direction and even the bed of the ancient canal, as far as the Serapeum, the culminating point of the bar of that name; it then leaves the ancient canal to the east, to avoid the sands, passes into a solid plain, makes the circuit of the grand basin of the Isthmus, arrives at the narrowest part, and continues in the plain at a sufficient height not to let the fresh water pass into the low and salt lands.
If on the Pelusiac side, a conduit of water has been adopted instead of an open water-course, it is in order to obtain fresh water more quickly for the whole length of the Maritime Canal, and because the tillage on the Pelusiac side does not begin until after that of Suez. And the pipes when they shall be replaced hereafter by a water-course, will serve to form a good distribution of water in the town which will arise at Port Timsah.
The advantages of the undertaking are now demonstrated. But it is not so with regard to the returns which it will give to the shareholders. Doubt is prevalent in the financial world, in consequence of the widely different estimates made by the engineers, both as to the cost and the probable returns. We have therefore directed our investigations more particularly to this capital point of the question, taking care to guard against every kind of exaggeration, in order to arrive at accurate and conscientious results, and at figures as near as possible to the truth.
We are now about to present the result of our investigations in this last part of our labours.
We have adopted in our calculations for the Canal, the depth of 6met.50 below low water, which will give for theminimum7met.50, and for themaximum8 to 9met.draught of water, by the disposition of the locks and the elevation of the tides of the Red Sea. If this figure should not be found sufficient, it would be easy to increase it by the dredging machines, a certain number of which will always be kept, and which would not prevent the navigation of the Canal.
The total quantity of removal required for the excavation of the Grand Canal, according to the calculations made from the sections, is
Of which the part to be excavated to the level of low water in the Mediterranean is
is below this level.
Earth-works in the Dry.—For the first part, we have similar works executed in Egypt; these are the three Canals dug to receive the waters of the Nile arising from the reflux caused by the barrage. Two of these canals have a breadth of 100met.at thebed; 4met.50 mean depth, with banks 25met.wide. They are all three dug in clay, which is very stiff at some points.
The works having been executed by the Government, the pay of the workmen was very low: 1½piast.(0fr.37½) was given to able workmen; 1piast.(0fr.25) to others, and 30paras(0fr.20) to children; the corresponding work done was 1met.25, cubeper diem.
If this ratio were adopted, it would evidently be too low; for the Company could not, and would not, exercise such an authority over the people of the country.
It is true, that these prices are voluntarily accepted by the fellahs in the villages; but they are at home with their families, and are able to cultivate some patches of land on their own account. They would not willingly leave their families, unless to obtain higher wages, which would be at themaximum, 2½piast.(0fr.62½).
An average of 2½piast.(0fr.62½)per diem, must be reckoned upon, not including the supply of bread and water, which would cost 1piast.in addition. Say, therefore, 3½piast.or in round numbers, 0fr.90.
At these wages, with good superintendence, 1met.50, cubeper diemmight be required; for, in the works which we have carefully observed, we have adopted the formula 2 +n= 8met. cub.to fix the task of the workmen employed. In which formulanindicates the number of relays of 25met.In the present case, supposing the average distance from the centre of removal to the centre of deposit to be tworelays, the formula would give 2met. cub.and moreover the excavation is to be made in very light ground. We are therefore sure that the figure 1met.50 cube, is rather below than above the mark. The cubic metre will thus come to 0fr.61.—At this rate the first portion of the earth-works would cost
Earth-works under Water.—For the second part we assume, that it will be done entirely by steam dredges, in two series. The first composed of dredges of twenty horse power performing the excavations to the depth of four metres; and the second composed of dredges of thirty-five horse power, making the excavations to the depth of 7met.50.
Let us see what can be done by both these working night and day for 250 days in the year; thus making ample allowance for repairs and stoppages.
The dredges employed at the barrage, of 20 horse power, and raising sand from a depth of seven metres, filled thirty-three lighters in the day and twenty-eight in the night, in all 61per diem, giving a total of 610 to 700met. cub.; but these machines were almost continually stopped for want of a sufficient number of lighters. These same dredges, on theSeine, removed as much as 500met. cub.in the day, and an equal quantity at night, excavating, it is true, at a depth of only 2met.50. The price paid per cubic metre was 0fr.75, including carrying away and discharging. At the barrage, on account of the low price of labour, the cubic metre has not cost 0fr.50.
For deepening the roadstead of Toulon, dredges of twenty-five horse power were employed, which raised the mud from a depth of 9met.50 below low water.
These dredges worked 270 days in the year, and each raised 194,755met. cub.The cubic metre of soil extracted was fixed provisionally for the account at 1fr.20, including the transport and discharge, which was at an average distance of several miles in the open sea.
At the port of Valencia, dredges of thirty-five horse power were employed, raising 750met. cub.per diem, from a depth of 5 to 7metres. A steamer of seventy horse power towed the lighters to a distance of fifteen miles, and the cubicmetrethus raised and transported only cost 0fr.75.
From these data it may be assumed, that the dredges of twenty horse power will raise 500met. cub.of earthper diemfrom a depth of 4met., and we may fix the price of extraction, including transport, at 0fr., 75; that the dredges of thirty-five horse power will raise 750met. cub.at 1fr.
By causing the dredges to work day and night, and assuming, as we have said, an average of 250 working days in the year, a dredge of twenty horse power will excavateper ann.
and a dredge of thirty-five horse power
The total quantity of excavation to be performed by dredges being 57,205,342met. cub., if the work is to be done in five years, it will be necessary to have nineteen pairs of dredges; and, if it be observed that for the greater part of the Isthmus, the excavation may be done by hand to the depth of a foot at least below the level of the Mediterranean, since the bottom of the Bitter Lakes remains dry at a depth which reaches 8met., 58, it will be found that nineteen pairs will be amply sufficient.
Supposing half the work to be doneby each kind of dredge respectively, the cost is found to be
Canal of Communication.—The quantity of earth-work to be performed for the canal of communication and irrigation is calculated from the sections at 10,320,884met. cub.from the receipt of water to Lake Timsah. For this work men will easily be found, at the rate of 3piast.(0fr..75) including all expenses, and each workman will do easily 2met.per diem, which reduces the price of the cubicmetreto 0fr. 37½.
The cost of excavating the canal will therefore be
For the small canal of irrigation, leading from the last channel to Suez, the quantity of earth-work is 2,218,500met. cub.For this it will be necessary to pay the men 0fr.90per diem, and they will easily do 2met.25cub., which will be 0fr.40 permet. cub.
The cost of this part will therefore be
Add 10per cent.for tools
Contingencies
To give a concise but accurate notion of the expense of the works of art, we shall fix the prime cost of the materials, compared with the prices paid in the execution of the works of the barrage, and then it will be easy to determine the outlay necessary for the present works, as compared with that of the former.
Rough Stone.—The rough stone used in the barrage comes from the quarries of Toura, situated 30kil.from the place where it is used. It costs 22parasthequintal, or 4fr., 20, thecubic metre, delivered on the spot. That which will be used in the works of the Maritime Canal will come from the quarries of Ataka, on the shores of the bay of Suez, at a distance of 20kil.from Suez. This being a calcareous stone, like that of Toura, if it is brought to the boats by a railroad and towed by steamers, there is sure to be a saving in the extraction and transport. We have however, taken the price at 5fr.to cover all difficulties in forming establishments, the higher rate of labour, and the cost of the railroad. This is the price paid for the blocks employed at the port of Cherbourg.
At the port of Valencia (in Spain), the extraction of large blocks, the transport to the quay and loading, only cost 4fr.25.
Hewn Stone.—The hewn stone for the barrage, camefrom the quarries of Toura and Massara, at an average distance of 33kil.from the place where used. These stones were first transported a distance of 6kil.to the banks of the Nile, by means of bullock carts, then transferred to sailing barges, and carried by water to the distance above-mentioned.
The price percubic metrewas 24piast.(6fr.) for extraction, and 18piast.(4fr.50) for carriage; in all 10fr.50.
For the works of the Maritime Canal, stone will be used coming from quarries now in work on the banks, at the level of high water for the whole extent of the Gulf of Suez, and also from quarries on the shore of the Red Sea, at a distance of about 10kil.from Suez, which furnish a shelly calcareous stone, soft when extracted, but hardening by exposure to the air, and also in sea water.
This stone has been successfully employed in building the Grand Hotel of Suez, and has cost 33piast.(8fr.25.) thecubic metre, hewn and delivered at the quay.
We have adopted this price, increased by 60per cent.in order to cover the distance, and to arrive more easily at the comparison which we wish to establish.
Bricks.—The bricks used in the barrage were made by steam machines, and cost, on account of extraordinary circumstances, 26fr.per thousand. Those which will be made by hand or by means of bullock machines in theWady Tomilat, will not cost half so much; for they can be made in the whole of that valley at the rate of 6 to 7fr.per thousand, on account of the great quantity of combustibles found in that locality.
We have however assumed, that on account of the expense of transport, from Pelusium to Suez, the bricks will come to the same price, as at the barrage, which is evidently an excess.
Lime.—The lime cost at the barrage, 8fr.70 thecubic metre, delivered on the spot. That which is made at Suez comes to 7fr. 75 delivered. This lime is made in the valley of Guébé, with the combustibles found there in abundance, and which only cost the labour of cutting and transport.
Pozzolano.—As the lime used in the barrage was fat lime, it was necessary to make artificial Pozzolano, which came to 45piast.(11fr.25) thecubic metre. This Pozzolano could not be used for sea work, for we are convinced by experience that it is affected by the magnesia which is found in sea-water. It can, therefore, only serve for the works of the canal of communication, and, like the bricks, it will cost less than at the barrage.
For the sea masonry, we have happily discovered solid masses in the harbour of Suez, anciently formed at the time of the Caliphs, or more probably at that of the Ptolemies. These masses of masonry are so compact, that when fragments are detached, the stone breaks more easily than the mortar, which is simply composed of sand and hydraulic lime.
This lime very probably comes from the mountains of Ataka, which contain several beds of calcareous marl; and there is no doubt that, by making researches, the beds that supplied the hydraulic lime may be discovered. Samples have been sent to M. Leplay, chief engineer and professor at the School of Mines, for analyzation, and more will be sent until good beds shall be found.
On this supposition, it is more than likely that the masonry of the Maritime Canal will be less expensive than that of the barrage, since it will be enough to have hydraulic lime to mix with the sand, which is found at all points of the Canal.
Timber.—The timber will come from Anatolia and Caramania. Oak and fir planks will be procured from Trieste. These materials will not cost more than at the barrage; for, though the distance of inland transport is greater, the expense of trans-shipment will be avoided by the construction of a new lock, which will unite the Mahmoudieh Canal, and consequently the Nile, with the sea.
Iron.—It will be the same with regard to wrought and cast iron, which will be procured from England and Russia.
Now, the barrage of the Nile is 1006metresin length, with four locks, of which two are double, of 12metresopening, and two others of 15metres. It is established upon a general platform at 7metresbelow the low water, is 46metreswide, and fourmetresaverage thickness, with two lines of jaunting piles, and 1600metresof quay walls, and only cost 18,000,000francs, including the purchase of steam machines, to the number of twenty-two, the construction of all works and all the charges of administration, which were considerable.
If this amount is divided by the total length of 1006, 17,900 francs will be obtained for the cost of a runningmetre, including all the accessories of locks, quays, machines, and charges of administration.
Barrage Locks.—Adopting this figure, which is too high by a good third for the Maritime Canal, the two barrage locks and the oblique barrage, being altogether 300 metres in length, would cost
We say that this figure is much too high; 1st. Because the barrage was made to support a pressure of 4 to 5metresof water, while those of the Maritime Canal will never have to sustain more than 2,50met.at themaximumheight of the water; 2nd. Because the waters of the Nile, rising to 7,50met.above the low water line, it was necessary to elevate the masonry, piles, and arches, to make at the same time a bridge of passage, and to increase the weight of the masonry; 3rd. and lastly, Because it was necessary to defend the banks of the Nile by 1600 metres of quay walls, both at the approaches of the barrage and at the head of the three canals, which is not necessary here.
Notwithstanding these reasons, we have adopted the above figure, in order to obtain a result, rather in excess than below the reality, and thus to give every confidence in our valuations.
Jetties at Pelusium and Suez.—For the jetties, both at Pelusium andSuez, we have said that we should adopt the mode of construction by loose stones, as has been done in the greatest known works, and in the majority of the ports in the Mediterranean, such as Cannes, Bandol, Barcelona, Valencia, Cadiz, Genoa, &c. &c., always reducing the width of the causeway according to the necessity of the case. Thus, the jetty which is to windward in the prevailing winds, has a width of 8metresat the summit for its causeway, which is at 1met., 50, above low water.
There is, moreover, a parapet 4met.thick and 3met., 50, high. On the other hand, the jetty to the leeward has a causeway only 6metreswide, and the parapet 3met.thick and 2met., 50, high.
In order to enable the ships to approach the windward jetty, and to be towed its whole length, masonry in hydraulic mortar has been disposed on the interior slope of the jetty from a depth of 3met.below low water, as shown on the section drawn on the map. This is only in imitation of what is seen in the harbour of Bastia, as well as in those of Cannes and Bandol, and the other details havebeen taken from those adopted in the construction of the last-mentioned.
Assuming that the jetty east of Suez will be 4000met.long, there will be 970,000met. cub.of rough stones, which at 5fr.themetreon board the vessels, amounts to
Taking the transport and sinking at 2fr., which is a great deal, we have
Total
Say in round numbers
For the western jetty, the same amount
For the jetty west of Pelusium, if we assume that the transport will be for a distance of 150kil.at 0fr.03per ton,per kil.which will be about 0fr.06per cubic metre, we shall have 9fr.for the cost of transport, to which add 1fr.for sinking; with the cost of extraction it will be 15fr.percubic metre. The quantity being 1,000,000met. cub.we get an amount of
and as much for the western jetty
Mole of Pelusium.—The defensive mole being 500met.in length, its contents will be 250,000met. cub., and the cost of its construction
Retaining Basin.—The semicirculardyke forming the retaining basin will have a developement of 6200met.and the contents will be 890,000met. cub.its cost will therefore be
The shingling on the banks of the canal for a length of 100kil.is estimated at
Quay Walls of Port Timsah.—The quay walls to be constructed in the harbour of Lake Timsah, for a length of 1500met.are estimated at 1200fr.the runningmetre(though we have constructed some entirely of hewn stone, which only cost 850fr.); the cost of this item will therefore be
In order to ascertain in a general manner whether the figures which we exhibit are in conformity with the data resulting from experience, we have examined the costs of analogous works, that we might compare them with those which we have determined.
The dyke of Cherbourg, which is 3800met.long, has cost 68,000,000, after all the vicissitudes it has undergone from the beginning of the century. It comes therefore to about 17,900fr.per runningmetre. Its depth is 18met., 80 below high water, while the average depth of those projected is only 4met.Now if weassume, as is evidently correct, that the bulk, and consequently the cost of each, are as the square of its height, we find that as the dyke of Cherbourg cost 17,900fr.the runningmetre, those of Suez should cost twenty-two times less, that is 815fr.yet they come to 1790fr.the runningmetre.
The jetties of the harbour of Joliette at Marseilles, allowance made for all expenses, come to 5500fr.the runningmetre. Their foundations are 11met., 50 below low water. Those of Pelusium ought, therefore, to cost nine times less, that is 615fr.
The mole of the harbour of Valencia, which is 560met.long, and the foundation 8metres, 50, deep, was awarded for a sum of 3,000,000fr.: according to this price the defensive mole of Pelusium should cost less than that sum, while we have estimated it at 3,750,000fr.
The mole of the harbour of Cannes, which is only 150met.long, has been estimated at 1,300,000fr., which is 8666fr.per running metre, but it goes to depths of water that reach 10met.: its cost is therefore, at least six times more considerable than that of the jetties of Suez; yet our estimateis more than the fifth of that figure.
We may therefore say that our estimates are in excess as regards the works of Suez, and very much more so for those of Pelusium, since, in proportion, our figures exceed even those of works executed under the most unfavourable conditions.
Canal of Communication.—For the canal of communication, we have first to erect pumps of 500 horse power in the aggregate, in order to provide amply for all the incidents of navigation, irrigation, losses by filtration and evaporation; as, for irrigation and navigation we only require 800,000metres cub. per diem, while pumps of 500 horse power will supply 1,296,000.
Steam Pumps.—The steam pumps that have been erected in Egypt, have come to 2,200fr.per horse power, fixed and mounted complete; for this item, therefore, there will be an expenditure of
Barrage Locks.—There will be six barrage locks with draw-bridges; the locks will be 12met.wide and 54met.long between the gates. The cost of each barrage lock complete will be 300,000fr.and for the six
Cultivation of Lands.—For bringing the lands into cultivation we must reckon 200fr. per feddan, or 500fr. per hectare. It is true that land may be bought in the country, all prepared with agricultural buildings, magazines, cattle, plant, &c. &c., at the rate of 250fr.thefeddan(625fr.thehectare), but the agricultural system established on these lands is very defective.
The expenditure for 40,000feddans, or 16,000hectares, will be
Fixing the Sands.—For fixing the sands we have seen that the cost would be 66fr., 80, thehectare. It appears to us advantageous to carry out this operation on a large scale; we have therefore adopted the figure of 24,000hectares(60,000feddans). The expenditure for this item will be
Conduit Pipes.—For the conduit pipes, of which there will be a total length of 80,000metres, we adopt those on the Charmeroi principle, although there are now earthenware pipes very suitable for water courses, and which do not cost half what the Charmeroi pipes do. These latter, 0met., 10, in diameter, which is the size adopted, are laid complete, including thetrenches, 1met., 40 deep, at 6fr., 30per metre. On account of the carriage, we put themetreat 8fr., which makes an amount of
Light Houses and Beacons.—We assume that there will be two lighthouses, one at the Damietta point, and the other on the Red Sea, at Raz Mohammed. There will be besides, two beacons at the head of the jetties at Pelusium and at Suez.
The lighthouses with their lenticular apparatus will cost, the two
and the two beacons
in all
There will be houses for the officers, barracks for the workmen, stables for the animals, magazines for the provisions, materials, &c. &c., for which we set down an approximate amount of
Total cost of Art. II. for Works of Art
Total cost of Art. I. Earth-works
Total cost
We assume that it will require full six years to accomplish the works, and that the expenses of administration will amount to two and a halfper cent.on the total cost; therefore for this item will be required a sum of
A farther sum for contingent works, unforeseen
Grand total of the cost