(1561–1626)
Francis Bacon was born three years before his great contemporary, William Shakespeare, but survived him many years. He was born in high station and had every educational advantage which the times afforded. He was the nephew of William Cecil, Elizabeth's great minister, and, enteringpublic life, himself became the favorite minister of James I and Lord High Chancellor of England. But his character was not in keeping with his literary merits and ability. He was venal and corrupt, took bribes as a judge and sold justice for a price. He has been called the wisest and meanest of mankind.
By the introduction of the inductive method in logic, Bacon overthrew the scholastic system and facilitated the study of modern science. It is true the inductive method was known before Bacon, but it had been in general neglected. The great philosophical works which accomplished this revolution were the "Advancement of Learning," and the "Novum Organum." The latter and others of his metaphysical works were written in Latin in order to reach a wider circle of readers!
His "Essays" are the best known and most popular of his writings. The style is all his own; elaborate, sententious, often witty, often metaphorical, and possessing a degree of conciseness rarely found in the compositions of the Elizabethan age. Every sentence is pregnant with thought. He alone of the writers of his time strikes straight at the root of the matter.
What peculiarly impresses one in his "Essays" is the undoubted truthfulness of the propositions advanced, and the manner in which he illuminates his thought by the form in which he casts it. The slight tinge of casuistry noticeable in his writings is in keeping with the times.
The "Essays" were at first mere jottings down of desultory ideas, mere note-book memoranda. They were revised and expanded from time to time until they reached their present shape.
THE MAN
1. Of what great English poet was Bacon a contemporary?
2. From what walk of life did Bacon come? What can you say of his preparation for literature?
3. What were his political connections?
4. How do Bacon's moral qualities compare with his intellectual ability?
5. As a judge, did Bacon have a high regard for justice and the 'judicial ermine'?
6. What popular saying aptly describes his character?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. What services did Bacon render to the scientific world?
2. Was Bacon the first to make use of the inductive method in investigations?
3. Name his leading philosophical works.
4. Why are his philosophical works not accessible to the ordinary reader?
5. Which of his works are most read at the present day?
6. Does Bacon imitate any former authors or borrow from any former school of thought?
7. What are the distinguishing characteristics of Bacon's style?
8. Contrast his style with that of his contemporaries.
9. Why is it that the matters stated in the "Essays" strike you as being things which you have always known?
10. Knowing as we do in advance the truth of most of what he says, why do we derive such peculiar pleasure from reading his works?
11. What can you say as to the suggestiveness of his writings?
12. What trait, constantly appearing in his writings, is displeasing to the modern reader?
13. How can you account for the lack of system in the choice of subjects treated in the "Essays"?
"THE PRAISE OF KNOWLEDGE"
1. Which are the greater and truer pleasures, those of the intellect or those of the affections?
2. What is Bacon's method of reasoning, and what are its advantages over the method of Aristotle?
3. Did Aristotle have many followers in the universities of Europe in Bacon's day?
4. What was Bacon's criticism of Greek philosophy and science?
5. What arguments does Bacon give to show the importance of knowledge above all other possessions?
6. What sarcasm do you detect in Bacon's reference to the universities?
7. What great intellectual movement resulted in part, at least, from the three inventions mentioned, viz., printing, artillery, and the compass?
8. What familiar quotation do you note in this essay?
9. Does Bacon attain as high intellectual levels as Plato? As Marcus Aurelius?
FOR REFERENCE
"Bacon" ("English Men of Letters").—Church.
"Francis Bacon; a Sketch of His Life, Works, etc."—Steeves.
"Bacon" ("Critical and Miscellaneous Essays").—Macaulay.
"Account of the Life and Times of Lord Bacon."—Spedding.
(1795–1881)
Carlyle was the son of a stone mason. He entered the University of Edinburgh at the age of thirteen and remained there five years, proving himself an omnivorous reader but impractical in many respects, so that he took no degree. After several years of hardship in Scotland as a teacher and a hack writer he married Jane Welsh, whose intellect was almost the equal of his own and whose eccentricity of temper was also similar to his, with the result that much of their life was marred by bickering; yet there is no question of their mutual affection. After a long fight against poverty in London, he eventually won the esteem of Europe for his bold personality and titanic literary power and died full of years and honors, but sensitive and harsh to the last. It is only fair to mention that he was the victim of lifelong dyspeptic trouble and the depression resultant therefrom.
His writings all make a study of life, seeking the answer in the lives of the great men, the Heroes, whether of literature or of history. His early studies in German literature, especially the work of Goethe, influenced him not only in his outlookon the universe but in his literary style. Sacrificing everything to force, he adopts every expedient to drive home each point in the lesson he wishes to convey. This intense earnestness and unprecedented unconventionality, although united with phenomenal descriptive powers, resulted in an ungainly style, yet so filled with sincerity and the hatred of shams and falsity as to hold and inspire not merely a select circle of readers but a whole nation. His influence was that of a living personality, a prophet to all English-speaking peoples.
"Sartor Resartus" expresses the doubts and hesitancies of youth, when confronted with the materialism and apparent relentlessness of nature, together with the bold, sturdy defiance which youth's courage creates for its protection. In "Heroes and Hero-Worship," the "Essay on Burns," "The French Revolution," and the "History of Frederick the Great" he holds up examples of heroism as he sees them, searchingly and vividly. So in the "Life of John Sterling," he studies the character of one of his dearest friends, recently dead, and there finds the same qualities of manly nobility. His work becomes not only biographical but historical, obviously, and such volumes as "Past and Present" and "Latter-Day Pamphlets" attack flagrant weaknesses of his day. Work that is so daring and furious in tone could not be utterly free from error; his conclusions are not always justified. Yet he will always remain the prophet and seer of his century.
THE MAN
1. Of what extraction was Carlyle?
2. What was the nature of his education?
3. What occupations did he follow?
4. What places were the scenes of his literary life?
5. Do you think he can be called a genial soul?
6. Would you call him a typical or an exceptional Scotchman?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. What was the purpose of his writings? Is he a philosopher?
2. What particular phase of history interested him most?
3. Is he at his best in narration or description?
4. What is the source and the cause of his style?
5. Account for the distinct feeling of reality which arises from a reading of his descriptive passages.
6. What work best illustrates his element of strength?
7. What defects are apparent in much of his writing?
8. Are his accounts of Coleridge, Burns, and Mahomet sympathetic? Which do you prefer? Why?
9. Is he religious or unreligious in your opinion? Why do you think so?
10. Among what people have his writings the greatest vogue? Why?
11. What trait renders Carlyle unreliable as a critic? I, 168.
12. Into what did Carlyle transmute the principles of German philosophy? XI, 445.
"THE FALL OF THE BASTILLE"
1. What act on the part of Louis XVI caused the smouldering flame of revolution to break out in this demonstration of violence?
2. How is the term Eumenides appropriate when applied to the Parisian mob of the French Revolution? (Consult a classical dictionary.)
3. Contrast the French and the English in revolutions.
4. Why did Carlyle choose the subject of the French Revolution?
5. What was the form of government at Paris during the Revolution?
6. Briefly describe the condition of the lower classes as indicated in this account.
7. Are any of the other selections from Carlyle equal to this? Why?
FOR REFERENCE
"Reminiscences."—Caryle, ed.Norton.
"Carlyle, Personally and in his Writings."—Masson.
"Literary Remains."—James.
"Thomas Carlyle."—Conway.
"Thomas Carlyle."—Froude.
(1819–1900)
The son of a Scotch millionaire who had settled in London, Ruskin received from private masters the best possible preparation for his future and also traveled extensively with his father and mother. Shortly after his graduation from Oxford he astonished the world with the first volume of "Modern Painters," a work designed primarily to show the superiority of Turner, and a few other modern artists, over the older painters of landscape; in later volumes he wanders over the whole field of art criticism, the burden of his advice being a return to the study of nature itself.
"The Seven Lamps of Architecture" discusses the moral principles which should underlie architecture. This subject was suggested to him by his continual studies of the work of painters and architects in Italy and France while in pursuit of material for his earlier work. "The Stones of Venice" carries on the task set in both these works, namely the problem of the moral basis underneath all art, the purpose which should lie at the back of the artist's mind.
As he grew older his religious views, formerly rather narrow, became broader, in common with the progress of the times, yet he laid more and more stress on the need of upright and godly character in all who have any purpose of attempting good work.
His later volumes, then, are filled with this moral teaching and also take up the errors of the social conditions of the period. Old age pensions, state education, radical improvements in the houses and home life of the common people were among the needs which he saw, now accomplished, but then regarded as rampant and foolish socialism.
In his style, as in his theories, there is a tendency to exaggerate, a fault that is common among reformers, as in the cases of Dickens and Carlyle. But the lofty ideals which he maintained and the grace and power of his style far more than atone for the occasional error of overstatement. In "Præterita," a brilliant autobiographical fragment, he accounts forthe rare clarity and beauty of his style, for it was his custom for many years during his childhood and youth to read the Bible through aloud to his mother every year in daily selections. The simplicity and majesty of the Biblical language left its impress on his own prose.
His economic theories have not been adopted in England or elsewhere, but he himself lived up to them and spent his whole fortune in the philanthropic endeavor to put his plans for the betterment of the working classes into operation. In spite of the fact that his fortune was great and that he received as much as $20,000 a year royalty from the sale of his works in his latter days, his property at the time of his death was inconsiderable.
THE MAN
1. What was Ruskin's education; his position in the world?
2. In what two rôles did he appear?
3. What cardinal doctrine did he preach?
4. What extraneous elements did he attempt to read into art?
5. At what university was he successively student and professor?
6. Was he merely a theorist in the matter of public reform?
7. Did he justify his economic teaching in his own conduct?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. Which of his works treats of the effect of human traits upon architecture?
2. Name four works treating of Italian art specifically.
3. In what work does he seek to demonstrate the superiority of modern over classical painters?
4. Had Ruskin any practical knowledge of the technique of art?
5. Which of his works is autobiographical?
6. Where did he get the inspiration for his style?
7. How, then, can his style be called original?
8. Is his style clear; logical; powerful? Why?
FROM "THE STONES OF VENICE"
1. What two orders of architecture are fundamental?
2. From what country are they primarily derived?
3. What is the distinguishing character of each?
4. How did Christianity affect architecture?
5. When the progress of advancement in architecture was losing its vitality with the Romans, who took up their work?
6. What two nations played the most important part?
7. Describe the effects of each upon the older forms of architecture.
8. Why is Venice the best place to study the different forms of architecture?
"THE LAMP OF TRUTH"
1. Is falsity permissible under any circumstances?
2. Upon what does the pardonableness of a fault depend?
3. Which temptation is the harder to resist, that to tell a "little lie," or a great one?
4. Is all imagination or fiction reprehensible as being untruthful?
5. How may truth be violated in Architecture?
6. What three forms does architectural deceit take?
7. Give examples of each.
8. Why are machine work and cast work bad?
9. Concrete was unknown in Ruskin's day; what are its faults and its values?
10. Explain the decay and deterioration of Gothic tracery.
FOR REFERENCE
"Life of John Ruskin."—Collingwood.
"Ruskin and his Circle."—Earland.
"Studies in Ruskin."—Cook.
"Witnesses of the Light."—Gladden.
"Essays in Biography and Criticism."—Bayne.
"Literary Leaders of Modern England."—Dawson.
"John Ruskin" ("English Men of Letters").—Harrison.
(1803–1882)
Emerson, the 'Sage of Concord,' was born a Bostonian, of the ecclesiastical class. He prepared for the ministry and for some time occupied a Unitarian pulpit; but, disagreeing with his congregation as to the nature of the Lord's Supper, he resigned his charge and became a public lecturer, a popular profession in ante-bellum days when every community had its Literary Society, or else its Debating Club. His home from 1833, or for the last fifty years of his life, was at Concord, Massachusetts. He shares with Longfellow the distinction of being the best known abroad of all American writers. No other American has measurably approached him as an essayist.
He is a transcendentalist of the most advanced school. Where he wishes to be clear, no one can be clearer, but he often chooses to clothe his thoughts in mystery. This trait is also noticeable in his poems, some of which glitter like diamonds, while others are enigmatic and baffling. His poetry is like his essays in being pointed and laconic, but while this may be a merit in the essay, it is not so in poetry, and his verse can hardly be considered first class. Few people read his poetry except as an adjunct to the study of his essays.
He had no reasoned and complete system of philosophy, but, like Bacon, merely gave birth to grand principles from which a new philosophy was to spring. He resembles Bacon also in that he oftentimes does not reason, but utters the truth oracularly.
THE MAN
1. Where was Emerson born?
2. What can you say of his antecedents?
3. With what religious denomination was he at one time connected?
4. What part did Emerson take in public life?
5. What pseudonym is often applied to him?
6. For what two things is Concord equally famous? I, 340; V, 59.
7. How do the circumstances of his life contrast with Ruskin's, Carlyle's, Plato's, Marcus Aurelius's?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. To what school of philosophy did Emerson belong?
2. What effect had Emerson on the thinkers of his generation? VI, 332-334.
3. Did Hawthorne prize his philosophy highly? His poetry? VI, 333.
4. How does he rank as an essayist?
5. Why are some of Emerson's thoughts so hard to grasp?
6. To what may his poems be compared?
7. Does he rank high as a poet?
8. What standing has Emerson among foreign critics as compared with other American authors?
9. How does his style compare with Ruskin's and Carlyle's? with Plato's?
"WORKS AND DAYS"
1. How does Emerson define the nineteenth century? Why?
2. "Works and days were offered us and we took works;" does Emerson belittle the value of work?
3. Name some of the 'illusions' that hide values from us at the present time.
4. "'Tis the measure of a man,—his apprehension of a day;" how is this true?
5. Does Emerson prove his statements, or do you think that he is playing the oracle in this essay?
6. "What has been best done in the world ... cost nothing;" do you agree wholly with this doctrine?
7. Do we live up to the teaching of the last paragraph; should we attempt to do so?
"FRIENDSHIP"
1. Give Emerson's definition of friendship.
2. Why are most so-called friendships of short duration?
3. Does age, sex, individual character, or circumstance influence the formation of this compact?
4. What are the two most important elements in friendship?
5. Can a perfect friendship exist between more than two people at one time?
6. Does friendship necessarily require an intimate personal association of the participants in their home life?
7. Must friendship be reciprocal?
8. Would you accept Emerson's views on this subject for your own use?
FOR REFERENCE
"Emerson; his Life, Writings and Philosophy."—Cooke.
"Four American Leaders."—Eliot.
"Leading American Essayists."—Payne.
"Ralph Waldo Emerson" ("Beacon Biographies").—Sanborn.
"Emerson" ("English Men of Letters").—Woodberry.
"Discourses in America."—Arnold.
"Emerson as a Poet."—Benton.
"American Prose Masters."—Brownell.
"On Emerson, and Other Essays."—Maeterlinck.
(1799–1856)
Heinrich Heine, the nephew of a rich Hamburg Jew, is the most gifted German lyric poet since Goethe. Intended for the bar, he studied at Bonn, Göttingen, and Berlin. He then traveled extensively for some years, until publication of his "Journey in the Hartz Mountains" and "Book of Songs" brought him to public notice.
But his tactless attacks on various authors, and upon several of the petty German governments of the day began to make his native country an uncomfortable place, and in1831 he removed to Paris. His chief occupation there was as correspondent for German newspapers. His long poems, "Deutschland" and "Atta Troll," were written during this period. For the last eight years of his life he was confined to his bed, suffering terrible agonies from a disease of the spinal column.
Though born a Jew and baptized into the Christian faith, he was neither Jew nor Christian; and his character was marred by many defects.
THE MAN
1. In what city was he born? I, 171.
2. When did he take up his residence in Paris? I, 176.
3. What great faults stained his character? I, 190.
4. And how have they affected the character of his writings? I, 191.
5. See Heine's account of his first interview with Goethe. VIII, 174.
6. What caused his exile from Germany?
7. How does his early life resemble that of Goethe?
8. What position does he occupy among the German lyric poets of the nineteenth century?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. Upon what service to modern society does Heine's fame rest? I, 167.
2. Of what great German writer is he the continuator? I, 168.
3. Did he have a true conception of Goethe's work? I, 169.
4. Upon what grounds did Heine prefer the French spirit to that of the Germans and English? I, 172, 173.
5. Why has his fame proved more lasting than that of Byron and Shelley? I, 181.
6. To what school of poetry did he belong? I, 178.
7. State the form which most of his poetry assumes. I, 183.
8. Is his Hebrew extraction apparent in his verse? I, 186.
FROM "TRAVEL PICTURES"
1. The German nation as a whole is noted for what special qualities of character?
2. In connection with what great event would you associate the name of Blücher? IV, 37.
3. Of what cause do the Swiss claim to be the champions?
4. During Heine's life was Germany politically at rest?
5. Would you consider the carousing scene of this selection typical of Germany, or has Heine exaggerated it to make the situation more ridiculous?
6. What impression of the author's personal character do you receive from these selections?
7. Characterize Heine's wit.
FOR REFERENCE
"Life of Heinrich Heine."—Sharp.
"Poems and Ballads," translated byMartin.
"Wrecked lives; or, Men who have Failed."—Adams.
"Old Love Stories Retold."—Le Gallienne.