gas meter dials
The hands on the dials move in the directions the arrows indicate. Read the number last passed by the hand on each dial, beginning with the one farthest to the left and add two ciphers.xreads 57600;yreads 63800. The difference is the amount of gas used in the month.
If you cannot take the two ciphers on faith, there is another way of reading the metre. Observe the words over each dial. Dialcis in the hundreds movingtoward "1 thousand," it therefore reads 600. Dialbis in the thousands moving toward "10 thousand," and therefore reads 7000. Dialais in the ten thousands moving toward "100 thousand," and therefore reads 50,000. Together they amount to 57,600, the number obtained by the other method.
This is the picture of an electric metre:
electric meter dials
To read the metre:
Each hand moves in the direction indicated by the arrows.
Read the figure that the hand has actually passed, beginning with the dial to the left.
755 K. W.'s
Subtract last month's reading from this reading and the difference will be the amount consumed.
Viz:75572629K. W.'s.
The dials here are a simpler arrangement, as theymerely represent the usual numeration—units, tens, hundreds, thousands.
This metre is in an especially instructive condition, because the 1,000's dial gives no reading. The hand has not yet reached 1.
A refrigerator serves its purpose better if it is placed in a pantry or on an enclosed porch. If it must be put in the kitchen, it should have the place farthest from the fire.
The drain pipe of the refrigerator, which carries off the water from the melting ice, sometimes empties into a pan, sometimes connects with other pipes which carry the water out of the house. It should never connect with the other drainage of the house, nor lead to any well or sewer which receives other drainage. No traps or plumbing contrivances are perfect enough to protect food which is shut up closely with the opening of a pipe connecting even remotely with the drainage system. Properly the drain pipe of the refrigerator should empty into an open basin or sink in the cellar, which in turn drains off into the ground.
The next point of importance after the disposalof its drainage, is to keep the refrigerator clean. Guard against spilling things on its shelves, wash the ice before it is put in, if it is not clean, and do not keep in it things with a strong or penetrating smell—An innocent dish of cold-slaw unthinkingly put into the refrigerator produces an odour which will startle the person who next opens the door.
A refrigerator needs cleaning once or twice a week. It should not be cleaned oftener than is necessary because cleaning wastes the cold. For this same reason wash it with cold water unless something greasy has been spilled in it, and never leave the doors open one second longer than is necessary.
Collect beforehand everything required for the cleaning, that, when the work is once begun, it may be finished quickly. One needs cold water in which there is baking soda, borax or boracic acid (2 oz. to the qt.), a brush for scrubbing, cloths for wiping, something long and slim with which to clean the drain pipe and a tray or pan to hold the ice while the ice compartment is being cleaned.
Take the food out of the refrigerator, then the ice. Quickly but thoroughly scrub and wipe dry the compartment for the ice, not forgetting the drain pipe. In many refrigerators the drain pipe can beremoved for cleaning. Replace the ice and shut it in. Then scrub and wipe the other compartments or shelves, and include the pan and the floor under the refrigerator in this cleaning.
It is hardly necessary to say that rubbish and unsightly objects ought not to be tucked away behind or under the refrigerator. Its surroundings should be as clean and well-aired as possible.
A refrigerator is at its best when it is full of ice. To keep it full is usually found economical as well as sanitary. If the ice is gone and it will be some hours before a new supply will be brought, keep the doors of the refrigerator open until it can be refilled. Without ice the refrigerator becomes the very worst sort of crowded, unaired food closet.
If one has difficulty in keeping an old or poor refrigerator sweet, one or two pieces of charcoal wrapped in gauze and laid in the corners will help. They will need renewing frequently. No disinfectant, however odourless and harmless, should be put into the refrigerator or into the water with which it is washed. Soda, borax or boracic acid answer the same purpose and hurt nothing.
This chapter has concerned itself with what might be called the household genii. They have always, as old tales will tell you, been powerful andtroublesome servants, yet withal valuable and fascinating. And, nowadays, we have many inventions for keeping them in order which would have made life easier for old-time sorcerers and magicians who sought to govern them by rubbing lamps and saying rhymes.
HUMAN beings must eat. Under ordinary circumstances this is neither a disagreeable nor a despicable duty. Just now, however, it is a duty which is being made unduly conspicuous. Even those of us with good digestions and excellent appetites can hardly sit down to a meal without taking some thought concerning nutritive values and the use of beverages, things which should not be thought of except by housewives, doctors and nurses, whose business they are. People watching their own symptoms and doctoring themselves, people constantly observing their own thoughts and feelings, and people studying their own diet and digestions are all in the same class—they are all made ill by too much personal attention.
Mr. G. K. Chesterton has said a wise word on the subject of keeping good health. It is: "The one supreme way of making all those processes goright, the processes of health and strength and grace and beauty, the one and only way of making certain of their accuracy, is to think about something else." He supports this idea with the command: "Take no thought what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink."
The only person in a household who should busy herself with matters of diet is the housekeeper. The other people ought to be too busy and too interested to think of diet and digestion between meals, and too courteously occupied in being agreeable at table to think of them then.
Knowledge concerning diet and digestion, both valuable and useless, can be had without asking.
The grocer sends you with your purchases a pamphlet on nourishment; a restaurant menu furnishes a few thoughts on mastication; warnings against coffee drinking glare at you in the street cars; library shelves are crowded with books on health, food, and so on. When we go out to luncheon or have guests to dinner, matters of diet and digestion are talked of so freely that we seem to eat with a chart of the digestive tract before our mind's eye, and we suspiciously watch while innocent food, which unobserved might have given vitality and cheer, becomes a cause of weariness and depression.
To know enough to feed a family wisely, agreeably and economically without becoming over-careful, or perhaps a faddist in regard to food is indeed very difficult. For one thing, avoid fixed rules and arbitrary ideas in catering. Digestions are as different as noses and thumb signatures; one can, therefore, neither invariably forbid one thing nor insist upon another. On the contrary, digestions are as alike in general as noses and thumb signatures, and it is, therefore, unnecessary and harmful that any member of a family should be especially provided for and cooked for unless that person is an invalid living upon a prescribed diet.
I believe a simple and successful rule for those who have nothing to do with the meals except to eat them is: Eat what is set before you and find something amusing to say or to think about. It is a little difficult at first, both to eat things one does not especially care for, and to think up something amusing, but it soon becomes a habit. Meals are not times for stoking an engine, even with the most thoughtfully selected fuel, but times for the renewal of life. There is a meditative by-path which leads off from this thought concerning the reasons that meals are in some cases the most sacred and spiritual rites of religion. We must not wander there, however,but may note in passing the reason for saying Grace at meals which is suggested by this thought. A Grace blesses a gift of new life and is a thanksgiving for it.
But that meals shall fulfil their office of renewing life and gladness, it is necessary that the woman who selects and arranges them shall have some knowledge and shall expend some care. It need not be elaborate knowledge, nor burdensome care, just a usual quantity of each.
It has been discovered that human bodies are composed of chemical elements just as are cabbages and doctors' prescriptions. Some of the elements of which we are composed are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, potassium, calcium, and there are others yet. It would seem a simple matter to find out just how much of each of these things we contained and then to keep up the supply by eating or inhaling them in the required quantities, but you can be sure there is nothing as dull and matter-of-fact as that in this interesting creation. We are not doctors' prescriptions, we are even a bit more remarkable than cabbages, and it is not just correctly measured proportions of oxygen, nitrogen and potassium that we need, but energy, and heat, andflesh, and blood. Therefore, it is that when we consult some wise table of statistics in which the nourishing value of food is given, we do not find it given in terms of oxygen and hydrogen and the rest, but in terms which indicate heat, energy and building material.
Tables of the composition of foods are usually made in the following terms: Refuse, Water, Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates, Ash. Added to these there will often be a division headed "Calories." The calorie nevertheless is not a food substance, it is the unit by which energy-giving heat is measured. Just as a ribbon is measured in yards and molasses in cupfuls, so heat is measured in calories.
"Refuse" means that part of food which cannot be eaten or which could not be used by the body if it were eaten, as bones, fibres, seeds, parings, pods and shells.
"Protein" is an inclusive word for the chief substances in food which the body can use in rebuilding itself as use wears it out.
"Carbohydrates" are the fuel of the body. They are converted at once into heat and energy, or if there is a surplus they are often stored in the body in the form of fat to be used when nourishment is less abundant.
"Fat" is also fuel, a more concentrated form of fuel than the carbohydrates. A certain quantity is stored in the body as a reserve heat supply.
The word "Ash" in food tables stands for the mineral matters which are used in our bodies for building bones and teeth, and for a few other purposes; these minerals are for the most part building materials, but are not so important as protein and are needed in smaller quantities.
Human bodies are constituted to withstand adversities and to bear the experiments and mistakes which we make; therefore it is that though these food substances usually serve the purposes attributed to them above, yet when need arises the body is able, for a time at least, to use one for the other. This is a provision, however, for special and adverse occasions. Ordinarily food should be supplied in the variety and proportion which will enable the body to use each class of nourishment for its own purpose.
Roughly estimated, an average person's diet should be about one-fifth protein, one-fifth fat and three-fifths carbohydrates. That the carbohydrates exceed the others in quantity is easily accounted for. They are not such concentrated fuel as fat, therefore a greater quantity is needed; they are consumed to makeheat instead of being built into the body as protein is; therefore, we need more carbohydrates, just as we need to renew the coal supply in a house more frequently than to renew the carpets.
The foods from which we derive protein are chiefly meat, fish, milk, beans, peas, bread and other articles made of wheat, corn, oats, and like grains.
Vegetables, with the exception of beans and peas, furnish chiefly carbohydrates.
Fats are derived for the most part from the animal food which we eat. Butter, for instance, is chiefly fat, and the proportion of fat in bacon is more than half.
But because nearly every kind of food contains other constituents besides the one which is chief, the housekeeper who wishes to make wise menus will need more and more detailed statements of food values as she is able to get and understand them. If she has hitherto thought little about such matters, she will probably not know that the United States Government has very kindly employed people to make years of experiments and to write books and pamphlets for her help, nor will she know that she may have these last merely by asking the Department of Agriculture for them. They are not made into attractive booklets, but they are by no means dull reading. Farmers' Bulletin No. 142, for instance,called "Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food," and written by Dr. W. O. Atwater, is brief, helpful and most interesting. The figures in the table given below were taken from this Bulletin. But there are things which may be derived from this and the many other food pamphlets issued by the Government which are quite as important as definite statistics. They are things which give the housewife a feeling of comradeship with many people who are working earnestly with and for her; things which increase her interest in her own small part of the work and which give her a helpful sense of its dignity.
For many reasons it is impossible for a housewife to make anexactcalculation of the amount of nourishment which she gives her family. The figures in even the most carefully made tables are, of necessity, averages or approximates, for food varies in quality in different localities and at different seasons. Moreover, the figures in the various government reports upon food values and in books giving such statistics differ somewhat, nevertheless, there is sufficient general agreement upon which to base an intelligent effort to make wise as well as agreeable menus.
On this account, a housewife who is neither verylearned nor very experienced can yet wisely regulate her menus by keeping in mind the general character of a day's nourishment and helping out her lack of chemical knowledge with a table of food values such as the one below. The general aim in providing food, as has already been said, is to furnish all the varieties of nourishment which the body requires and the chief ones in about the proportion of a fifth protein to a fifth fat to three-fifths carbohydrates. That is, either the per cent. of protein or the per cent. of fat multiplied by three should about equal the carbohydrates. This is, of course, a very rough and general way of estimating, but I believe it to be a practical way to begin the study and application of a branch of difficult and as yet slightly established knowledge.
Transcriber's Note:The column title "Carbohydrates" was shortened to "Carb." to make table less wide.
Food Materials.Refuse.Water.Protein.Fat.Carb.Ash.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Beef:Chuck ribs16.352.615.515.0....0.8Ribs20.843.813.921.2.....7Rib rolls....63.919.316.7.....9Round7.260.719.012.8....1.0Rump20.745.013.820.2.....7Shank, fore36.942.912.87.3.....6Porterhouse steak12.752.419.117.9.....8Sirloin steak12.854.016.516.1.....9Corned beef8.449.214.323.8....4.6Canned corned beef....51.826.318.7....4.0Dried and smoked beef4.753.726.46.9....8.9Veal:Breast21.352.015.411.0.....8Leg14.260.115.57.9.....9Leg cutlets3.468.320.17.5....1.0Mutton:Flank9.939.013.836.9.....6Leg, hind18.451.215.114.7.....8Loin chops16.042.013.528.3.....7Lamb:Breast19.145.515.419.1.....8Leg, hind17.452.915.913.6.....9Pork:Ham10.748.013.525.9.....8Ham, smoked13.634.814.233.4....4.2Shoulder12.444.912.029.8.....7Shoulder, smoked18.236.813.026.6....5.5Loin chops19.741.813.424.2.....8Bacon, smoked7.717.49.162.2....4.1Salt pork....7.91.986.2....3.9Sausage:Bologna3.355.218.219.73.8Pork....39.813.044.21.12.2Frankfort....57.219.618.61.13.4Poultry:Chicken, broilers41.643.712.81.4.....7Fowls25.947.113.712.3.....7Goose17.638.513.429.8.....7Turkey22.742.416.118.4.....8Fish:Cod, dressed29.958.511.1.2.....8Cod, salt24.940.216.0.4....18.5Halibut, steaks17.761.915.34.4.....9Mackerel, whole44.740.410.24.2.....7Shad, whole50.135.29.44.8.....7Herring, smoked44.419.220.58.8....7.4Salmon, canned....63.521.812.1....2.6Sardines5.053.623.712.1....5.3Shell fish:Oysters....88.36.01.33.31.1Clams....80.810.61.15.22.3Crabs52.436.77.9.61.5Lobsters61.30.75.9.7.2.8Eggs:11.265.513.19.3.....9Dairy Products:Butter....11.01.085.0....3.0Whole milk....87.03.34.05.0.7Skim milk....90.53.4.35.1.7Buttermilk....91.03.0.54.8.7Condensed milk....26.98.88.354.11.9Cream....74.02.518.54.5.5Cheese, full cream....34.225.933.72.43.8Flour, Meal, etc.:Entire wheat flour....11.413.81.971.91.0Graham flour....11.313.32.271.41.8Wheat flour, roller process, high and medium grades....12.011.41.075.1.5Low grade....12.014.01.971.2.9Macaroni, vermicelli, etc.....10.313.4.974.11.3Wheat breakfast food....9.612.11.875.21.3Buckwheat flour....13.66.41.277.9.9Rye flour....12.96.8.978.7.7Corn meal....12.59.21.975.41.0Oat breakfast food....7.716.77.366.22.1Rice....12.38.0.379.0.4Tapioca....11.4.4.188.0.1Bread:White....35.39.21.353.11.1Brown....43.65.41.847.12.1Graham....35.78.91.852.11.5Whole wheat....38.49.7.949.71.3Rye....35.79.0.653.21.5Sugars, etc.Molasses................70.0....Honey................81.0....Sugar, granulated................100.0....Maple syrup................71.4....Vegetables:Beans, dried....12.622.51.859.63.5Beans, lima, shelled....68.57.1.722.01.7Beans, string7.083.02.1.36.9.7Baked beans, canned....68.96.92.519.62.1Beets20.070.01.3.17.7.9Cabbage15.077.71.4.24.8.9Celery20.075.6.9.12.6.8Corn, green, edible portion....75.43.11.119.7.7Cucumbers15.081.1.7.22.6.4Lettuce15.080.51.0.22.5.8Mushrooms....88.13.5.46.81.2Onions10.078.91.4.38.9.5Parsnips20.066.41.3.410.81.1Peas, shelled....74.67.0.516.91.0Peas, canned....85.33.6.29.81.1Potatoes20.062.61.8.114.7.8Rhubarb40.056.6.4.42.2.4Sweet potatoes20.055.21.4.621.9.9Spinach....92.32.1.33.22.1Squash50.044.2.7.24.5.4Tomatoes....94.3.9.43.9.5Tomatoes, canned....94.01.2.24.0.6Turnips30.062.7.9.15.7.6Fruits, Berries, etc.:Apples25.063.3.3.310.8.3Apples, dried....28.11.62.266.12.0Bananas35.048.9.8.414.3.6Grapes25.058.01.01.214.4.4Lemons30.062.5.7.55.9.4Muskmelons50.044.8.3....4.6.3Oranges27.063.4.6.18.5.4Pears10.076.0.5.412.7.4Raspberries....85.81.0....12.6.6Strawberries5.085.9.9.67.0.6Watermelons59.437.5.2.12.7.1Apricots, dried....29.44.71.062.52.4Dates10.013.81.92.570.61.2Figs....18.84.3.374.22.4Raisins10.013.12.33.068.53.1Nuts:Almonds45.02.711.530.29.51.1Chestnuts16.037.85.24.535.41.1Cocoanuts48.87.22.925.914.3.9Cocoanut, prepared....3.56.357.431.51.3Hickory nuts62.21.45.825.54.3.8Peanuts24.56.919.529.118.51.5Walnuts, black74.1.67.214.63.0.5Walnuts, English58.11.06.926.66.8.6Chocolate....5.912.948.730.32.2Cocoa, powdered....4.621.628.937.77.2
A table given as this one, in percentages instead of quantities, may seem at first sight too indefinite to be of much service to a housekeeper who naturally wishes to know the quantity of food to give her household as well as the proportions of its composition. I have purposely avoided giving a food table which deals with quantities because I believe this one to be more useful to a beginner. One's first calculations in food values can hardly be other than approximate and inexact. Not many girls, when they begin their housekeeping, have either the time or the ability to make the calculations which even the simplest schemes for computing a dietary require. Besides, an effort to provide scientifically correct meals on the part of a housewife to whom the effort is unfamiliar and difficult is apt to produce monotony in the meals, worry in her, and disregard and forgetfulness of the family's particular tastes.
A first and simple step for her to take is to make herself familiar with the chief value of different articles of food and of the more usual combinations. When she takes this last matter into consideration she will find that many combinations which are traditional, which were probably made merely by instinct, are, when tested, palatable wisdom. For instance, bread is a very complete food in itself except that it is a little lacking in fat, but people have been spreading butter on it for centuries, and thereby completing it.
Consider the traditional combination of baked beans and brown bread. Referring to the table we find beans a fairly well-balanced food, but a little lacking in fat. In brown bread neither the protein nor the fat come anywhere near being a third of the carbohydrates. Therefore, when we combine these two articles we shall be a little lacking in protein and a good deal lacking in fat. Butter on the bread will help this last difficulty and the wisdom of our ancestors will help out the rest. What did they combine with these two? Codfish cakes, to be sure. And in these there is codfish which has a good deal of protein in it; egg which has protein and fat; butter which is chiefly fat and potato whichis chiefly carbohydrates. We might make a diagram of it, like this: