Several important migration phenomena have hardly been touched upon in the previous pages; a few words about these may not be out of place.
There is no doubt that now and again American species are met with in Europe, and European in America, though there is no evidence of direct regular trans-Atlantic passage, except from Greenland. The appearance of these birds has been explained in several ways, the general notion being that it is impossible for a bird to fly unaided across the Atlantic, say over 3000 statute miles, without rest. In considering the question we are met with various points on which we still lack knowledge.
We know that strong-winged waders can accomplish 2500 miles, apparently without a rest, and that if rest is necessary these birds can swim and rise from the waves. We know, too, that there is regular passage between Greenland and Europe. We do not know how long a bird can, without rest and food, sustain flight; we do not know the speed it can travel when aided by favourable winds, nor to what extent even passerine birds may rest uponthe water. My friend Mr J. A. Dockray, when punting in the Dee estuary, has often seen birds alight to rest on his punt, and once saw a tired thrush settle repeatedly on the water and finally safely cross the estuary. There are several instances recorded of passerine birds alighting upon and rising again from the water.
We do not know the extent of Greenland as a summer breeding home of birds; the growing knowledge of this vast continent proves that its summer avifauna is much larger than we thought, and that western and eastern forms inhabit adjacent breeding areas; the possibility of birds banding with the wrong set of travellers is greater than was suspected.
It is urged that the western shores of Scotland and Ireland should receive these stragglers, but that the records of American birds are fewer from these coasts than from the eastern shores and even Heligoland. The best island route, however, would lead birds to join the travellers from Scandinavia which pass by the safer eastern route than the one round the western wind-swept shores of Ireland. Even this reputed scarcity may be error, for how many reliable watchers are there compared with the immense length of this wave-indented coastline? How easy for a straggler to be overlooked! Mr S. F. Baird, in his paper on the "Distributionand Migration of North American Birds," is emphatic that the transfer of American birds to Europe is entirely due to the agency of winds carrying them from their course(6). Mr A.L. Butler met with snow-buntings in mid-Atlantic travelling east, and Mr J. Trumbull supplies information about many passerine birds—especially snow-buntings and wheatears—seen in September and October at various points between Canada and the British coasts(53). Some joined ships but others made no attempt to do so, even at 54° north 44° west.
Unfortunately there is the negative evidence of fraud, for when unscrupulous dealers found that the public would give high prices for rare birds, a trade in American skins began. It is not impossible that even Gätke was victimised. Error or even accidental fraud may be taken into account. Some years ago I heard that a hawk-owl had been killed in Cheshire, at an inland port on the Ship Canal; I traced the bird, the American species, but discovered that it had been captured on an east-bound steamer in the Straits of Belle Isle, and had only died or been killed when the vessel reached the coaling station at Partington, where the taxidermist who received it thought it had been taken. A Cape pigeon, which I saw in the flesh, reported as shot in Lancashire, I found had been brought home in cold storage.
Birds may be carried on shipboard. When the "Mauretania" was between 400 and 500 miles out from New York, bound eastward on June 15th, 1911, a curlew came on board and remained for three days, leaving when the Irish shores were sighted on the 18th. My informant, an experienced wildfowler, failed to catch the bird, but described it as like our curlew. Probably it was the AmericanNumenius longirostris, but amongst the Irish curlews it would easily remain unrecognised.
When a seabird appears inland the usual explanation given is "storm-blown," but increasing knowledge shows the frequent fallacy of this idea. The Manx shearwater, for instance, is a regular migrant, and the examination of the dates of the records of so-called "storm-blown" birds found in inland localities, shows a remarkable regularity; the majority are met with between the end of August and the end of the first week in September. Not only do the birds move south in the early days of September but many, usually at any rate, cross England; the weaklings fall out and are found. Is it possible that some of these collapses of passing birds are due to more than mere physical fatigue? Aviators have discovered the existence of "wind pockets" or "holes in the air," where the resistance of the air appears suddenly to fail;what is the effect on a flying bird which suddenly enters one of these pockets?
The lesser black-backed gull also crosses England in large numbers; its movements are more noticeable than those of the herring gull, common gull, or even of the inland nesting and inland feeding black-headed gull.
Recent investigation has added the yellow-browed warbler, the blue-throat, and many other "rare," or "casual" passerine birds to the list of regular British birds of passage; evidently they have been overlooked before. Even the crossbill, so long classed as a spasmodic invader, is now seen to be a regular bird of passage to Britain, though in varying numbers, and quite independently of the sub-specific form which is always with us.
The wanderings to our islands of southern petrels and other oceanic birds has occasioned much surprise. Take two examples of the genusOestrelata, oneO. brevipestaken at Borth in 1889, andO. neglectain Cheshire in 1908, the known breeding range of both being in the western Pacific; pelagic wanderings might lead a bird anywhere, but it is conceivable that investigation may show that the breeding area is wider than is supposed and that these species have stations even in the South Atlantic.
Some writers affirm that birds only migrate on the wing, but the journey by sea of many species is varied in method. Those very regular migrants, the puffins and guillemots, which the light keepers assure us leave and return to their stations almost at fixed dates, move by slow nautical stages, swimming and feeding as they go. On May 2nd, 1911, I watched a red-throated diver slowly travelling north; it actually travelled farther beneath the surface than either by swimming or flying, so long as I had it in view. The penguin's migrations cannot possibly be on the wing. Dr Brooks rightly contended that the periodic assemblage of wandering sea-birds at their "rookeries" is true migration, regular as the almanack, although the feeding area is immense and the birds do not reach home by any single path. Seebohm tells us of young bean geese migrating in full moult, marching in an army to the interior of the Tundra, and Mr W. H. Hudson, in "Birds and Man," relates a pathetic story of a pair of upland geese in southern Buenos Ayres. His brother saw them in August, the early spring of South America, leaving the plains where they had wintered to breed in Magellanic islands. The main flocks had departed, but these two birds, the female with a broken wing, were steadily moving south, the male taking short flights and waiting for her, as if to urge her on, and the femalewalking. "And in this sad, anxious way they would journey on to the inevitable end, when a pair or family of carrion eagles would spy them—and the first would be left to continue the journey alone."
Migration owes its origin to the potentiality of flight, enabling birds to advantage themselves by extended dispersals, which through heredity become instinctive, regular and periodical. Geological changes, especially the passing away of the glacial epoch, only influenced by opening up new lands for summer colonisation, but climatic conditions prevented these lands from becoming permanent abodes and fostered the habit of periodical migration. Whatever the original home or centre of distribution may have been, the dispersal from it was towards new lands with a retreat towards the food-supply when these lands became untenable. Fluctuating food-supply, love of home, sexual impulses, desire for light, varying temperature, and other factors, all have more or less influence, but the force exerted by any or all depends upon the species operated upon and the locality in which it resides. The present route followed or method of migration is little guide to the history of past migration; during the evolution of present-day migration alterations may have been occasioned byenvironment and changing conditions. As Seebohm puts it, "The desire to migrate is a hereditary impulse, to which the descendants of migratory birds are subject—a force almost, if not quite, as irresistible as the hereditary impulse to breed in the spring"(44).
The route is simply the course followed between the breeding area and winter quarters; it is more or less restricted by the size of the area in which food is to be found; it is usually the most direct way from one food-base to the next, in a general direction from the seasonal bases. Most birds move between north and south, but migrations are regularly followed in other directions by some species.
Routes may follow coast-lines, these providing visible landmarks, and also, for many species, plentiful food; islands, capes, estuaries and inlets are landmarks, asylums, food-bases, and sites for congregation and departure for cross-sea passages; at these places migration is often specially noticeable. Overland routes may suggest "broad front" migration, when there are no particular restricting influences and the species have no special need for hurry. Migration at great elevations and at high rates of speed is proved, but the highest and quickest possible is as yet unascertained. It may also, under other conditions, be performed at low elevationsand very slowly. It is probable that strong air-currents at a high elevation materially assist rapid and lengthened migration. Force not direction of wind influences birds moving at a low elevation.
Birds possess a certain power of orientation, a homing instinct, which need not be called a sixth sense. Brain and eyes assist in the development of this power; birds have an excellent memory. Young birds lose their way more frequently than is generally supposed; variations in routes are explained in many cases by these errors. Young may or may not be guided by experienced adults; orientation is not infallible but develops with age.
There is apparently no truth in the assertion that birds travel by choice against a head wind or in a beam wind; a moderate wind behind, on which they are carried, is most favourable. Leeward drift through contrary winds explains many normal and abnormal routes, and the occurrence of unexpected species in unexpected places. The distance travelled not only varies according to species but in individuals of the same species; the thesis that the most northerly breeder winters farthest south does not always hold good.
Much may be learnt by the careful registration of arrivals and departures of migratory birds, and by the marking of birds. Ornithophænology, the science of migration study, as carried on at presentin many countries, would be materially assisted by some better method of international registration and interchange of ideas.
In conclusion I would urge the value of the study, citing Herr Herman's reasons put before the International Ornithological Congress in 1905. The solution of the problem is in the interest of science, and therefore of intellectual progress, teaching us the great part which migratory birds play in the scheme of nature. The millions of birds which wander, season after season, from one zone to another, represent an enormous aggregate of labour, by flight and search for food, acting on "the organic life of nature as does the regulator of a steam-engine, at one time accelerating, at another retarding." Full insight into the essence of the work done by birds will give us a correct notion of their usefulness or injuriousness to man, and lead us to rational action for their protection.
Whilst fully agreeing with Herr Herman I would go further. We live in an age when aerial locomotion has become important, and will be more and more important in the future. Every lesson we can learn from the successes or failures of these most perfect aerial navigators must be of use.
But putting aside economic and utilitarian considerations, there is to some of us a greater stimulus to solve the problems of nature. With the birds,and the insects and plants upon which they feed, we share a common heritage, and the more we learn of the life of these, our fellow workers, the nearer we approach solution of the great riddle of the Universe, the mysterious law-abiding scheme of Nature. The book of knowledge to which we may add some iota is marred with mystery, superstition and error, but each proved fact cleanses its pages. "Facts," says Laing, "are the spokes of the ladder by which we climb from earth to heaven."
1.Allen, J. A.Cooke'sSome New Facts about the Migration of Birds,Auk, xxi., 1904, 501.2. —— Gätke'sHeligoland,Auk, xiii., 1896, 137.3. —— Walter'sTheories of Bird Migration,Auk, xxv., 1908, 329.4.Barrington, R. M."The great rush of Birds, etc."Irish Nat., xx., 1911, 97.5. ——The Migration of Birds as observed at Irish Lighthouses and Lightships, London, 1900.6.Baird, S. F."The Distribution and Migration of North American Birds."Amer. Jnl. Science and Arts, 2, 1866, xli.7.Brehm, C. L."Der Zug der Vögel,"Isis, 1828,Naumannia, 1855.8.Brewster, W."Bird Migration."Mem. Nuttall Orn. ClubCambridge, Mass. No. 1, 1886.9.Brooks, W. K.The Foundations of Zoology, New York, 1899.10.Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. Reports on Migration, vols. xvii., xx., xxii., xxiv., xxvi., 1906-1910.11.Carpenter, F. W."An Astronomical Determination of the Heights of Birds,"Auk, xxiii., 1906, 210.12.Chapman, Abel.Bird-Life of the Borders, 2nd edit., London 1907.13. —— F. M. "Observations on the Nocturnal Migration of Birds,"Auk, 1888, 37.14.Clarke, A. H."The Migration of Certain Shore Birds,"Auk, xxii., 1905, 134.15.Clarke, W. E."Bird Migration in Great Britain."Report of the British Association,London, 1896.16. —— "Studies in Bird Migration,"Ibis, 1902, 246, 1903, 112.17.Clarke, W. E."The Birds of Fair Island; Native and Migratory."Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906, 4.18.Cooke, W. W."Distribution and Migration of North American Shorebirds."U.S. Dept. Agric. Biol. Survey, Bull, 35, Washington, 1910.19. —— "Routes of Bird Migration,"Auk, xxii., 1905, 1.20. —— "Some New Facts about the Migration of Birds."U.S. Dept. Agric. Year Book, 1903, 371.21. —— "Our Greatest Travellers."Nat. Geog. Mag., 1911, 346.22. —— "The Migratory Movements of Birds in Relation to the Weather."U.S. Dept. Agric. Year Book, 1910, 379.23.Cordeaux, J."Migration in the Humber District,"Zool., 1892, 418.24.Derham, W.Physico-Theology, London. 1737. Lect. delivered in 1711-12.25.Dixon, C.The Migration of Birds, London, 1892.26. ——The Migration of British Birds, London, 1895.27.Frederick II., (Emperor).De Arte Venandi cum Avibus, Ed. Schneider, 1788, (Rhea. ii.. 1849).28.Gadow, H. F."Migration,"Encyclo. Brit., 11th Edit., Cambridge, 1911.29.Gätke, H.Heligoland as an Ornithological Observatory, Trns. Rosenstock. London, 1895.30.Herman, O."A.M.O.K. Ornithophænologiæ anyaja,"Aquila, 13, 1906, xx.31. ——Recensio Critica automatica of the Doctrine of Bird-Migration, Budapest, 1905.32.Laidlaw, T. G."Reports on the Movements and Occurrences of Birds in Scotland during 1902 and 1903."Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1903-4.33. (Legg, John).A Discourse on the Emigration of British Birds, London. 1795. (Salisbury, 1780, and London 1811, the latter under name of George Edwards.)34.Linné. C.Dissertatio migratione Avium.Upsaliae, 1757.35.Middendorf, A. T. von.Die Isepiptesen Russlands Grundlagen zur Erforschung der Zugzeiten und Zugrichtungen der Vögel Russlands, St Petersburg, 1853.36.Menzbier, M."Die Zugstrassen der Vögel im Europäischen Russland."Bull de la Soc. Imp. d. Nat., Moscou, 1886, 291.37.Newton, A.A Dictionary of Birds, London, 1893-1896.38. —— "Migration,"Encyclo. Brit., 9th Edit., London.39.Palmén, I. A.Om foglarnes flyttingsvägar, Helsingfors, 1874.40. ——Über die Zugstrassen der Vögel, Leipzig, 1876.41.Schäfer, E. A."On the Incidence of Daylight as a determining factor in Bird Migration."Nature, 1907, 159.42.Sclater, W. L."The Migration of Birds in South Africa."S. African Orn. Union, 1906, II., 14.43.Scott, W. E. D."Some Observations on the Migration of Birds."Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, vi. 97.44.Seebohm, H.Geographical Distribution of the Family "Charadriidae,"London, 1888.45. ——The Birds of Siberia, London, 1901.46.Service, R."Bird Migration in Solway."Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1903, 193.47.Stebbins, J.andFath, E. A."The use of Astronomical Telescopes in determining the speeds of Migratory birds."Science(New York), xxiv., 1906, 49.48.Stejneger, L."Do Birds Migrate along their Ancient Immigration Routes."Condor, vii., 1905, 36.49.Stone, W."Bird Waves and their Graphic Representation,"Auk, 1891, 194.50.Stubbs, F. J."The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds."Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. 53, 1909.51.Taverner, P. A."A Discussion of the Origin of Migration,"Auk, xxi., 1904, 322.52.Tomison, J."Bird Life as observed at Skerryvore Lighthouse."Ann. Scot. Nat, Hist., 1907, 20.53.Trumbull, J."Notes on Land Birds observed in the North Atlantic and the Gulf of St Lawrence." 1904.Zoologist, 1905, 293.54.Wallace, A. R.,Nature, x., 1874, 459.55.Whitlock, F. B.The Migration of Birds, London, 1897.
1.Allen, J. A.Cooke'sSome New Facts about the Migration of Birds,Auk, xxi., 1904, 501.
2. —— Gätke'sHeligoland,Auk, xiii., 1896, 137.
3. —— Walter'sTheories of Bird Migration,Auk, xxv., 1908, 329.
4.Barrington, R. M."The great rush of Birds, etc."Irish Nat., xx., 1911, 97.
5. ——The Migration of Birds as observed at Irish Lighthouses and Lightships, London, 1900.
6.Baird, S. F."The Distribution and Migration of North American Birds."Amer. Jnl. Science and Arts, 2, 1866, xli.
7.Brehm, C. L."Der Zug der Vögel,"Isis, 1828,Naumannia, 1855.
8.Brewster, W."Bird Migration."Mem. Nuttall Orn. ClubCambridge, Mass. No. 1, 1886.
9.Brooks, W. K.The Foundations of Zoology, New York, 1899.
10.Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. Reports on Migration, vols. xvii., xx., xxii., xxiv., xxvi., 1906-1910.
11.Carpenter, F. W."An Astronomical Determination of the Heights of Birds,"Auk, xxiii., 1906, 210.
12.Chapman, Abel.Bird-Life of the Borders, 2nd edit., London 1907.
13. —— F. M. "Observations on the Nocturnal Migration of Birds,"Auk, 1888, 37.
14.Clarke, A. H."The Migration of Certain Shore Birds,"Auk, xxii., 1905, 134.
15.Clarke, W. E."Bird Migration in Great Britain."Report of the British Association,London, 1896.
16. —— "Studies in Bird Migration,"Ibis, 1902, 246, 1903, 112.
17.Clarke, W. E."The Birds of Fair Island; Native and Migratory."Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906, 4.
18.Cooke, W. W."Distribution and Migration of North American Shorebirds."U.S. Dept. Agric. Biol. Survey, Bull, 35, Washington, 1910.
19. —— "Routes of Bird Migration,"Auk, xxii., 1905, 1.
20. —— "Some New Facts about the Migration of Birds."U.S. Dept. Agric. Year Book, 1903, 371.
21. —— "Our Greatest Travellers."Nat. Geog. Mag., 1911, 346.
22. —— "The Migratory Movements of Birds in Relation to the Weather."U.S. Dept. Agric. Year Book, 1910, 379.
23.Cordeaux, J."Migration in the Humber District,"Zool., 1892, 418.
24.Derham, W.Physico-Theology, London. 1737. Lect. delivered in 1711-12.
25.Dixon, C.The Migration of Birds, London, 1892.
26. ——The Migration of British Birds, London, 1895.
27.Frederick II., (Emperor).De Arte Venandi cum Avibus, Ed. Schneider, 1788, (Rhea. ii.. 1849).
28.Gadow, H. F."Migration,"Encyclo. Brit., 11th Edit., Cambridge, 1911.
29.Gätke, H.Heligoland as an Ornithological Observatory, Trns. Rosenstock. London, 1895.
30.Herman, O."A.M.O.K. Ornithophænologiæ anyaja,"Aquila, 13, 1906, xx.
31. ——Recensio Critica automatica of the Doctrine of Bird-Migration, Budapest, 1905.
32.Laidlaw, T. G."Reports on the Movements and Occurrences of Birds in Scotland during 1902 and 1903."Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1903-4.
33. (Legg, John).A Discourse on the Emigration of British Birds, London. 1795. (Salisbury, 1780, and London 1811, the latter under name of George Edwards.)
34.Linné. C.Dissertatio migratione Avium.Upsaliae, 1757.
35.Middendorf, A. T. von.Die Isepiptesen Russlands Grundlagen zur Erforschung der Zugzeiten und Zugrichtungen der Vögel Russlands, St Petersburg, 1853.
36.Menzbier, M."Die Zugstrassen der Vögel im Europäischen Russland."Bull de la Soc. Imp. d. Nat., Moscou, 1886, 291.
37.Newton, A.A Dictionary of Birds, London, 1893-1896.
38. —— "Migration,"Encyclo. Brit., 9th Edit., London.
39.Palmén, I. A.Om foglarnes flyttingsvägar, Helsingfors, 1874.
40. ——Über die Zugstrassen der Vögel, Leipzig, 1876.
41.Schäfer, E. A."On the Incidence of Daylight as a determining factor in Bird Migration."Nature, 1907, 159.
42.Sclater, W. L."The Migration of Birds in South Africa."S. African Orn. Union, 1906, II., 14.
43.Scott, W. E. D."Some Observations on the Migration of Birds."Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, vi. 97.
44.Seebohm, H.Geographical Distribution of the Family "Charadriidae,"London, 1888.
45. ——The Birds of Siberia, London, 1901.
46.Service, R."Bird Migration in Solway."Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1903, 193.
47.Stebbins, J.andFath, E. A."The use of Astronomical Telescopes in determining the speeds of Migratory birds."Science(New York), xxiv., 1906, 49.
48.Stejneger, L."Do Birds Migrate along their Ancient Immigration Routes."Condor, vii., 1905, 36.
49.Stone, W."Bird Waves and their Graphic Representation,"Auk, 1891, 194.
50.Stubbs, F. J."The Use of Wind by Migrating Birds."Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. 53, 1909.
51.Taverner, P. A."A Discussion of the Origin of Migration,"Auk, xxi., 1904, 322.
52.Tomison, J."Bird Life as observed at Skerryvore Lighthouse."Ann. Scot. Nat, Hist., 1907, 20.
53.Trumbull, J."Notes on Land Birds observed in the North Atlantic and the Gulf of St Lawrence." 1904.Zoologist, 1905, 293.
54.Wallace, A. R.,Nature, x., 1874, 459.
55.Whitlock, F. B.The Migration of Birds, London, 1897.
In addition numerous notes in the following periodicals have been consulted:—Annals of Scottish Natural History,Auk,British Birds,Condor,Emu,Field,Ibis,Irish Naturalist,Naturalist,Nature,Zoologist.
In addition numerous notes in the following periodicals have been consulted:—Annals of Scottish Natural History,Auk,British Birds,Condor,Emu,Field,Ibis,Irish Naturalist,Naturalist,Nature,Zoologist.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
AAllen, J. A.,29,34,49,61,64American Golden Plover,24,61,77——Robin,102Anacreon,114Anticyclones,89Arctic Tern,3BBaird, S. F.,120Barometric Influence,88Barrington, R. M.,108,109,111Beam Wind,61,96Black and White Creeper,68Blackbird,50,109,112Blackheaded Gull,75Black Redstart,109Black-throated Blue Warbler,69Bluethroat,123Brambling,7,22Bray, R. A.,49Brehm. C. L.,32Brewster, W.,37,106Brooks, W. K.,32,124Burroughs, J.,56Butler, A. L.,121CCape Pigeon,121Carpenter, F. W.,48,49Chaffinch,22Chapman, A.,45,54Chapman, F. M.,48,49Charadrius dominicus,77Charadrius fulvus,80——plurialis,77Chrysomitris tristris,48Ciconia alba,71Clarke, A. H.,61Clarke, W. E.,6,9,38,51,59,61,64,84,85,87,88,89,94,95,100,107Clayton, H. H.,49Common Tern,75Cooke, W. W.,6,24,25,38,41,68,69,77,79,80,101,103,104Cordeaux, J.,96Corncrake,117Coues, E.,12Cox, P.,39Crawshay, R.,29Crossbill, 123Curlew,8,25,111,122DDendroica coerulescens,69Derham, W.,116Dipper,7Disasters at lights,85,105,106Dixon, C.,41,43,60,116Dockray, J. A.,120Dunlin,8,109EEdwards, G.,116FFath, E. A.,55Fieldfare,7,22Frederic II.,115GGadow, H. F.,20Gätke, H.,33,34,47,50,51,52,62,63,121Geoffroy St Hilaire,115Geographical Distribution,2,10Geothlypis trichas,69Glacial Epoch,20Glaisher,90Gmelin, J. G.,117Goldcrest,95,96,109,113Goldeneye,25Golden Plover,23,24,25,26,61,77,80,111Great Auk,22Great Crested Grebe,44Guillemot,124HHawk Owl,121Herman, O.,5,6,38,40,99,115,118,129Hibernation,115,116Hirundo rustica,65Homer,114Hooded Crow,51,75,97Hudson, W. H.,28,124Hudsonian Godwit,28,29IIsepipteses,39JJack Snipe,7KKnot,3,28LLabrador Duck,22Land-bridges,42,43Lapwing,23,74,85Legg, J.,5,117Lesser Black-backed Gull,123Limosa haesmastica,28Lucanus,47MMach-Bruer,61Manx Shearwater,122Marek, M.,32Marshamfamily,117Martorelli, G.,61Maryland Yellowthroat,69Meadow Pipit,109Merriam, C. H.,6Middendorf, A. T.Von,39,58Mnistitta raria,68Möbius, K.,61Montagu, G.,115Moon-phases,108Moult,67NNewton, A.,2,11,61Nightingale,43Noddy Tern,64Non-breeding birds,27,28Numenius longirostris,122OOestrelata brevipes,123——neglecta,123Orientation,56Ornithophænology,6,117Oystercatcher,109,111PPacific Golden Plover,26,80Pallas's Sand-grouse,8Palm Warbler,69Palmén, I. A.,39Penguin,124Puffin,124QQuinet, A.,41Quiscalus purpureus,48RRed Grouse,3,7Red-throated Diver,124Redwing,22,88,109,111Ringing,71-76Robin,7,8,109Rook,8,97Rushes,85,88SSanderling,28Sclater, P. L.,10Sclater, W. L.,66Scott, W. E. D.,48Seebohm, H.,19,35,36,66,107,116,124Service, R.,50,96Skylark,109,113Smith, A. C.,117Snipe,8,109Snow Bunting,121Song Thrush,4,7,8,73,74,109,112Sooty Tern,64Spoonbill,50Starling,17,109,112,113Stebbins, J.,49,55Stone, W.,112Stonechat,109Stubbs, F. J.,52,97,98,100Submerged Coastlines,42Swallow,36,51,65,94Swift,18TTaverner, P. A.,2,17,30Taylor, H.,98Teal,76Thomson, A. L.,71Tomison, J.,88,97,105Trans-Atlantic Migration,119Tristram, Canon,65Trumbull, J.,121Tufted Duck,17Turdus migratorius,102Turnstone,28Turtle Dove,17,44UUpland Goose,124VVerey, A. S.,48WWallace, A. R.,19,31Walters, H. E.,64Water-rail,109,117Watson, J. B.,64Wheatear,67,68,109,121White Stork,71Wild Duck,109,111Wind Pockets,122Wind Speed Tables,92,93Winkenwerde, H. A.,49Woodcock,75,109YYellow-browed Warbler,123