COCOONS OF CYPRESS-MOTH.Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.COCOONS OF CYPRESS-MOTH.These yield silk.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.COCOONS OF CYPRESS-MOTH.These yield silk.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.
COCOONS OF CYPRESS-MOTH.
These yield silk.
TheLooper-mothsare those produced from caterpillars which have only ten legs instead of sixteen, as already explained. Most have slender bodies of moderate length, and broad and rather brightly coloured wings, green, russet-brown, yellow, etc. Some, measuring about an inch in expanse, are calledCarpet-moths, from the zigzag patterns on the fore wings, which are generally black and white, or brown and white, and sometimes green. TheYellow-shell, a yellow moth, with some zigzag brown and whitish lines across the wings, which expand about an inch, is common in hedges and bushes. The white, black-and-yellow-spottedGooseberry-moth, orMagpie-moth, so common in gardens, is also one of the Loopers.
CYPRESS-MOTHS AT REST.Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CYPRESS-MOTHS AT REST.In the month of July they start weaving their cocoons, in which they remain for seventeen days. A couple of weeks after their eggs are hatched, and the young caterpillars run up the tree, and feed from the end of August, during autumn, winter, and spring.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CYPRESS-MOTHS AT REST.In the month of July they start weaving their cocoons, in which they remain for seventeen days. A couple of weeks after their eggs are hatched, and the young caterpillars run up the tree, and feed from the end of August, during autumn, winter, and spring.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.
CYPRESS-MOTHS AT REST.
In the month of July they start weaving their cocoons, in which they remain for seventeen days. A couple of weeks after their eggs are hatched, and the young caterpillars run up the tree, and feed from the end of August, during autumn, winter, and spring.
Among the smaller moths are thePearl-moths, with long slender bodies, wings longer than broad, and often with a pearly lustre, one or two species of which are common among nettles. We may also mention theSnout-moth, a brown slender-bodied moth, with a pointed beak projecting in front of the head, likewise a common insect among nettles. TheGrass-mothsare small moths, with narrow whitish fore wings, and broad brownish hind wings, which they wrap round their bodies when at rest. They are common in every field and meadow. TheBell-mothshave broad truncated fore wings,and rounded hind wings. A species belonging to this family, with green fore wings and brown hind wings, may be shaken from every oak-tree in summer, and at the same time numbers of its little green caterpillars will drop themselves down, and remain swinging at the end of a thread, till they think that the danger is past, when they climb up again.
CYPRESS-MOTHS.Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CYPRESS-MOTHS.The inside of the cocoons, showing the pupæ.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CYPRESS-MOTHS.The inside of the cocoons, showing the pupæ.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.
CYPRESS-MOTHS.
The inside of the cocoons, showing the pupæ.
TheClothes-moths, familiar to everybody, are representatives of an enormous family of small moths, comprising nearly two-thirds of the British species, but only a few live in houses. Most have narrow wings with long fringes, and many feed in tortuous galleries which they eat in the substance of leaves. Some are among the smallest moths known.
TheWhite Plume-moth, which may be noticed floating about in weedy places like a piece of thistle-down, is a representative of a small family in which the fore wings are divided into three separate feathers, and the hind wings into two. The other species are brown, and smaller. When at rest, they look like small daddy-long-legs.
TheTwenty-plume Mothis a yellowish-grey species, less than an inch in expanse, often to be seen at rest on windows or palings. It might easily be taken for a small looper-moth, but that each wing is split into six feathers.
Silkworms.
CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS.Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS.When they leave their cocoons, the young caterpillars run up the tree to feed.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS.When they leave their cocoons, the young caterpillars run up the tree to feed.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.
CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS.
When they leave their cocoons, the young caterpillars run up the tree to feed.
We have now completed a rapid survey of the principal groups of Butterflies and Moths, and may fittingly conclude this part of our subject by giving a short account of the history ofSilkworms—insects which far surpass all other butterflies and moths in their importance to mankind, on account of the valuable product which is obtained from their cocoons. The industry has been carried on from time immemorial in China; and many old Chinese works contain interesting particulars, especially relating to the rearing of silkworms by the queens and their ladies, for silk was probably a royal monopoly in old times. These Chinese records date back to about 2200B.C., when the silk industry was already flourishing; but, according to the usually received tradition, silkworms were first reared during the reign of the Emperor Hwang-té (2640B.C.) by his queen. The following extracts from the "Le-he Book of Ceremonies," written between 204B.C.and 135B.C., and quoted by Horsfield and Moore in their "Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of the East IndiaMuseum," may not be uninteresting to our renders:—
DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH.Photo by J. Peat Millar][Beith.DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH.Remarkable for the skull-like pattern on the back.
Photo by J. Peat Millar][Beith.DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH.Remarkable for the skull-like pattern on the back.
Photo by J. Peat Millar][Beith.
DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH.
Remarkable for the skull-like pattern on the back.
"In the first month of spring orders were issued to the forester not to cut down the mulberry-trees; and when the cooing doves were observed fluttering with their wings, and the crested jays alighting upon the mulberry-trees, people were to prepare the trays and frames for the purpose of rearing the silkworms.
DAY-FLYING MOTH OF MADAGASCAR.Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea.DAY-FLYING MOTH OF MADAGASCAR.Remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours—green and black, with the hind wings brilliant coppery red towards the extremity.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea.DAY-FLYING MOTH OF MADAGASCAR.Remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours—green and black, with the hind wings brilliant coppery red towards the extremity.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea.
DAY-FLYING MOTH OF MADAGASCAR.
Remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours—green and black, with the hind wings brilliant coppery red towards the extremity.
"In the spring season, when the empress and her ladies had fasted, they proceeded to the east, and personally engaged in picking the mulberry-leaves. On this occasion the married and single ladies were forbidden to wear their ornaments, and the usual employments of females were lessened, in order to encourage attention to the silkworms. When the rearing of the silkworms was completed, the cocoons were divided (for reeling) and the silk weighed (for weaving), each person being rewarded according to her labour, in order to provide dresses for the celestial and ancestorial sacrifices. In all this none dared indulge in indolence.
CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH.Photo by J. Peat Millar][Beith.CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH.A grey moth, with pink bands on the body.
Photo by J. Peat Millar][Beith.CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH.A grey moth, with pink bands on the body.
Photo by J. Peat Millar][Beith.
CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH.
A grey moth, with pink bands on the body.
GREAT PEACOCK-MOTH.Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.GREAT PEACOCK-MOTH.Brown with pale borders. The largest moth found in Europe.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.GREAT PEACOCK-MOTH.Brown with pale borders. The largest moth found in Europe.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.
GREAT PEACOCK-MOTH.
Brown with pale borders. The largest moth found in Europe.
POLYPHEMUS MOTH.Photo by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt][Washington.POLYPHEMUS MOTH.On leaves of linden-tree, just out of cocoon. A native of North America.
Photo by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt][Washington.POLYPHEMUS MOTH.On leaves of linden-tree, just out of cocoon. A native of North America.
Photo by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt][Washington.
POLYPHEMUS MOTH.
On leaves of linden-tree, just out of cocoon. A native of North America.
"In the last month of summer the order was given to the female officers to dye the silk of various colours, in order to weave chequered sarcenets, comprising black and white, black and green, green and red, with red-and-white checks—all of which was to be done according to the ancient rule, without the least variation; the black, yellow, azure, and red tints were all to be correct and good, without the least fault, in order to provide dresses for the celestial and ancestorial sacrifices, and standards for distinguishing the high and low degrees.
WHITE PLUME-MOTH.Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.WHITE PLUME-MOTH.A very delicate insect. The wings are cleft almost to the base into separate feathers, two on the fore wings and three on the hind wings.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.WHITE PLUME-MOTH.A very delicate insect. The wings are cleft almost to the base into separate feathers, two on the fore wings and three on the hind wings.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.
WHITE PLUME-MOTH.
A very delicate insect. The wings are cleft almost to the base into separate feathers, two on the fore wings and three on the hind wings.
"In ancient times the emperor and his princes had a public mulberry garden and a silkworm establishment erected near some river. On the morning of the first day of the third month of spring, the sovereign, wearing a leather cap and a plain garment, ascertained by lot the chief of his three queens, with the most honourable amongst his concubines, and caused them to attend to the rearing of the silkworms in the above-named establishment. They then brought the eggs of the worms, and washed them in the river above alluded to, after which they picked the mulberry-leaves in the public garden, and aired and dried them, in order to feed the worms.
INDIAN SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH.Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.INDIAN SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH.Resembles the American Luna Moth figured on page718, and of an equally delicate green.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.INDIAN SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH.Resembles the American Luna Moth figured on page718, and of an equally delicate green.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.][Milford-on-Sea.
INDIAN SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH.
Resembles the American Luna Moth figured on page718, and of an equally delicate green.
"When the season was over, the royal concubines, having completed the business of rearing the silkworms, brought the cocoons to show them to the prince, when he presented the cocoons again to his consort, whereupon his consort said, 'This is the material of which your highness's robes are to be formed.' Having said which, she covered herself with her robe, and received the cocoons. On this occasion the ladies of the court were honoured with the present of a sheep. This was the mode in which the presentation of the cocoons was anciently conducted."
In the reign of Justinian eggs of the Chinese mulberry-silkworm were smuggled into Europe by two monks, and the culture of silk rapidly spread through Southern Europe, where it has continued to form a staple industry ever since. In the Peloponnesus especially such large plantations of mulberry-trees were grown for the purpose of rearing silkworms as to give the peninsula its modern name of Morea. Silk is obtained in different parts of the world from the cocoons of various other moths, chiefly belonging to the group of Emperor-moths; but these products are only of local importance, and are not likely to compete with the mulberry-silkworm.
HALF-WINGED INSECTS, OR BUGS AND FROG-HOPPERS.
BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S.
SHIELD-BUG.Photos by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.]SHIELD-BUG.In tropical countries these bugs are often as large as cockchafers.
Photos by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.]SHIELD-BUG.In tropical countries these bugs are often as large as cockchafers.
Photos by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.]
SHIELD-BUG.
In tropical countries these bugs are often as large as cockchafers.
JUNIPER-BUG.[Regent's Park.JUNIPER-BUG.Some species of this family are carnivorous as well as herbivorous.
[Regent's Park.JUNIPER-BUG.Some species of this family are carnivorous as well as herbivorous.
[Regent's Park.
JUNIPER-BUG.
Some species of this family are carnivorous as well as herbivorous.
The order including the Bugs and Frog-hoppers is divided into two sub-orders. There are also one or two small groups, sometimes treated as separate orders, and sometimes regarded as aberrant sections of the order, to which we shall allude later.
TheTrue Bugshave their fore wings of a horny texture, but generally overlapping, and the extremities form a transparent membrane, resembling that of the hind wings. They have a long sucking-proboscis curved down beneath their bodies, and their antennæ usually consist of only four or five long joints. Most are vegetable-feeders, but some species feed on the juices of other insects, while a few attack warm-blooded animals, either casually or habitually.
The first family includes theShield-bugs. These derive their name from the unusual development of a part of the thorax called the "scutellum." In most insects it is only a small plate of no great importance, attached to the end of the thorax; but in the Shield-bugs it forms a great solid arch, covering the whole of the wings, and protecting them as the wing-cases protect the wings of beetles. There are only a few small species in England, but a great number of beautiful species inhabit warm countries, some of a brilliant blue or green or yellow, or spotted. Many of them are comparatively large insects, nearly an inch long, and resemble brilliantly coloured beetles, from which, however, they can easily be distinguished by the antennæ, the proboscis, and the shield, the latter of which is not divided down the middle like the wing-cases of beetles.
LACE-WING BUG.Photo by J. Edwards][Colesborne.LACE-WING BUG.An elegant little insect, injurious to pear-trees.
Photo by J. Edwards][Colesborne.LACE-WING BUG.An elegant little insect, injurious to pear-trees.
Photo by J. Edwards][Colesborne.
LACE-WING BUG.
An elegant little insect, injurious to pear-trees.
Next to the Shield-bugs, and considered by many entomologists as belonging to the same group, are thePentagonal Shield-bugs, so called because the scutellum, though much smaller than in the Shield-bugs, is often half as long as the abdomen, and forms a broad triangle, sometimes broken at the sides, so as to make a five-sided plate, lying above the bases of the wings. Several green or brown species of this family, about half an inch long, are common in England among bushes. Many have a very disagreeable smell, and hence they are calledStink-bugsin America. They feed on vegetable juices, and also frequently on soft-bodied insects.Several species (chiefly foreign) among the Shield-bugs and the present group have a strong spine, or else a blunt protuberance, projecting from each shoulder.
The remaining plant-bugs are much more numerous—at least in England—than those already mentioned, and form several families, which cannot be noticed in detail. Many species are rather small and delicate creatures, narrower and softer than the Shield-bugs and Pentagonal Shield-bugs, and are adorned with various colours, black and red predominating. Some have more transparent wings than the others, such as the beautiful littleLace-winged Bugs, one species of which is often very destructive to pear-trees.
TheBed-bugis a reddish-brown, somewhat oval insect, common in many old houses, hiding in cracks and crevices in walls and woodwork, and coming out at night to suck the blood of sleepers with its sharp proboscis. There are allied species, sometimes found in hen-houses, pigeon-houses, and places where bats congregate. The bed-bug has only been known in England for a few centuries, and though now a great pest in all parts of the world, was probably a native of Africa originally.
The bed-bug, notwithstanding its offensive odour, is preyed upon by several other insects, among which are the common cockroach and theMasked Bug. The latter is a black-winged bug about three-quarters of an inch long, and remarkable for the habits of its larva, which conceals itself with dust or fluff, so that it may steal upon its prey unobserved. The masked bug and its larva feed on soft-bodied insects of various kinds, and are more frequently found in outhouses than in dwelling-rooms. This bug occasionally attacks warm-blooded animals; and a short time ago a great deal of nonsense was published in the newspapers about a mysterious insect-pest in North America, called theKissing-bug, which seems to have been nothing more unusual than this insect. There are, however, some much larger species belonging to the same family, which are formidable pests in the Southern States of North America, Chili, and various other countries.
MASKED BUG.Photo by P. Danado, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.MASKED BUG.The larvæ of these insects cover themselves with dust, in order to creep upon their prey unnoticed.
Photo by P. Danado, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.MASKED BUG.The larvæ of these insects cover themselves with dust, in order to creep upon their prey unnoticed.
Photo by P. Danado, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.
MASKED BUG.
The larvæ of these insects cover themselves with dust, in order to creep upon their prey unnoticed.
After these insects come theWater-bugs, of which there are several families, though the number of species is comparatively small. Some are very slender insects, with long, slender legs, and may be seen running on the surface of ponds in England; while others, which are tropical species, are marine, and are met with running on the surface of the water in the open sea.
The largest members of the group are some of the great water-bugs found in Africa, India, and America. Their fore wings are of a light brown, and measure from 3 to 5 inches in expanse. Their legs are short and strong, and the front legs are adapted for grasping their prey, which consists of insects and small fishes. There are some smaller species in which the female lays her eggs in a cluster on the back of the male, which carries them about till they are hatched. These bugs fly about in the evening, and are frequently attracted by electric light.
In England there are two allied species calledWater-scorpions, from their long front legs, which somewhat resemble the nippers of a scorpion. The commonest is a brown insect, with the abdomen red beneath. It is about an inch long, including the breathing-tube, which sticks out behind the body like a tail, and is formed of two separable parts. It is an oval insect, half as broad as long, and is common in stagnant water. The other species is twice as long, and is much more slender, with longer and more slender legs. It is yellowish brown, like most of the other water-bugs, and is a sluggish and rather scarce insect, creeping about in the mud at the bottom of deeper water than that preferred by the commoner species.
TheWater-boatmenare yellowish-brown insects, measuring half an inch in length, with smooth bodies, and long, hairy hind legs, with which they row themselves about on the water, as if with oars, while floating on their backs. All the larger water-bugs are capable of inflicting a severe puncture with their sharp proboscis, if handled incautiously.
GREAT WATER-BUG.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.GREAT WATER-BUG.Very similar species are found in Africa, Asia, and America.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.GREAT WATER-BUG.Very similar species are found in Africa, Asia, and America.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.
GREAT WATER-BUG.
Very similar species are found in Africa, Asia, and America.
GREAT WATER-BUG.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.GREAT WATER-BUG.These insects live in water during the day, and fly about in the evening.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.GREAT WATER-BUG.These insects live in water during the day, and fly about in the evening.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.][Regent's Park.
GREAT WATER-BUG.
These insects live in water during the day, and fly about in the evening.
TheFrog-hoppersand their allies differ from the Bugs in the fore wings being uniform in texture throughout, and not membranous, with the tips transparent. Sometimes the fore wings are of a more or less horny texture, but they are frequently as transparent as the hind wings. All the species are plant-feeding insects.
INDIAN CANDLE-FLY.Photo by J. Edwards][Colesborne.INDIAN CANDLE-FLY.Erroneously stated to be luminous.
Photo by J. Edwards][Colesborne.INDIAN CANDLE-FLY.Erroneously stated to be luminous.
Photo by J. Edwards][Colesborne.
INDIAN CANDLE-FLY.
Erroneously stated to be luminous.
The first family, theCicadas, includes a number of large or moderate-sized species, in which the males are provided with a large, drum-like apparatus on the abdomen, and some of which make the loud noise for which they have long been celebrated. There is only one comparatively small species in England, which is rare, and almost confined to the New Forest. It is black, with transparent wings, about 1½ inch in expanse, and has red transverse lines on the abdomen. The largest Indian species, however, sometimes expands 8 inches. Cicadas have broad heads, broad short bodies, ending rather abruptly in a point, and their larvæ live in the ground, where they are sometimes injurious to the roots of trees. The wings are usually, but not always, transparent—a very common Indian and Chinese species, about 3 inches in expanse, being black, with large yellow spots on the fore wings. In North America and Australia cicadas are often miscalled Locusts.
TheLantern-flies, orCandle-flies, which form the next family, derive their name from having been stated to be luminous, a statement which is now considered very doubtful. They are insects of considerable size and bright colours, occasionally resembling butterflies and moths; the largest species, theLantern-flyof South America, sometimes measures as much as 5 inches across the wings, which are of a pale yellowish or greenish tint, with a large round spot on the hind wings, formed of black rings or crescents, and enclosing one or two large white spots. On the head is an immense hollow, blunt protuberance, marked with one or two longitudinal red lines. In some species there is a curved horn in front of the head; in some the horn forms a short cross; in others it ends in a red knob; while others are destitute of such an appendage. The hind wings are often brightly coloured, red or yellow usually predominating.
TheTrue Frog-hoppersare small insects about a quarter of an inch long, found among grass and bushes. The fore wings are of rather a stout consistency and uniform in colour (often yellowish), and the hind wings transparent. The larvæ are soft grubs, and live in the masses of froth so common in grass and bushes, which are vulgarly known as "cuckoo-spit."
Passing over several families of small species, we arrive at two which contain many very destructive insects. TheAphides,Plant-lice, orSmother-fliesare the small green or brown winged or wingless insects which frequently cover the shoots of roses and other trees and plants, and exude a sweet sticky substance, called "honey-dew," very attractive to ants. One species, known as theAmerican Blight, is extremely destructive to apple-trees, patches of a substance resembling white cotton appearing on the bark. Under these patches the bark rots from the attacks of the insects, the pest being very difficult to eradicate.
APHIS.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.APHIS.A sexual wingless form.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.APHIS.A sexual wingless form.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.
APHIS.
A sexual wingless form.
SCALE-INSECT.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.SCALE-INSECT.The females die, covering their eggs with their own bodies.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.SCALE-INSECT.The females die, covering their eggs with their own bodies.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.
SCALE-INSECT.
The females die, covering their eggs with their own bodies.
SCALE-INSECTS.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.SCALE-INSECTS.Showing their appearance when crowded together on a branch.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.SCALE-INSECTS.Showing their appearance when crowded together on a branch.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.
SCALE-INSECTS.
Showing their appearance when crowded together on a branch.
Many of the Aphides exhibit the curious phenomenon known as "alternation of generations." The first brood consists of winged males and females; but the eggs which the latter lay produce exclusively wingless females, or rather sexless creatures capable of laying eggs, and these multiply indefinitely for a time, till perfect males and females are again reproduced. In some cases the winged forms live on the leaves of trees, and the wingless forms at the roots of grass, etc. One of the most destructive of all these insects is theVine-aphis, which was probably introduced into Europe from America, and which threatened at one time almost to destroy the vine industry in France. Wingless sexless forms live and multiply at the roots of vines; and in summer winged males and females are produced, which fly up, and lay eggs on the leaves; while some of the wingless insects also quit the ground, and form small galls on the vine-leaves. Although very abundant in America, the insect is not nearly so destructive to the plants which it attacks as in Europe.
Some species ofScale-insectsare almost equally destructive, especially to greenhouse plants. The male is slender and two-winged, but the female is wingless and often legless, and after depositing her eggs usually dies above them, thus forming a covering to protect them from injury. Cochineal consists of the bodies of a species of scale-insect which infests the leaves of a cactus in Mexico.
TheTrue Liceare found on various species of mammals, and imbibe their food through a proboscis. TheBird-lice, orBiting-lice, form a well-defined group by themselves. They are sometimes regarded as forming distinct orders of insects; but some authors treat the first group as a degraded family of insects allied to the Frog-hoppers, and the second group as an equally degraded and aberrant family allied to the Lace-winged Insects.
TWO-WINGED INSECTS, OR FLIES.
BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S.
This order of insects is probably one of the most numerous in individuals, though it may be that, when we know more of the insect population of the world, we shall find that it is outnumbered in species by the Beetles or the order to which the Bees and Ants belong. It differs from all other orders in possessing only two wings instead of four, which is the usual number in insects. The metamorphoses are complete, and the mouth is furnished with a proboscis for imbibing liquid food. Hind wings are represented in many species by a pair of organs called "poisers," resembling a knob at the end of a stick, and other species have two small additional lobes attached to the wing, called "winglets "; but there is no such thing as a really developed hind wing in any insect belonging to the group. They are always two-winged flies, except in the case of a few aberrant species, such as the Fleas, in which no wings, or only mere rudiments of wings, are to be met with. The Gnats, Daddy-long-legs, and House-flies are among the commonest representatives of this order.
CICADA AND PUPÆ.Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CICADA AND PUPÆ.Noted for the loud drumming sound produced by the males.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.CICADA AND PUPÆ.Noted for the loud drumming sound produced by the males.
Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni][Smyrna.
CICADA AND PUPÆ.
Noted for the loud drumming sound produced by the males.
The first section of the group includes theGnatsand theDaddy-long-legs, orCrane-Flies, the members of which may be distinguished by having moderately long antennæ, composed of more than six joints, and never terminating in a bristle. They are all vegetable-feeders, with the exception of the females of gnats and sand-flies, which are furnished with a lancet-like arrangement for sucking the blood of warm-blooded animals.
TheGall-flies,Wheat-midges, etc., have rather long, jointed antennæ, which are not feathered, though sometimes tufted on the sides, and their maggots produce small galls on various trees and plants, or distort and otherwise injure them. They resemble small gnats, and there are two particularly destructive species which attack corn in England and elsewhere,—theWheat-midge, an orange-yellow fly with black eyes, which produces little yellowish or reddish maggots which injure the growing grain in the ear; and theHessian Fly, which is brown, and produces semi-transparent maggots, which afterwards grow darker, and when full grown become pupæ resembling flax-seeds. The maggots attack the stalk, feeding on the sap till the stalk cracks and bends over. This is an infallible sign of their presence, and of the mischief they are doing.
Among the best-known insects of this group are theGnats, orMosquitoes, of which there are many genera and species. There is no difference, however, to permit of their being classified in two separate popular categories. In England any of these troublesome insects are called Gnats; out of England they are termed Mosquitoes, if we are tormented by them, even though they may belong to the same species as the English ones—for "mosquito" is merely the Spanish word for "gnat" Anglicised.
BROWN MOSQUITO.BROWN MOSQUITO.Observe the proboscis in front of the head.
BROWN MOSQUITO.Observe the proboscis in front of the head.
BROWN MOSQUITO.
Observe the proboscis in front of the head.
Gnats breed in standing water, fresh or otherwise, but seem to prefer rain-water, for they are very numerous about small pools and water-butts. Consequently they were formerly far more abundant in England than at present, when the fens were still undrained, and when every house hadits rain-water butt. The females of some species construct small rafts of eggs, which float about on the surface of the water till hatched, and then produce small maggots with a breathing-apparatus at the end of the tail. In this condition they swim head-downwards, while the more compact pupa floats head-upwards. They may be destroyed by pouring a little kerosene into their breeding-places; and as this floats on the surface of the water, it does not interfere with the use of the water in water-butts, which is usually drawn off by a tap below. The males of gnats often have feathered antennæ and long, slender legs. The females, however, are more nocturnal in their habits, and come into houses in the evening, and keep people awake by their humming and painful "bites," or rather punctures, which frequently cause a distressing irritation for a day or two afterwards. What is worse is that they are now known to disseminate various diseases, such as elephantiasis and also malarial fever of every kind, in this manner—from the comparatively mild ague of the English fens (now nearly extinct) to the terrible malaria of Southern Europe, India, and Africa, formerly attributed to the unhealthy atmosphere of marshy countries, or to exposure to the night air in warm countries, but now known to be caused by the bites of the gnats, or mosquitoes, which breed in swampy places, and fly about in the evening. It is believed that only certain species of gnats convey the germs of these diseases; and it has been stated that, though ague-bearing species of gnats are still found in England, those which have been examined for the purpose have been free from these germs, and are therefore incapable of propagating the disease.
HORNET ROBBER-FLY.Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.HORNET ROBBER-FLY.Common in the south of England.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.HORNET ROBBER-FLY.Common in the south of England.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.
HORNET ROBBER-FLY.
Common in the south of England.
DADDY-LONG-LEGS.Photo by W. P. Dando, F Z.S.][Regent's Park.DADDY-LONG-LEGS.Large species, with variegated wings.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F Z.S.][Regent's Park.DADDY-LONG-LEGS.Large species, with variegated wings.
Photo by W. P. Dando, F Z.S.][Regent's Park.
DADDY-LONG-LEGS.
Large species, with variegated wings.
In many parts of the world gnats are excessively numerous and troublesome at certain seasons of the year, filling the air like clouds of dust, so that it is difficult to sleep or eat from the annoyance and irritation caused by their attacks. This will be readily credible to those who have experienced the pain which they cause even when not very numerous, and have been kept awake at night by their shrill piping as they approach. They appear to be equally numerous in cold and warm countries—Lapland, France, South Russia, Italy, various parts of America, and in fact most parts of the world being liable to the inordinate multiplication of different species.
In England they were formerly so abundant in the fenlands that mosquito-curtains were in use less than a century ago, and may be so still. But their numbers have so diminished of late years that, whenever gnats are a little more troublesome than usual, it is reported that there has been an invasion of mosquitoes. A year ortwo ago there was a report that "mosquitoes" had been brought to Cromer in some fishing-vessel, and the newspapers contained paragraphs about "mosquitoes" having caused much annoyance in different parts of London. But many of the specimens submitted to the inspection of entomologists proved to be nothing more than the commonest of all the blood-sucking gnats, called thePiping-Gnatby Linnæus, on account of its shrill note. The note is produced by the rapid vibration of the wings, which has been estimated at the rate of 3,000 per minute. Gnats do not always fly near the ground. Sometimes they have been seen ascending from cathedrals and other high buildings in such vast swarms that they resembled clouds of smoke, and gave rise to the idea that the building was actually on fire.
Equally troublesome and annoying are theSand-Flies, as they are called in England, or theBlack-Flies, as they are called in America. They are very small flies, short and broad, and with broader wings than gnats; and one of them, which actually destroys many mules and other domestic animals in the Mississippi Valley, as we learn from Professor Comstock, is called theBuffalo-Gnat, from a fancied resemblance of the side-view of the insect to a buffalo. Other species are equally destructive to the cattle in the Banat of Hungary. It is a curious circumstance that, in the case of nearly all two-winged flies which attack men and animals, it is usually only the females which suck blood, the males frequenting flowers and being perfectly harmless.
HOVER-FLY.Photos by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.HOVER-FLY.This fly has a superficial resemblance to a bee. (See page734.)
Photos by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.HOVER-FLY.This fly has a superficial resemblance to a bee. (See page734.)
Photos by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.
HOVER-FLY.
This fly has a superficial resemblance to a bee. (See page734.)
RAT-TAILED LARVA.[Regent's Park.RAT-TAILED LARVA.Common in filthy water.
[Regent's Park.RAT-TAILED LARVA.Common in filthy water.
[Regent's Park.
RAT-TAILED LARVA.
Common in filthy water.
Respecting mosquitoes in South America, Mr. H. W. Bates writes, in his work "The Naturalist on the Amazons," when passing a night in a boat about twenty-five miles from the town of Villa Nova: "At night it was quite impossible to sleep for mosquitoes; they fell upon us by myriads, and without much piping came straight at our faces as thick as rain-drops in a shower. The men crowded into the cabins, and then tried to expel the pests by the smoke from burnt rags; but it was of little avail, although we were half suffocated during the operation." But the sand-flies, encountered a little higher up the river, were much worse: "We made acquaintance on this coast with a new insect-pest, the Piúm, a minute fly, two-thirds of a line in length, which here commences its reign, and continues henceforward as a terrible scourge along the upper river, or Solimoens, to the end of the navigation on the Amazons. It comes forth only by day, relieving the mosquito at sunrise with the greatest punctuality, and occurs only near the muddy shores of the stream, not one ever being found in the shade of the forest. In places where it is abundant, it accompanies canoes in such dense swarms as to resemble thin clouds of smoke. It made its appearance in this way the first day after we crossed the river. Before I was aware of the presence of flies, I felt a slight itching on my neck, wrist, and ankles, and, on looking for the cause, saw a number of tiny objects, having a disgusting resemblance to lice, adhering to the skin. This was my first introduction to the much-talked-of Piúm. On close examination, they are seen to be small two-winged insects, with dark-coloured body and pale legs and wings, the latter closed lengthwise over the back. They alight imperceptibly, and, squatting close, fall at once to work, stretching forward their tiny front legs, which are in constant motion, and seem to act as feelers, and then applying their short, broad snouts to the skin. Their abdomens soon become distended and red with blood, and then, their thirst satisfied, they soon move off, sometimes so stupefied with their potations that they can scarcely fly. No pain is felt whilst they are at work, but they each leave a small circular raised spot on the skin, and a disagreeable irritation. The latter may be avoided in great measure by pressing out theblood which remains in the spot; but this is a troublesome task when one has several hundred punctures in the course of a day [like Prince Siror, in one of Bulwer Lytton's stories, who fell "pierced by five hundred spears"]. I took the trouble to dissect specimens, to ascertain the way in which the little pests operate. The mouth consists of a pair of thick fleshy lips, and two triangular horny lancets, answering to the upper lip and tongue of other insects. This is applied closely to the skin, a puncture is made with the lancets, and the blood then sucked through between these into the œsophagus, the circular spot which results coinciding with the shape of the lips. In the course of a few days the red spots dry up, and the skin in time becomes blackened with the endless number of discoloured punctures that are crowded together. The irritation they produce is more acutely felt by some persons than others. I once travelled with a middle-aged Portuguese who was laid up for three weeks from the attacks of Piúm, his legs being swelled to an enormous size, and the punctures aggravated into spreading sores."
HOUSE-FLY (MALE AND FEMALE).Photo by by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.HOUSE-FLY (MALE AND FEMALE).The larvæ of the house-fly live in refuse, so do not thrive where cleanliness abounds.
Photo by by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.HOUSE-FLY (MALE AND FEMALE).The larvæ of the house-fly live in refuse, so do not thrive where cleanliness abounds.
Photo by by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S., Regent's Park.
HOUSE-FLY (MALE AND FEMALE).
The larvæ of the house-fly live in refuse, so do not thrive where cleanliness abounds.
However, the traveller in Amazonia has one consolation: the great rivers which traverse the forests are of three different colours; and the black-water rivers—so called from the dark colour of the water, owing apparently to the amount of vegetable matter which they hold in solution—are never infested with mosquitoes. Probably the character of the water renders it unsuitable to them for breeding purposes.
TheCrane-flies, orDaddy-long-legs, are also very injurious insects, but in a different manner, for their subterranean maggots feed on and destroy the roots of grass in the same way as the grubs of the Cockchafers. They are insects of considerable size, with slender bodies, terminating in a short, horny point (the ovipositor) in the female, and with long, slender legs, which are liable to break off at the least touch. The commonest species has a grey body and transparent wings; but there is a larger one with the wings prettily variegated with brown, and a smaller one in which there are yellow markings towards the end of the body.
The more typicalFlieshave usually shorter and broader wings, and thicker, shorter, and more hairy legs, than those just mentioned; and the antennæ have usually only three or four joints, and are often furnished with a long, slender bristle at or before the end of the last joint.
As in the case of the Gnats and Crane-Flies, so as regards the more typical Flies, we have only space to notice a few of the more important families.
Some of theGad-fliesare no larger than house-flies, but others are as large as wasps or larger, with broader wings, and of a black, grey, or yellowish colour; they frequent fields, and settle on cattle, or on our clothes or hands. Some have transparent and others dark-coloured wings, but they are all capable of inflicting a severe puncture, often sufficient to draw blood, even in the case of the smaller species.