COLOR

TABLE XIV (CONT.)SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND SHRINKAGE OF 51 AMERICAN WOODS(Forest Service Cir. 213)COMMON NAME OF SPECIESMoisture contentSpecific gravity oven-dry, based onShrinkage from green to oven-dry conditionVolume when greenVolume when oven-dryIn volumeRadialTangentialPer centPer centPer centPer centConifersArborvitæ55.293.3157.02.14.9Cedar, incense80.363Cypress, bald79.452.51311.53.86.0Fir, alpine47.306.3219.02.57.1amabilis117.383Douglas32.418.45810.93.76.6white156.350.43710.23.47.0Hemlock (east.)129.340.3949.22.35.0Pine, lodgepole44.370.41511.34.27.1lodgepole58.371.40710.13.65.9longleaf63.528.59912.86.07.6red or Nor54.440.50711.54.57.2shortleaf52.447sugar123.360.3868.42.95.6west yellow98.353.3959.24.16.4"125.377.43311.54.37.3"93.391.4359.93.85.8white74.363.3917.82.25.9Redwood81.334"69.366Spruce, Engelmann45.325.35910.53.76.9"156.299.33510.33.06.2red31.396white41.318Tamarack52.491.55813.63.77.4

This weight divided by 62.43 gives the specific gravity per green volume. It is purely a fictitious quantity. To convert this figure into actual density or specific gravity of the dry wood, it is necessary to know the amount of shrinkage in volume. IfSis the percentage of shrinkage from the green to the oven-dry condition, based on the green volume;D, the density of the dry wood per cubic foot while green; anddthe actual density of oven-dry wood, then

D----------=d.1- .0S

This relation becomes clearer from the following analysis: TakingVandWas the volume and weight, respectively, when green, andvandwas the corresponding volume and weight when oven-dry, then,

wWV-vV-vd=---;D=---;S=-------×100, ands=-------×100,vVVv

in whichSis the percentage of shrinkage from the green to the oven-dry condition, based on the green volume, andsthe same based on the oven-dry volume.

In tables of specific gravity or density of wood it should always be stated whether the dry weight per unit of volume when green or the dry weight per unit of volume when dry is intended, since the shrinkage in volume may vary from 6 to 50 per cent, though in conifers it is usually about 10 per cent, and in hardwoods nearer 15 per cent. (See Table XIV.)

In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is invariably darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous. This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of various materials resulting from the process of growth, increased possibly by oxidation and other chemical changes, which usually have little or no appreciable effect on the mechanical properties ofthe wood. (SeeHeartwood and Sapwood.) Some experiments28on very resinous longleaf pine specimens, however, indicate an increase in strength. This is due to the resin which increases the strength when dry. Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is greatly increased in strength thereby.

Since the late wood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the early wood, this fact may be used in judging the density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood not infrequently appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser late wood, though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true. Except in the manner just stated the color of wood is no indication of strength.

Abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks.29The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds.30The discoloration is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the wood. Certain rot-producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become criterions of weakness. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungous growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect.31

Cross grainis a very common defect in timber. One form of it is produced in lumber by the method of sawing and has no reference to the natural arrangement of the wood elements. Thusif the plane of the saw is not approximately parallel to the axis of the log the grain of the lumber cut is not parallel to the edges and is termed diagonal. This is likely to occur where the logs have considerable taper, and in this case may be produced if sawed parallel to the axis of growth instead of parallel to the growth rings.

Lumber and timber with diagonal grain is always weaker than straight-grained material, the extent of the defect varying with the degree of the angle the fibres make with the axis of the stick. In the vicinity of large knots the grain is likely to be cross. The defect is most serious where wood is subjected to flexure, as in beams.

Spiral grainis a very common defect in a tree, and when excessive renders the timber valueless for use except in the round. It is produced by the arrangement of the wood fibres in a spiral direction about the axis instead of exactly vertical. Timber with spiral grain is also known as "torse wood." Spiral grain usually cannot be detected by casual inspection of a stick, since it does not show in the so-called visible grain of the wood, by which is commonly meant a sectional view of the annual rings of growth cut longitudinally. It is accordingly very easy to allow spiral-grained material to pass inspection, thereby introducing an element of weakness in a structure.

There are methods for readily detecting spiral grain. The simplest is that of splitting a small piece radially. It is necessary, of course, that the split be radial, that is, in a plane passing through the axis of the log, and not tangentially. In the latter case it is quite probable that the wood would split straight, the line of cleavage being between the growth rings.

In inspection, the elements to examine are the rays. In the case of oak and certain other hardwoods these rays are so large that they are readily seen not only on a radial surface, but on the tangential as well. On the former they appear as flakes, on the latter as short lines. Since these rays are between the fibres it naturally follows that they will be vertical or inclined according as the tree is straight-grained or spiral-grained. While they are not conspicuous in the softwoods, they can be seen upon close scrutiny, and particularly so if a small hand magnifier is used.

When wood has begun to dry and check it is very easy to seewhether or not it is straight- or spiral-grained, since the checks will for the most part follow along the rays. If one examines a row of telephone poles, for example, he will probably find that most of them have checks running spirally around them. If boards were sawed from such a pole after it was badly checked they would fall to pieces of their own weight. The only way to get straight material would be to split it out.

It is for this reason that split billets and squares are stronger than most sawed material. The presence of the spiral grain has little, if any, effect on the timber when it is used in the round, but in sawed material the greater the pitch of the spiral the greater is the defect.

Knotsare portions of branches included in the wood of the stem or larger branch. Branches originate as a rule from the central axis of a stem, and while living increase in size by the addition of annual woody layers which are a continuation of those of the stem. The included portion is irregularly conical in shape with the tip at the pith. The direction of the fibre is at right angles or oblique to the grain of the stem, thus producing local cross grain.

During the development of a tree most of the limbs, especially the lower ones, die, but persist for a time—often for years. Subsequent layers of growth of the stem are no longer intimately joined with the dead limb, but are laid around it. Hence dead branches produce knots which are nothing more than pegs in a hole, and likely to drop out after the tree has been sawed into lumber. In grading lumber and structural timber, knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place.32

Knots materially affect checking and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and depreciate its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect is much moreserious where timber is subjected to bending and tension than where under compression. The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, direction of fibre, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. The knot, especially (as is often the case) if there is a season check in it, offers little resistance to this tensile stress. Small, knots, however, may be so located in a beam along the neutral plane as actually to increase the strength by tending to prevent longitudinal shearing. Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects.

Extensive experiments by the U.S. Forest Service33indicate the following effects of knots on structural timbers:

(1) Knots do not materially influence the stiffness of structural timber.

(2) Only defects of the most serious character affect the elastic limit of beams. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the quality of the wood fibre than upon defects in the beam.

(3) The effect of knots is to reduce the difference between the fibre stress at elastic limit and the modulus of rupture of beams. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects.

(4) Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain.34

A common defect in standing timber results from radial splits which extend inward from the periphery of the tree, and almost, if not always, near the base. It is most common in trees which split readily, and those with large rays and thin bark. Theprimary cause of the splitting is frost, and various theories have been advanced to explain the action.

R. Hartig35believes that freezing forces out a part of the imbibition water of the cell walls, thereby causing the wood to shrink, and if the interior layers have not yet been cooled, tangential strains arise which finally produce radial clefts.

Another theory holds that the water is not driven out of the cell walls, but that difference in temperature conditions of inner and outer layers is itself sufficient to set up the strains, resulting in splitting. An air temperature of 14°F. or less is considered necessary to produce frost splits.

A still more recent theory is that of Busse36who considers the mechanical action of the wind a very important factor. He observed: (a) Frost splits sometimes occur at higher temperatures than 14°F. (b) Most splits take place shortly before sunrise,i.e., at the time of lowest air and soil temperature; they are never heard to take place at noon, afternoon, or evening. (c) They always occur between two roots or between the collars of two roots, (d) They are most frequent in old, stout-rooted, broad-crowned trees; in younger stands it is always the stoutest members that are found with frost splits, while in quite young stands they are altogether absent, (e) Trees on wet sites are most liable to splits, due to difference in wood structure, just as difference in wood structure makes different species vary in this regard. (f) Frost splits are most numerous less than three feet above the ground.

When a tree is swayed by the wind the roots are counteracting forces, and the wood fibres are tested in tension and compression by the opposing forces; where the roots exercise tension stresses most effectively the effect of compression stresses is at a minimum; only where the pressure is in excess of the tension,i.e., between the roots, can a separation of the fibre result. Hence, when by frost a tension on the entire periphery is established, and thewind localizes additional strains, failure occurs. The stronger the compression and tension, the severer the strains and the oftener failures occur. The occurrence of reports of frost splits on wind-still days is believed by Busse to be due to the opening of old frost splits where the tension produced by the frost alone is sufficient.

Frost splits may heal over temporarily, but usually open up again during the following winter. The presence of old splits is often indicated by a ridge of callous, the result of the cambium's effort to occlude the wound. Frost splits not only affect the value of lumber, but also afford an entrance into the living tree for disease and decay.

Heart shakeoccurs in nearly all overmature timber, being more frequent in hardwoods (especially oak) than in conifers. In typical heart shake the centre of the hole shows indications of becoming hollow and radial clefts of varying size extend outward from the pith, being widest inward. It frequently affects only the butt log, but may extend to the entire hole and even the larger branches. It usually results from a shrinkage of the heartwood due probably to chemical changes in the wood.

When it consists of a single cleft extending across the pith it is termedsimple heart shake. Shake of this character in straight-grained trees affects only one or two central boards when cut into lumber, but in spiral-grained timber the damage is much greater. When shake consists of several radial clefts it is termedstar shake. In some instances one or more of these clefts may extend nearly to the bark. In felled or converted timber clefts due to heart shake may be distinguished from seasoning cracks by the darker color of the exposed surfaces. Such clefts, however, tend to open up more and more as the timber seasons.

Cuporring shakeresults from the pulling apart of two or more growth rings. It is one of the most serious defects to which sound timber is subject, as it seriously reduces the technical properties of wood. It is very common in sycamore and in western larch, particularly in the butt portion. Its occurrence is most frequent at the junction of two growth layers of very unequalthickness. Consequently it is likely to occur in trees which have grown slowly for a time, then abruptly increased, due to improved conditions of light and food, as in thinning. Old timber is more subject to it than young trees. The damage is largely confined to the butt log. Cup shake is often associated with other forms of shake, and not infrequently shows traces of decay.

The causes of cup shake are uncertain. The swaying action of the wind may result in shearing apart the growth layers, especially in trees growing in exposed places. Frost may in some instances be responsible for cup shake or at least a contributing factor, although trees growing in regions free from frost often have ring shake. Shrinkage of the heartwood may be concentric as well as radial in its action, thus producing cup shake instead of, or in connection with, heart shake.

A local defect somewhat similar in effect to cup shake is known asrind gall. If the cambium layer is exposed by the removal of the entire bark or rind it will die. Subsequent growth over the damaged portion does not cohere with the wood previously formed by the old cambium. The defect resulting is termed rind gall. The most common causes of it are fire, gnawing, blazing, chipping, sun scald, lightning, and abrasions.

Heart breakis a term applied to areas of compression failure along the grain found in occasional logs. Sometimes these breaks are invisible until the wood is manufactured into the finished article. The occurrence of this defect is mostly limited to the dense hardwoods, such as hickory and to heavy tropical species. It is the source of considerable loss in the fancy veneer industry, as the veneer from valuable logs so affected drops to pieces.

The cause of heart break is not positively known. It is highly probable, however, that when the tree is felled the trunk strikes across a rock or another log, and the impact causes actual failure in the log as in a beam.

Resinorpitch pocketsare of common occurrence in the wood of larch, spruce, fir, and especially of longleaf and other hard pines. They are due to accumulations of resin in openings between adjacent layers of growth. They are more frequent in trees growing alone than in those of dense stands. The pockets are usually a few inches in greatest dimension and affect only one ortwo growth layers. They are hidden until exposed by the saw, rendering it impossible to cut lumber with reference to their position. Often several boards are damaged by a single pocket. In grading lumber, pitch pockets are classified as small, standard, and large, depending upon their width and length.

The larvæ of many insects are destructive to wood. Some attack the wood of living trees, others only that of felled or converted material. Every hole breaks the continuity of the fibres and impairs the strength, and if there are very many of them the material may be ruined for all purposes where strength is required.

Some of the most common insects attacking the wood of living trees are the oak timber worm, the chestnut timber worm, carpenter worms, ambrosia beetles, the locust borer, turpentine beetles and turpentine borers, and the white pine weevil.

The insect injuries to forest products may be classed according to the stage of manufacture of the material. Thus round timber with the bark on, such as poles, posts, mine props, and sawlogs, is subject to serious damage by the same class of insects as those mentioned above, particularly by the round-headed borers, timber worms, and ambrosia beetles. Manufactured unseasoned products are subject to damage from ambrosia beetles and other wood borers. Seasoned hardwood lumber of all kinds, rough handles, wagon stock, etc., made partially or entirely of sapwood, are often reduced in value from 10 to 90 per cent by a class of insects known as powder-post beetles. Finished hardwood products such as handles, wagon, carriage and machinery stock, especially if ash or hickory, are often destroyed by the powder-post beetles. Construction timbers in buildings, bridges and trestles, cross-ties, poles, mine props, fence posts, etc., are sometimes seriously injured by wood-boring larvæ, termites, black ants, carpenter bees, and powder-post beetles, and sometimes reducedin value from 10 to 100 per cent. In tropical countries termites are a very serious pest in this respect.

Vast amounts of timber used for piles in wharves and other marine structures are constantly being destroyed or seriously injured by marine borers. Almost invariably they are confined to salt water, and all the woods commonly used for piling are subject to their attacks. There are two genera of mollusks,XylotryaandTeredo, and three of crustaceans,Limnoria, Chelura, andSphoeroma, that do serious damage in many places along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.

These mollusks, which are popularly known as "shipworms," are much alike in structure and mode of life. They attack the exposed surface of the wood and immediately begin to bore. The tunnels, often as large as a lead pencil, extend usually in a longitudinal direction and follow a very irregular, tangled course. Hard woods are apparently penetrated as readily as soft woods, though in the same timber the softer parts are preferred. The food consists of infusoria and is not obtained from the wood substance. The sole object of boring into the wood is to obtain shelter.

Although shipworms can live in cold water they thrive best and are most destructive in warm water. The length of time required to destroy an average barked, unprotected pine pile on the Atlantic coast south from Chesapeake Bay and along the entire Pacific coast varies from but one to three years.

Of the crustacean borers,Limnoria, or the "wood louse," is the only one of great importance, althoughSphoeromais reported destructive in places.Limnoriais about the size of a grain of rice and tunnels into the wood for both food and shelter. The galleries extend inward radially, side by side, in countless numbers, to the depth of about one-half inch. The thin wood partitions remaining are destroyed by wave action, so that a fresh surface is exposed to attack. Both hard and soft woods are damaged, but the rate is faster in the soft woods or softer portions of a wood.

Timbers seriously attacked by marine borers are badlyweakened or completely destroyed. If the original strength of the material is to be preserved it is necessary to protect the wood from the borers. This is sometimes accomplished by proper injection of creosote oil, and more or less successfully by the use of various kinds of external coatings.38No treatment, however, has proved entirely satisfactory.

Fungi are responsible for almost all decay of wood. So far as known, all decay is produced by living organisms, either fungi or bacteria. Some species attack living trees, sometimes killing them, or making them hollow, or in the case of pecky cypress and incense cedar filling the wood with galleries like those of boring insects. A much larger variety work only in felled or dead wood, even after it is placed in buildings or manufactured articles. In any case the process of destruction is the same. The mycelial threads penetrate the walls of the cells in search of food, which they find either in the cell contents (starches, sugars, etc.), or in the cell wall itself. The breaking down of the cell walls through the chemical action of so-called "enzymes" secreted by the fungi follows, and the eventual product is a rotten, moist substance crumbling readily under the slightest pressure. Some species remove the ligneous matter and leave almost pure cellulose, which is white, like cotton; others dissolve the cellulose, leaving a brittle, dark brown mass of ligno-cellulose. Fungi (such as the bluing fungus) which merely stain wood usually do not affect its mechanical properties unless the attacks are excessive.

It is evident, then, that the action of rot-causing fungi is to decrease the strength of wood, rendering it unsound, brittle, anddangerous to use. The most dangerous kinds are the so-called "dry-rot" fungi which work in many kinds of lumber after it is placed in the buildings. They are particularly to be dreaded because unseen, working as they do within the walls or inside of casings. Several serious wrecks of large buildings have been attributed to this cause. It is stated40that in the three years (1911-1913) more than $100,000 was required to repair damage due to dry rot.

Dry rot develops best at 75°F. and is said to be killed by a temperature of 110°F.41Fully 70 per cent humidity is necessary in the air in which a timber is surrounded for the growth of this fungus, and probably the wood must be quite near its fibre saturation condition. NeverthelessMerulius lacrymans(one of the most important species) has been found to live four years and eight months in a dry condition.42Thorough kiln-drying will kill this fungus, but will not prevent its redevelopment. Antiseptic treatment, such as creosoting, is the best prevention.

All fungi require moisture and air43for their growth. Deprived of either of these the fungus dies or ceases to develop. Just what degree of moisture in wood is necessary for the "dry-rot" fungus has not been determined, but it is evidently considerably above that of thoroughly air-dry timber, probably more than 15 per cent moisture. Hence the importance of free circulation of air about all timbers in a building.

Warmth is also conducive to the growth of fungi, the most favorable temperature being about 90°F. They cannot grow in extreme cold, although no degree of cold such as occurs naturally will kill them. On the other hand, high temperature will kill them, but the spores may survive even the boiling temperature. Mould fungus has been observed to develop rapidly at 130°F. in a dry kiln in moist air, a condition under which an animal cannotlive more than a few minutes. This fungus was killed, however, at about 140° or 145°F.44

The fungus (Endothia parasiticaAnd.) which causes the chestnut blight kills the trees by girdling them and has no direct effect upon the wood save possibly the four or five growth rings of the sapwood.45

The most common of the higher parasitic plants damaging timber trees are mistletoes. Many species of deciduous trees are attacked by the common mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens). It is very prevalent in the South and Southwest and when present in sufficient quantity does considerable damage. There is also a considerable number of smaller mistletoes belonging to the genusRazoumofskya (Arceuthobium)which are widely distributed throughout the country, and several of them are common on coniferous trees in the Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific coast.

One effect of the common mistletoe is the formation of large swellings or tumors. Often the entire tree may become stunted or distorted. The western mistletoe is most common on the branches, where it produces "witches' broom." It frequently attacks the trunk as well, and boards cut from such trees are filled with long, radial holes which seriously damage or destroy the value of the timber affected.

The data available regarding the effect of the locality of growth upon the properties of wood are not sufficient to warrantdefinite conclusions. The subject has, however, been kept in mind in many of the U.S. Forest Service timber tests and the following quotations are assembled from various reports:

"In both the Cuban and longleaf pine the locality where grown appears to have but little influence on weight or strength, and there is no reason to believe that the longleaf pine from one State is better than that from any other, since such variations as are claimed can be found on any 40-acre lot of timber in any State. But with loblolly and still more with shortleaf this seems not to be the case. Being widely distributed over many localities different in soil and climate, the growth of the shortleaf pine seems materially influenced by location. The wood from the southern coast and gulf region and even Arkansas is generally heavier than the wood from localities farther north. Very light and fine-grained wood is seldom met near the southern limit of the range, while it is almost the rule in Missouri, where forms resembling the Norway pine are by no means rare. The loblolly, occupying both wet and dry soils, varies accordingly." Cir. No. 12, p. 6.

" ... It is clear that as all localities have their heavy and their light timber, so they all share in strong and weak, hard and soft material, and the difference in quality of material is evidently far more a matter of individual variation than of soil or climate."Ibid., p.22

"A representative committee of the Carriage Builders' Association had publicly declared that this important industry could not depend upon the supplies of southern timber, as the oak grown in the South lacked the necessary qualities demanded in carriage construction. Without experiment this statement could be little better than a guess, and was doubly unwarranted, since it condemned an enormous amount of material, and one produced under a great variety of conditions and by at least a dozen species of trees, involving, therefore, a complexity of problems difficult enough for the careful investigator, and entirely beyond the few unsystematic observations of the members of a committee on a flying trip through one of the greatest timber regions of the world.

"A number of samples were at once collected (part of them supplied by the carriage builders' committee), and the fallacy of the broad statement mentioned was fully demonstrated by a shortseries of tests and a more extensive study into structure and weight of these materials. From these tests it appears that pieces of white oak from Arkansas excelled well-selected pieces from Connecticut, both in stiffness and endwise compression (the two most important forms of resistance)." Report upon the forestry investigations of the U.S.D.A. 1877-1898, p. 331. See also Rep. of Div. of For., 1890, p. 209.

"In some regions there are many small, stunted hickories, which most users will not touch. They have narrow sap, are likely to be birdpecked, and show very slow growth. Yet five of these trees from a steep, dry south slope in West Virginia had an average strength fully equal to that of the pignut from the better situation, and were superior in toughness, the work to maximum load being 36.8 as against 31.2 for pignut. The trees had about twice as many rings per inch as others from better situations.

"This, however, is not very significant, as trees of the same species, age, and size, growing side by side under the same conditions of soil and situation, show great variation in their technical value. It is hard to account for this difference, but it seems that trees growing in wet or moist situations are rather inferior to those growing on fresher soil; also, it is claimed by many hickory users that the wood from limestone soils is superior to that from sandy soils.

"One of the moot questions among hickory men is the relative value of northern and southern hickory. The impression prevails that southern hickory is more porous and brash than hickory from the north. The tests ... indicate that southern hickory is as tough and strong as northern hickory of the same age. But the southern hickories have a greater tendency to be shaky, and this results in much waste. In trees from southern river bottoms the loss through shakes and grub-holes in many cases amounts to as much as 50 per cent.

"It is clear, therefore, that the difference in northern and southern hickory is not due to geographic location, but rather to the character of timber that is being cut. Nearly all of that from southern river bottoms and from the Cumberland Mountains is from large, old-growth trees; that from the north is from younger trees which are grown under more favorable conditions, and it isdue simply to the greater age of the southern trees that hickory from that region is lighter and more brash than that from the north." Bul. 80, pp. 52-55.

It is generally believed that winter-felled timber has decided advantages over that cut at other seasons of the year, and to that cause alone are frequently ascribed much greater durability, less liability to check and split, better color, and even increased strength and toughness. The conclusion from the various experiments made on the subject is that while the time of felling may, and often does, affect the properties of wood, such result is due to the weather conditions rather than to the condition of the wood.

There are two phases of this question. One is concerned with the physiological changes which might take place during the year in the wood of a living tree. The other deals with the purely physical results due to the weather, as differences in temperature, humidity, moisture, and other features to be mentioned later.

Those who adhere to the first view maintain that wood cut in summer is quite different in composition from that cut in winter. One opinion is that in summer the "sap is up," while in winter it is "down," consequently winter-felled timber is drier. A variation of this belief is that in summer the sap contains certain chemicals which affect the properties of wood and does not contain them in winter. Again it is sometimes asserted that wood is actually denser in winter than in summer, as part of the wood substance is dissolved out in the spring and used for plant food, being restored in the fall.

It is obvious that such views could apply only to sapwood, since it alone is in living condition at the time of cutting. Heartwood is dead wood and has almost no function in the existence of the tree other than the purely mechanical one of support. Heartwood does undergo changes, but they are gradual and almost entirely independent of the seasons.

Sapwood might reasonably be expected to respond to seasonal changes, and to some extent it does. Just beneath the bark there is a thin layer of cells which during the growing season have notattained their greatest density. With the exception of this one annual ring, or portion of one, the density of the wood substance of the sapwood is nearly the same the year round. Slight variations may occur due to impregnation with sugar and starch in the winter and its dissolution in the growing season. The time of cutting can have no material effect on the inherent strength and other mechanical properties of wood except in the outermost annual ring of growth.

The popular belief that sap is up in the spring and summer and is down in the winter has not been substantiated by experiment. There are seasonal differences in the composition of sap, but so far as the amount of sap in a tree is concerned there is fully as much, if not more, during the winter than in summer. Winter-cut wood is not drier, to begin with, than summer-felled—in reality, it is likely to be wetter.47

The important consideration in regard to this question is the series of circumstances attending the handling of the timber after it is felled. Wood dries more rapidly in summer than in winter, not because there is less moisture at one time than another, but because of the higher temperature in summer. This greater heat is often accompanied by low humidity, and conditions are favorable for the rapid removal of moisture from the exposed portions of wood. Wood dries by evaporation, and other things being equal, this will proceed much faster in hot weather than in cold.

It is a matter of common observation that when wood dries it shrinks, and if shrinkage is not uniform in all directions the material pulls apart, causing season checks. (See Fig. 27.) If evaporation proceeds more rapidly on the outside than inside, the greater shrinkage of the outer portions is bound to result in many checks, the number and size increasing with the degree of inequality of drying.

In cold weather, drying proceeds slowly but uniformly, thus allowing the wood elements to adjust themselves with the least amount of rupturing. In summer, drying proceeds rapidly andirregularly, so that material seasoned at that time is more likely to split and check.

There is less danger of sap rot when trees are felled in winter because the fungus does not grow in the very cold weather, and the lumber has a chance to season to below the danger point before the fungus gets a chance to attack it. If the logs in each case could be cut into lumber immediately after felling and given exactly the same treatment, for example, kiln-dried, no difference due to the season of cutting would be noted.

Water occurs in living wood in three conditions, namely: (1) in the cell walls, (2) in the protoplasmic contents of the cells, and (3) as free water in the cell cavities and spaces. In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains from 8 to 16 per cent of water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry.

The general effect of the water content upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable. A similar effect of common observation is in the softening action of water on rawhide, paper, or cloth. Within certain limits the greater the water content the greater its softening effect.

Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block two inches in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as that which a green block of the same size will support.

The greatest increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected. These ratios are shown in Table XV, but it is to be notedthat they apply only to wood in a much drier condition than is used in practice. For air-dry wood the ratios are considerably lower, particularly in the case of the ultimate strength and the elastic limit. Stiffness (within the elastic limit), while following a similar law, is less affected. In the case of shear parallel to the grain, the general effect of drying is to increase the strength, but this is often offset by small splits and checks caused by shrinkage.

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