COBRA (BACK VIEW).Photo by Henry Dixon & Son][Albany Street, N.W.COBRA (BACK VIEW).Showing the remarkable pattern on the back of the neck, which has given rise to the name of Spectacled Snake.
Photo by Henry Dixon & Son][Albany Street, N.W.COBRA (BACK VIEW).Showing the remarkable pattern on the back of the neck, which has given rise to the name of Spectacled Snake.
Photo by Henry Dixon & Son][Albany Street, N.W.
COBRA (BACK VIEW).
Showing the remarkable pattern on the back of the neck, which has given rise to the name of Spectacled Snake.
TheViperineandTesselated Snakes, both European forms, as also theGarter-andMocassin-snakesof North America, are all closely allied in structure and habits to the familiar ringed species. The second British species, known as theSmooth Snake, belongs to the same group, but is more terrestrial in its habits; while comparatively rare in England, and limited to the southern counties, it is plentiful on the Continent. TheIndian Rat-snake, which is almost as useful as the domestic cat in ridding dwellings of rats and mice, is another representative of the solid-toothed group. This group also includes the so-calledPygmy Snakes, inhabiting the Malay region, whose habits are mainly arboreal. They are the most diminutive members of their order, some of the thirty known species not exceeding 1 foot in length.
QUEENSLAND SEA-SNAKE.Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.QUEENSLAND SEA-SNAKE.Sea-snakes have compressed tails, which they use for steering.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.QUEENSLAND SEA-SNAKE.Sea-snakes have compressed tails, which they use for steering.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.
QUEENSLAND SEA-SNAKE.
Sea-snakes have compressed tails, which they use for steering.
The typicalTree-snakesof the Indian and Australian region, with large eyes, somewhat compressed bodies, and colours of green or olive, in harmonious accord with their arboreal surroundings, also belong to the solid-toothed and harmless section. An especially interesting representative of this group is the so-calledEgg-eating Snakeof South Africa. It does not exceed 2 feet in length, and is for the most part arboreal in its habits, and, as its name implies, would appear to feed exclusively on eggs. As a structural adaptation for this peculiar habit, the spinous processes of a number of the vertebræ project into the throatand are tipped with enamel, thus constituting supplementary throat-teeth. Normally this snake subsists on the eggs of the smaller birds, but when short of this supply has been known to leave the trees and rob hen-roosts, being able, notwithstanding its comparatively small size, to dilate its mouth and throat for the reception of a hen's egg. The egg is split longitudinally by the action of the throat-teeth, the contents swallowed, and the shell ejected.
The second or "back-fanged" group includes many exceedingly poisonous species. Among these may be mentioned theIndian Whip-snakesand their allies, comprising many tree-frequenting species, closely resembling in habits and colours the harmless solid-toothed tree-snakes of the preceding section.
ENGLISH VIPER.Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.][Eastbourne.ENGLISH VIPER.The only British venomous reptile.
Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.][Eastbourne.ENGLISH VIPER.The only British venomous reptile.
Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.][Eastbourne.
ENGLISH VIPER.
The only British venomous reptile.
It is among the third or "front-fanged" group, however, that the most venomous species occur. To this section belongs the death-dealingCobra, the yet more formidableHamadryad, theIndian Craits, theEgyptian Asp, and theAustralian Black SnakesandDeath-adders. TheCobra-de-capello,Hooded, orSpectacled Snake, as it is variously known, is perhaps the most notoriously familiar example of its section, being responsible for the greater moiety of the many thousands of fatalities that annually occur among the natives of India from the bites of venomous serpents. The craits, which resemble the cobras, but do not possess an erectile hood, are accredited a second position in death-dealing. The peculiar feature of the erectile hood that characterises the cobras is due to the circumstance that a certain number of the ribs in this region are independently movable, and can be elevated and depressed at will, the skin-fold that overlies them being loose and elastic. The back of the hood in the ordinary Indian cobra is usually ornamented with two eye-like spots, connected with a loop-like band, which communicate to the complete pattern the fancied resemblance to a pair of spectacles, whence it has derived its appellation of Spectacled Snake. Individuals vary, however, very considerably in this matter of colour-markings; in some instances a single eye-like spot is alone developed, while in others it may be entirely absent. TheCommon Cobragrows to a length of 6 or 7 feet, dimensions greatly exceeded by theGiant Cobra, orHamadryad, a fortunately rarer form more exclusively confined to jungle and forest districts. This species may attain to a length of 13 feet or more, and on account of its deadly bite and fiercely aggressive disposition is much feared by the natives of the countries it inhabits, which include not only India, but Burma, Siam, and the Malay region. This giant cobra preys almost exclusively on smaller snakes, frequently including the common cobra.
A third species of cobra, known as theHajé, orSpitting-snake, inhabits Africa, from Egypt as far south as Natal. It is perhaps the fiercest member of the group, turning readily upon its pursuers, or even commencing the attack. It also possesses the somewhat remarkable and disconcerting habit of ejecting poison from its mouth to a distance of several feet, usually aiming with considerable accuracy at the eyes of its assailant. Although unattended by permanently serious effects, the pain caused by the virus striking the eyes is for the time being excruciatingly painful, placing the recipient of the unwelcome discharge entirelyhors de combat. The first record of the poison-spitting propensities of this snake, made by Mr. Gordon Cumming, was received with considerable incredulity, but the statement has been confirmed. A relative of the writer's, stationed in Natal, was recently the victim of such an incident, receiving the poison-discharge in his eyes from one of these snakes, which, in his eagerness to dispatch it, he had imprudently cornered, armed only with a sword. It was some days before the pain entirely abated and the sight regained its normal clearness.
AFRICAN PUFF-ADDER.By permission of the New York Zoological Society.AFRICAN PUFF-ADDER.Horses die within a few hours of being bitten by this serpent.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.AFRICAN PUFF-ADDER.Horses die within a few hours of being bitten by this serpent.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.
AFRICAN PUFF-ADDER.
Horses die within a few hours of being bitten by this serpent.
DIAMOND-BACK RATTLE-SNAKE.By permission of the New York Zoological Society.DIAMOND-BACK RATTLE-SNAKE.One or more joints are added to the "rattle" each successive year.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.DIAMOND-BACK RATTLE-SNAKE.One or more joints are added to the "rattle" each successive year.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.
DIAMOND-BACK RATTLE-SNAKE.
One or more joints are added to the "rattle" each successive year.
Australia, with itsBlackandTiger-snakesand theDeath-adder, possesses snakes as venomous as the cobra, which the first-named species approach in their capacity to inflate their necks, though to a less degree. TheTasmanian Black Snake, as it glides swiftly, as though sailing, across open grass-land, with the midday sun scintillating on its 7-foot stretch of jet-black, highly polished scales, its head and expanded neck threateningly elevated some 18 inches above the ground, is certainly a most impressive sight.
One very distinct group of the front-fanged section which demands brief notice is that of theSea-snakes. These are readily distinguished by their especial adaptation to a marine existence, their much-compressed, oar-like tails constituting powerful propelling organs. In contradistinction to the terrestrial snakes of the same group, the inferior scales, not being required for terrestrial locomotion, are little if any larger than the upper ones. All the species are highly venomous; they feed chiefly upon fish, and are distributed throughout the tropical seas. The larger species rarely exceed 5 or 6 feet in length, and the majority are much smaller. Many species are noted for their conspicuous colouring, which most frequently takes the form of distinctly contrasting bands. All the members of this group are viviparous.
RATTLE-SNAKE.Photo by J. W. McLellan][Highbury.RATTLE-SNAKE.The rattle-snake is pre-eminently noted for its power of fascinating birds and the smaller mammals.
Photo by J. W. McLellan][Highbury.RATTLE-SNAKE.The rattle-snake is pre-eminently noted for its power of fascinating birds and the smaller mammals.
Photo by J. W. McLellan][Highbury.
RATTLE-SNAKE.
The rattle-snake is pre-eminently noted for its power of fascinating birds and the smaller mammals.
The last and most highly specialised section of the Snake Tribe is that of theViperand its allies, collectively known as the Viperine Family. In all the representatives of this group the hinder upper jaw-bone is so loosely articulated that it is capable of erection at a right angle to the horizontal plane of the skull, the gape of the mouth being in consequence abnormally wide. The teeth in the upper jaw are reduced to a single anteriorly situated pair of tubular poison-fangs, with which, when striking its prey, the snake deals a direct stab. The head in the majority of the Viperine Snakes is flattened and triangular, nearly resembling in contour the symbolic ace of spades. The body is usually relatively thick, and the tail short and stumpy. The vertical pupil of the eye denotes nocturnal habits. All the members of the section are venomous.
The Viperine Snakes are usually divided into two groups. The first contains the Typical or Old World Vipers, and includes, in addition to theCommon Viper, theCerastesorHorned Viperof Egypt, and the large and most repulsive and deadly AfricanPuff-adder. TheCommon ViperorAdder, the only poisonous British snake, has a very extensive geographical distribution, extending throughout Europe and Asia as far east as the island of Saghalien, and northwards to the Arctic Circle. TheHorned Viperof the Sahara and North Africa is one of the most venomous of living serpents. Lying buried beneath the sand, with only its head above, it will spring aggressively at any animal which passes by, and the action of its venom is so rapid that a horse or man bitten by it usually dies within half an hour. In colour the horned viper closely resembles the sand or stony wastes among which it lies. The most remarkable feature in this snake is the presence of two elevated horn-like processes immediately above the eyes, which are most prominent in the male. The species has frequently been on view at the Zoological Society's Gardens. On one occasion an ostensible example was purchased and deposited in the Reptile-house, which proved on nearer investigation to be a base imposition. A common desert-viper had been cleverly manipulated by the deft insertion of suitably shapedsplinters of wood into its head, so that it resembled the rarer horned variety. ThePuff-adder, the largest member of its tribe, may attain to a length of 6 feet or more, and is distributed throughout the African Continent. Its thick body is almost triangular in section, the head very large, flat, and bluntly rounded anteriorly, while the eyes have a particularly fierce, stony, and repulsive aspect. In colour individuals vary considerably, but there is generally a chequered pattern of reds, browns, and greys, disposed in the form of darker and lighter alternating crescent-shaped bands along the back. The poison of this snake is nearly as virulent as that of the horned viper, and is commonly used by the African bushmen for poisoning their arrows.
The Viperine group is abundantly represented in the New World, where its members differ from the typical Old World species in sundry anatomical points, one of the most conspicuous features being the presence of a distinct depression or pit in the surface of the head between the nostril and the eye on either side. On this account they are distinguished by the title ofPit-vipers. Among the more familiar representatives of this group are theRattle-snakes, theFer-de-lance, theBush-master, and theCopper-headorMocassin-snakes. All these are notoriously venomous, fatal effects from bites received by human subjects being of frequent recurrence. TheRattle-snakesare especially distinguished by the peculiar, loosely jointed, horny appendage to their tails, by the rapid vibration of which, when disturbed, they fortunately give timely notice of their presence. In the young individuals this rattle is only represented by a single button-like knob, additional loose, hollow, horny rings being added between it and the scaly termination of the tail as age increases. In full-grown examples the horny rings composing the rattle may number as many as twenty or more, though, owing to the war of extermination incessantly levied against these reptiles in all civilised areas, it is rarely that such elaborate rattle-bearers are now met with. The rattle-snake, in the more northern districts of its distribution, hibernates in the winter, often congregating together in great numbers for the sake of the mutual warmth. In the earlier days certain caves were famous as the retreats into which not only hundreds but thousands of the reptiles would congregate from the country round for their winter's slumber. At such times hunting-parties were specially organised for their wholesale destruction, and accomplished much towards reducing their ranks to their present numbers.
FER-DE-LANCE SNAKE.By permission of the New York Zoological Society.FER-DE-LANCE SNAKE.One of the fiercest and most venomous of American viperine snakes.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.FER-DE-LANCE SNAKE.One of the fiercest and most venomous of American viperine snakes.
By permission of the New York Zoological Society.
FER-DE-LANCE SNAKE.
One of the fiercest and most venomous of American viperine snakes.
In addition to the common North American rattle-snake there are some four or five other species distributed throughout the Southern States, Mexico, and Panama. None appear to exceed a length of 6 feet. In South America their place is to a large extent takenby the so-calledBush-master, a snake which attains to a length of as much as from 9 to 12 feet, and, in addition to being exceedingly venomous, is of an especially fierce and aggressive disposition. It is devoid of a rattle-like appendage, the tail terminating in a sharp horny spine. TheFer-de-lance, orRat-tailed Pit-viper, is another Central and South American species, held in wholesome dread on account of its death-dealing potentialities. The South American sugar-plantations are an especially favourite resort of this deadly snake, its attraction being the rats which frequent the canes and afford its chief food. Lying concealed among the thick foliage, it will launch itself aggressively at any passer-by, and its bite is usually attended with fatal results within a few hours. The fer-de-lance grows to a length of 6 or 7 or occasionally even 8 feet, with a thickness of a man's arm. Its colours, as with most members of its tribe, are somewhat variable. The ground-colour of the back is usually olive or reddish brown, with dark cross-bands; a black stripe runs backwards from the eye to the neck, and in some instances the sides of the body are bright red.
BULL-FROG.Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.BULL-FROG.The croaking of this species may be heard at a distance of several miles.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.BULL-FROG.The croaking of this species may be heard at a distance of several miles.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.
BULL-FROG.
The croaking of this species may be heard at a distance of several miles.
The American Continent is not wanting in aquatic representatives of the Viperine series. The most notable of these is the fish-eatingWater-viper, whose distribution extends from North Carolina in the south over the whole of North America as far westward as the Rocky Mountains. Fish and frogs constitute the main diet of this reptile.
AMPHIBIANS.
FROGS AND TOADS.
AMERICAN BULL-FROG.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.AMERICAN BULL-FROG.Young ducks are a favourite food of this voracious Batrachian.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.AMERICAN BULL-FROG.Young ducks are a favourite food of this voracious Batrachian.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.
AMERICAN BULL-FROG.
Young ducks are a favourite food of this voracious Batrachian.
The Amphibian Class, through the Newts and Salamanders more especially, would appear at first sight to have much in common with and to be most closely allied to the Lizards, previously described. As a matter of fact, however, the group is much more nearly related to the Fishes. Quite the most characteristic feature in the Amphibians that is indicative of the above-mentioned affinity is the circumstance that for a more or less longer period of their existence their respiratory organs take the form of external gills, structures not found in any of the preceding vertebrate classes. Another diagnostic character of theAmphibia is afforded by the circumstance that they all pass through a transitional or larval condition before arriving at the adult state. The familiar tadpole phase of the common frog or toad typically illustrates this point. During its earliest larval state the fish-like resemblance is especially conspicuous. In addition to possessing gills, the body is limbless, and produced into a long fish-like tail, having superior and inferior fin-like membranes, with which the little animal propels itself through the water. These locomotive fins, however, are never furnished with supporting fin-rays, as obtains among the Fishes. In contradistinction to the Lizards and Snakes, the skin of Amphibians is never covered with spines or scales, but is soft and naked. In many of the Toads and Salamanders the surface of the skin is, however, warted and highly glandular, and capable of emitting an acrid and sometimes poisonous fluid. More or less pronounced conditions of moisture are essential for the well-being of all Amphibians. The eggs are deposited, and the earlier or larval conditions, with but few exceptions, passed, in the water, while the adults remain in its near proximity, and frequently take up their abode in it. Amphibia do not, however, drink water after the manner of lizards and other reptiles, but absorb all the moisture they require through the surface of their skins. The deeper and more essential skeletal elements of the Amphibia differ conspicuously from those of the preceding groups. The vertebræ in the permanently gill-bearing species more particularly are scarcely to be distinguished from those of fishes. In the Frog and Toad Tribe, on the other hand, they are reduced to a less number, seven or eight only, than is found among any other vertebrates, while ribs do not exist or are rudimentary and functionless throughout the class. Many bones of the skull in the Amphibia, as well as its general construction, are more in accord with those of fishes than of ordinary reptiles. The tongue, not always present, is attached immediately inside the front of the lower jaw, its tip pointing down the animal's throat. It is remarkable that, notwithstanding their aquatic proclivities, no Amphibian has been discovered which frequents salt water.
EDIBLE FROG.Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.EDIBLE FROG.The hind legs only of this species are used for the composition of the famous Parisian dish.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.EDIBLE FROG.The hind legs only of this species are used for the composition of the famous Parisian dish.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.
EDIBLE FROG.
The hind legs only of this species are used for the composition of the famous Parisian dish.
TIGER-LIKE FROG.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.TIGER-LIKE FROG.A species closely allied to the common British frog, but more boldly marked.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.TIGER-LIKE FROG.A species closely allied to the common British frog, but more boldly marked.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.
TIGER-LIKE FROG.
A species closely allied to the common British frog, but more boldly marked.
Amphibians amongst themselves constitute two very easily recognised sub-divisions,—the one including the Frogs and Toads, collectively forming the Tailless group; and the other represented by the Newts and Salamanders, or Tailed Amphibians. The former group has an almost world-wide distribution, numbering some thousand species; it is most abundantly represented in the tropics, ranging thence in diminishing numbers to the limits of the Arctic Circle. In colder climates these Amphibia usually hibernate during the winter months; while in tropical countries, where dry seasons intervene, they often bury themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor till the return of the rains. The majority are more or less essentially nocturnal in their habits. Frogs and toads commence life in an aquatictadpole phase. While in the adult state they are strictly carnivorous, the tadpoles are vegetarian feeders.
The section to which theCommon British Frogbelongs includes nearly 150 species, collectively known as Water-frogs, which present considerable differences in both their aspect and habits. While some are perennially aquatic, others only resort to the water during the breeding-season; some are terrestrial and occasionally earth-burrowers, while yet another series is essentially arboreal.
RÖNTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF COMMON FROG.Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.RÖNTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF COMMON FROG.The relatively small amount of bone which enters into the structure of the skull is well shown in this photograph.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.RÖNTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF COMMON FROG.The relatively small amount of bone which enters into the structure of the skull is well shown in this photograph.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.
RÖNTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF COMMON FROG.
The relatively small amount of bone which enters into the structure of the skull is well shown in this photograph.
In addition to the familiar British species the much-esteemedEdible Frogof the Continent has become acclimatised in England. A dark-coloured race of this frog, supposed to have been introduced by the monks centuries since on account of its esculent properties, is plentiful in the fens of Cambridgeshire, while a greener race of the same species was imported to and established in Norfolk somewhere about the year 1840. The edible frog may be distinguished from the common species by the more complete webbing of its hind feet, the absence of the dark so-called temporal spot that extends from the eye to the shoulder, and the presence in the males of a globular sac on each side of the head, which confers upon them louder croaking powers than are possessed by the common species.
The loudest-voiced as well as almost the largest member of this group is theBull-frogof Canada and the United States. The length of the body in this species may be as much as from 7 to 7½ inches, exclusive of the legs; and its croakings, or more correctly bellowings, are so loud that it may be heard for a distance of several miles. These croakings are most pronounced during the early spring or breeding-season. In the Southern United States, however, they are maintained more or less persistently throughout the year. While the British frog contents itself with a diet of slugs, worms, beetles, and other insects, the bull-frog aspires to larger quarry, and has an especial penchant for young ducklings. As a compensation the flesh of the bull-frog is said to be very delicately flavoured, and the species is so much esteemed in some localities as to be kept in captivity and fattened for the table. It has been recorded that the bull-frog makes leaps of from 8 to 10 feet in length and 5 feet in height.
In point of size the bull-frog is somewhat eclipsed by a species discovered in the Solomon Islands, and known asGuppy's Frog. This huge frog has a body no less than 9 inches in length. It has not been recorded whether its vocal powers are proportionately loud. Another large species allied to the Bull-frogs is found in South and East Africa, whose flesh is attested to by Dr. Livingstone as being excellent eating and resembling chicken when cooked. This frog, known to the natives as theMatlamitlo, is supposed by them to fall from the clouds, on account of its sudden appearance in even the driest parts of the desert immediately after a thunder-storm. The species, however, is in the habit of making holes at the roots of bushes,into which it retires during the months of drought, rushing out into the hollows filled by the thunder-showers while the rain is still actually falling. Even during the long drought these frogs continue their croakings from their retreats at night, and are very misleading to travellers, who customarily associate their presence with the immediate neighbourhood of water.
ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.The bite of this toad is highly venomous.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.The bite of this toad is highly venomous.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.
ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.
The bite of this toad is highly venomous.
There is a remarkable difference in the voice-timbre of the various species of frogs. In England, with its one indigenous variety, comparisons cannot be instituted. In countries, however, like Australia, where numbers of species live in close proximity, the phenomenon is very marked. Some only give voice in the evening or night, while others keep up their clamour throughout the day; with some the note is metallic and almost bell-like, while one diurnal croaking species, which congregates in great numbers in the eastern Tasmanian coast district, emits a loud percussive note closely resembling that of a stone-breaker's hammer. On several occasions, in fact, when driving through the areas these frogs frequented, the impression produced by their croaking was so realistic that the next turn in the road was expected to reveal the presence of a large gang of road-makers engaged in negotiating a wayside stone-heap.
One of the most remarkable species is theFlying-frogof Java. The power of flight is simulated in this instance on a different principle to that which obtains in any other group. It is not accomplished through the medium of abnormally produced ribs with connecting membrane, as occurs in the Flying-lizards; nor by means of a flap of skin stretched between the fore and hind limbs, as in the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. In place of these the toes of all four feet are abnormally prolonged, and their interspaces bridged over to their tips by webbing. The body of this frog is about 4 inches long, while the webs of the feet, when fully expanded, cover collectively an area of fully 12 square inches; they thus constitute aerial floats, which enable their owner to make prodigiously long flying leaps among the trees in which it takes up its abode. The colours of this singular species are striking; the back and limbs are a deep shining green, the under-surface and inner toes yellow, and the webs black rayed with yellow. In common with the typical Tree-frogs, the toes of this Javan flying variety all terminate in a dilated adhesive disk.
ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.Is accustomed to prowl round farmyards to pick up stray chicks and ducklings.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.Is accustomed to prowl round farmyards to pick up stray chicks and ducklings.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.
ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD.
Is accustomed to prowl round farmyards to pick up stray chicks and ducklings.
Among the oddities of the Frog Tribe prominence may be given to the singularShort-headed Frogsof East Africa. In these the head is so short, and the body, when puffed out, so nearly globular, that they have been aptly described as more nearly resembling india-rubber balls than frogs. Another notable form, inhabiting Chili, is remarkable for the circumstance that the throat-sac of the male is so enlarged and modified as to form a chamber on the undersurface of the body. In this sac the eggs laid by the female are deposited and pass through their tadpole phases.
EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG.Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG.Indigenous to Southern Europe.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG.Indigenous to Southern Europe.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.
EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG.
Indigenous to Southern Europe.
TheHorned Frogs, orHorned Toads, of South America constitute a distinct and interesting group. They are of large size, stout and rotund, gorgeously apparelled, and truculent in bearing. There are nearly a dozen known species, the distinctive feature from which they take their name having reference to the stiff, horn-like development of their upper eyelids. The largest species is a native of Brazil, whose body may be as much as 8 inches long. This species has the horn-like processes of the eyelids most prominently developed. A somewhat smaller but conspicuously handsome species, plentiful in the Argentine Republic, is at the present time represented by several individuals at the Regent's Park Gardens. In this animal the body is relatively more obese and toad-like than in the Brazilian form, but the horn-like angle of the upper eyelid is only slightly produced. The colours vary somewhat, the general ground-tint of the upper-surface is bronze-green or yellow, upon which are distributed large spots and blotches of dark olive or chocolate, having light yellow or golden margins. The spots on the limbs are the widest, and almost take the character of cross-bands. Bright claret-red lines are sometimes developed in and among the body-spots.
A very interesting account of the habits of this frog appears in Mr. W. H. Hudson's "The Naturalist in La Plata." Mr. Hudson reports it as being common on the pampas as far south as the Rio Colorado, in Patagonia. In the breeding-season it congregates in pools, and displays extraordinary vocal powers, which are exercised at night. The notes uttered are long, resembling those of a wind instrument, and are so powerful that on still evenings they may be heard distinctly a mile off. After the pairing-season the frogs disperse, and, retiring to moist places, bury themselves just deep enough to leave their broad green backs on a level with the surface. The eyes, under these conditions, look out as from a couple of watch-towers, and are on thequi vivefor any approaching prey. This consists of any moving creature which they can capture, such as other frogs and toads, birds, and small mammals. In very wet seasons they will frequent the neighbourhood of houses, and lie in wait for chickens and ducklings, often capturing and attempting to swallow objects much too large for them. In disposition they are exceedingly pugnacious, savagely biting at anything that comes near them. When teased, the creature swells itself out to such an extent that one expects to see it burst. It follows its tormentors about with slow, awkward leaps, its vast mouth wide open, and uttering an incessant harsh croaking sound. When they bite, these frogs hold on with the tenacity of a bull-dog, poisoning the blood of the creature seized with their glandular secretion. Mr. Hudson records two instances in which to his knowledge horses were killed through being bitten by a horned frog. One of them, while lying down, had been seized by a fold in the skin near the belly; the other had been grasped by the nose while cropping grass. In both instances the vicious frog was found dead, with jaws tightly closed, still hanging to the dead horse. "It would seem," Mr. Hudson remarks, "that they are sometimes incapable of letting go at will, and, like honey-bees, destroy themselves in these savage attacks."
TheTree-frogsrepresent one of the most distinct groups of the tribe. All its members are more or less arboreal in their habits, repairing to the water only during the breeding-season, or leaving the trees to seek shelter in the earth or underneath stones or timber for the purposes of hibernation. As an adaptation for their special habits, the toes of the tree-frogs are provided at their tips with suctorial disks, so that they can walk on perpendicular or smoothly glazed surfaces after the manner of the Geckos among the Lizards. Another characteristic feature is the development on the under surface of their bodies of peculiar granular glands pierced by numerous pores, through the medium of which they rapidly absorb the moisture deposited by dew or rain on the surfaces of the leaves among which they live. The colours of the tree-frogs harmonise, as a rule, so completely with those of their leafy environments that their presence very readily escapes detection. Many of the species, moreover, rival the chamæleon in their capacity of quickly adapting their tints to that of a newly occupied surrounding. Green is naturally the dominant ground-tint of these frogs. Often, however, it is intermixed with stripes and bands of other colours, while sometimes the green hue is entirely replaced, as in theBlueorBicoloured Tree-frogof South America, which is brilliant azure above and pure white beneath. A very beautiful Australian species, abundant in Tasmania and Victoria, and appropriately named theGolden Tree-frog, has its grass-green overcoat thickly overlaid and embroidered with, as it were, the purest beaten gold.
QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS.Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea.QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS.This species is in the habit of making itself at home in chamber water-jugs.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea.QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS.This species is in the habit of making itself at home in chamber water-jugs.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea.
QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS.
This species is in the habit of making itself at home in chamber water-jugs.
COMMON TOAD.Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.][Eastbourne.COMMON TOAD.Toads are accredited with attaining an age of several hundred years.
Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.][Eastbourne.COMMON TOAD.Toads are accredited with attaining an age of several hundred years.
Photo by H. G. F. Spurrell, Esq.][Eastbourne.
COMMON TOAD.
Toads are accredited with attaining an age of several hundred years.
One small species of tree-frog is common on the European Continent, its distribution extending to North Africa and eastward throughout Asia north of the Himalaya to Japan. The species is imported into England in considerable numbers, and readily becomes acclimatised in a conservatory. Green above and whitish beneath constitute the prevailing tints of this species, such uniformity being, however, varied by the presence of a darker, often nearly black, light-edged streak, that extends from the snout through the eye and ear along each side of the body, and sends a branch upwards and forwards on the loins. The male of this European species shares with many others of its tribe the possession of a large external vocal sac, which when inflated bulges out from the throat in a spherical form to dimensions little inferior to those of the creature's body. It may beobserved of examples of these frogs acclimatised in a conservatory that the falling of heavy rain on the roof is an almost certain incentive to their croakings. By pouring water resonantly from a little height into another vessel, the writer also found that he could produce a frog chorus at command.
The European and other tree-frogs deposit their eggs in the water, some species constructing a symmetrical crater-like nest of mud for the reception of the eggs and tadpoles. Certain kinds, however, never leave the trees, having adapted their requirements to the naturally provided environments. Thus one Brazilian species deposits its eggs in the water almost invariably contained in the central cup of a tree, while another allied frog chooses for the same purpose the moist interstices at the bases of decaying banana leaves. A step further, resulting in complete independence of external water, is arrived at by theMarsupialorPouched Tree-frogof Central America. In this species the female develops a capacious pouch on her back, which opens backward, and wherein both the eggs—primarily assisted to their position by the male—and tadpoles undergo their characteristic transformations.
COMMON TOAD.Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.COMMON TOAD.The toad is highly appreciated by the horticulturist on account of its utility in destroying insect-pests.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.COMMON TOAD.The toad is highly appreciated by the horticulturist on account of its utility in destroying insect-pests.
Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.][Parson's Green.
COMMON TOAD.
The toad is highly appreciated by the horticulturist on account of its utility in destroying insect-pests.
As a contrast to the foregoing exclusively tree-dwelling forms, one very fine species common in Queensland has pronounced social proclivities. He is a fine fellow, with a bright pea-green coat and large, lustrous black eyes, and either with or without your leave invades your bedroom from the adjoining verandah, and makes the lip of your water-jug his headquarters. Here he will "lie low" the livelong day. With the approach of night, however, this lethargy is thrown aside, and he hops forth, making excursions through every room in search of black-beetles, spiders, moths, or other acceptable quarry. In this vermin-destroying capacity he is a welcome guest to all except perhaps the ultra-squeamish housekeeper, his occasional offence of an upset glass or cup during his excited chase of the wily cockroach being readily condoned. He has a playful habit too, during his midnight wanderings, of climbing up walls and ceilings, to which he readily clings with his adhesive toes, and mayhap drops down on the recumbent form of some peaceful sleeper, who, if a stranger, possibly wakes with an alarming apprehension of snakes or other uncanny intruders. When once thisQueensland Green Froghas determined upon his camping-ground, he clings to it with remarkable pertinacity. You may deport him time after time, and even carry him half a day's journey into the wilderness, but he turns up again the next morning or the following one.
Toads are distinguished from frogs by their sluggish creeping movements and by their non-possession of teeth. There are over eighty species, having collectively an almost cosmopolitan range, though they are not found in Australia, New Guinea, Madagascar, or the Pacific Islands. The common British species enjoys a wide distribution, being found throughout Europe, Asia excepting India, and North-west Africa. Its somewhat clumsy, brown, wrinkled, and warted body, with darker spots and markings on the upper-surface and white-speckled under-surface, will be familiar to every reader. With many it is an unwarrantedobject of aversion, and in country districts is not infrequently accredited with venomous properties. Toad-spawn is plentiful in ponds and ditches in the early spring, and may be distinguished from that of the frog by the fact of its being deposited in chain-like strings, the eggs being arranged in a double alternating row, instead of in irregular masses, as obtains with the last-named species. The individual eggs are, moreover, smaller, and deposited two or three weeks later in the season than those of the frog. A second and somewhat rarer British toad is known as theNatterjack. It may be distinguished from the ordinary species by the shorter hind limbs, the more prominent eyes, and the conspicuous yellow line down the middle of its back. It is also somewhat more active than the common species.
The last member of the group which demands brief notice is the singularWater-toadof Surinam. This animal, also known as thePipa, is an inhabitant of the moist forest regions of the Guianas and Central America, and remarkable on account of the singular phenomena connected with its breeding habits. The eggs, from 60 to over 100 in number, are deposited by the female in the water in the ordinary manner, but at this stage they are taken in hand by the male and literally planted in the back of the female, whose skin in this region becomes abnormally soft and thickened at this season. The young toads undergo their complete development in the parental integument, each egg and its resulting embryo occupying a separate primarily cylindrical chamber, which by lateral pressure becomes hexagonal, resembling a honeycomb-cell. Eighty-two days are occupied from the time of the deposition of the eggs until the young toads emerge into the outer world, their appearance as they make theirdébut, with here a head and there one or it may be two limbs thrust out from the surface of the parent's back, being highly grotesque.
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS.
The Newts and Salamanders, or Tailed Amphibians, are distinguished from the preceding group of the Frogs and Toads by the retention of a tail throughout life. In this manner they very nearly resemble the advanced larval or tadpole phases of the latter. In some instances, in fact, the earlier or externally gill-bearing tadpole phase is persistent. The geographical distribution of the Salamander Tribe is much less extensive than that of the Frogs and Toads, but few are found south of the Equator, and they are entirely unknown in Australia or in Africa south of the Sahara.
COMMON OR SMOOTH NEWT.Photo by James B. Corr, Esq.][Dundee.COMMON OR SMOOTH NEWT.This harmless little creature is accredited by many country people with venomous properties.
Photo by James B. Corr, Esq.][Dundee.COMMON OR SMOOTH NEWT.This harmless little creature is accredited by many country people with venomous properties.
Photo by James B. Corr, Esq.][Dundee.
COMMON OR SMOOTH NEWT.
This harmless little creature is accredited by many country people with venomous properties.
Two members of the group are indigenous to the British Islands, where they are familiarly known asNewts,Askers,Effets, orEfts. The larger and handsomer of the two, theCrested Newt, occurs in ponds and ditches throughout the warmer months of the year. It grows to a length of nearly 6 inches, of which the tail constitutes about one moiety. Itscolour is more usually blackish or olive-brown with darker circular spots above, and yellow or orange-red with black spots or marbling beneath, while the sides are speckled white. In the breeding-season the colours are more especially brilliant, and it is at this time that the male develops the serrated crest along the middle of its back, from which it takes its title.