New comprehensive diaries concerning the actions of children in the first years of life are urgently to be desired. They should contain nothing but well-establishedfacts, no hypotheses, and no repetitions of the statements of others.
Among the very friendly notes that have been sent to me, the following particularly conform to the above requirements. They were most kindly placed at my disposal by the Baroness von Taube, of Esthonia, daughter of the very widely and honorably known Count Keyserling. They relate to her first-born child, and come all of them from the mother herself:
In the first five months I heard from my son, when he cried, all the vowels. The soundäwas the first and most frequent. Of the consonants, on the other hand, I heard onlyg, which appeared after seven weeks. When the child was fretful he often criedgege; when in good humor he often repeated the syllablesagu,agö,äou,ogö,eia; thenlcame in,ül.The same sounds in the case of my daughter; but from her I heard, up to her tenth month, in spite of all my observation, no other consonants thang,b,w, rarelyl, and finallym-sounds. With my son at the beginning of the seventh month an R-sound appeared—grr,grrr, plainly associated withdindirr dirr. These sounds were decidedly sounds of discomfort, which expressed dissatisfaction, violent excitement, sleepiness; and they are made even now by the boy at four years of age when, e. g., he is in pain. In the ninth monthdadaandb,bab-a,bäb-äare added.Agöalso is often said, andöstill more often. Thisöis already a kind of conscious attempt at speaking, for he uses it when he sees anything new, e. g., the dog Caro, which he observes with eager attention, as he does the cat, uttering aloud meanwhileö, ö.If any one is called, the child calls in a very loud voice,Ö, oe!First imitation. (Gestures have been imitated since the eighth month, and the making of grimaces in the child's presence had to be strictly forbidden.) Understanding for what is said is also present,for when one calls "Caro, Caro," in his hearing, he looks about him as if he were looking for the dog. In the tenth month he often repeatsPap-ba, but it has no significance.If "Backe backe kuchen" ("bake cakes," corresponding to our "pat-a-cake") is said to him, he immediately pats his hands as if preparing bread for baking. In the eleventh monthPap-bais dropped. He now says oftendädädädä, and, when he is dull or excited (erregt) or sleepy,drin, drin. Theser-sounds do not occur with my daughter; but since her tenth month she usesm-sounds,mämmäwhen she is sleepy or dull. The boy now stretches out his hand and beckons when he sees any one at a distance. At sight of anything new, he no longer saysö, butäda(twelfth month). He likes to imitate gestures with his arms and mouth; he observes attentively themovements of the lips of one who is speaking, sometimestouchingat the same time themouth of the speaker with his finger.At ten months the first teeth came. In the eleventh month the child was for the first time taken out into the open air. Now theg-sounds again become prominent—aga,ga,gugag. The child begins to creep, but often falls, and while making his toilsome efforts keeps crying out in a very comical manner,äch, äch, äch!At eleven and a half months a great advance. The child is now much out of doors, and enjoys seeing horses, cows, hens, and ducks. When he sees the hens he saysgog, gog, and even utters some croaking sounds. He can also imitate at once the soundprrrwhen it is pronounced to him. Ifpapais pronounced for him (he has lost this word), he responds regularlywawaorwawawa. I have only once heardwauwaufrom him. If he hears anybody cough, he immediately gives a little imitative cough in fun (vol. i, p. 288), and this sounds very comical.He makes much use ofod,ädo, andäd, and this also when he sees pictures. When the boy had reached the age of a year, he was weaned; from that time his mental development was very rapid. If any one sings to him gi ga gack, he responds invariablygack.He begins to adapt sounds to objects: imitation of sound is the chief basis of this adaptation. He calls the ducks withgäk, gäk, and imitates the cock, after a fashion, names the dogaua(this he got from his nurse), not only when he sees the animal, but also when he hears him bark. e. g., the child is playing busily with pasteboard boxes; the dog begins to bark outside of the house; the child listens and saysaua. I roll his little carriage back and forth; heimmediately saysbrrr, pointing to it with his hand; he wants to ride, and I have to put him in (he had heardburra, as a name for riding, from his nurse). When he sees a horse, he saysprr(this has likewise been said for him).I remark here that the notion that the child thinks out its own language—a notion I have often met with, held by people not well informed in regard to this matter—rests on defective observation. The child has part of his language given to him by others; part is the result of his own sound-imitations—of animals, e. g.—and part rests on mutilations of our language. At the beginning of the thirteenth month he suddenly names all objects and pictures, for some days,dodo,toto, which takes the place of his formerö; then he calls themniana, which he heard frequently, as it means "nurse" in Russian. Everything now is calledniana:dirrcontinues to be the sign of extreme discomfort.Papbais no more said, ever; on the other hand,mammaappears for the first time, but without any significance, still less with any application to the mother.The wordnianabecomes now the expression of desire, whether of his food or of going to somebody or somewhere. Sometimes, also, under the same circumstances, he criesmämmäandmamma; the dog is now decidedly calledaua, the horseprr.14th Month.—He now names also single objects in his picture-book: the dog,aua, the cats,tith(pronounced as in English),kiss kisshaving been said for him; horses,prr, all birds,gockorgack. In the house of a neighbor he observes at once the picture, although it hangs high up on the wall, of the emperor driving in a sleigh, and criesprrr. Animals that he does not know he calls, whether in the book or the real animals,auaorua, e. g. cows.His nurse, to whom he is much attached, he now calls decidedlyniania, although he continues to use this word in another sense also. If she is absent for some time, he calls, longingly,niania,niania. He sometimes calls memamma; but not quite surely yet. He babbles a good deal to himself; says over all his words, and makes variations in his repertory, e. g.,niana,kanna,danna; repeats syllables and words, producing also quite strange and unusual sounds, and accumulations of consonants, likemba,mpta. As soon as he wakes in the morning he takes up these meaningless language-exercises, and I hear him then going on in an endless babble.When he does not want a thing, he shakes his head as a sign ofrefusal; this no one has taught him. Nodding the head as a sign of assent or affirmation he is not yet acquainted with, and learns it much later.The nurse speaks with me of Caro; the child attends and saysaua; he knows what we were talking about. If his grandmother says, "Give the little hand," he at once stretches it out toward her. He understands what is said, and begins consciously to repeat it. His efforts to pronounce the word Grossmama (grandmamma) are comical; in spite of all his pains, he can not get beyond thegr; saysGr-mama, and finallyGoo-mama, and makes this utterance every time he sees his grandmother. At this time he learns also from his nurse the wordkoppaas a name for horse, instead ofprr,burra, which, from this time forth, denotes only going in a carriage.Koppais probably a formation from "hoppa koppati," an imitation of the sound of the hoofs.At the end of the fourteenth month, his stock of words is much enlarged. The child plays much in the open air, sees much, and advances in his development; words and sounds are more and more suited to conceptions. He wakes in the night and saysappa, which means "Give me some drink." The ball he callsBall; flower,Bume(for Blume); cat,katzandkotz(Katze)—whatkalla,kanna,kottasignify we do not know. He imitates the barking of the dog withauauauau. He saysteinefor Steine (stones); calls Braten (roast meat)pâatiandpâa, and Brod (bread) the same. If he hits against anything in creeping, he immediately saysba(it hurts). If he comes near a dangerous object, and some one says to him,ba, he is on his guard at once.A decided step in advance, at the end of the fourteenth month, is his calling meMama. At sight of me he often cries out, in a loud voice and in a coaxing tone,ei-mamma!just as he calls the nurseei-niana. His father he now callsPapa, too, but not until now, although this sound,papba, made its appearance in the tenth month, after which time it was completely forgotten. His grandmother, as he can not get beyond thegr, is now called simplygrrru; not until later,Go-mamma.15th Month.—He now saysGuten Tag(good-day), but not always at the right time; alsoGuttag. He likes to see pictures, and calls picture-booksgaorgock, probably because a good many birds are represented in them. He likes to have stories told to him, and to have pictures explained or rather named."Hinauf" (up) he callsüppa, e. g., when he is to be lifted into his chair. For "unten, hinab" (below, down), he sayspatz. Not long ago he repeated unweariedlypka, pta(pp. 139, 144),mba, mbwa.At this period he begins to raise himself erect, holding on by chairs and such things.Of horses he is passionately fond; but he begins to use the wordkoppa, as the Chinese do their words, in various meanings. He calls my large gold hair-pinskoppa. Perhaps in his imagination they represent horses, as do many other objects also with which he plays. Berries he now callsmamma. He has a sharp eye for insects, and calls them allputika, from the Esthonianputtukas(beetle), which he has got from the maid.All large birds in the picture-book he now callspapa, the word being probably derived fromPapagei(parrot), which he also pronouncespapagoi. The smaller birds are calledgogandgack.His image in the glass he callstitta(Esthonian designation for child, doll). Does he recognize himself in it (p. 196,et seq.)?Once he heard me in the garden calling some one in a loud voice. He immediately imitated me, and afterward when he was asked "What does mamma do?" he understood the question at once, put out his lips, and made the same sound. He is very uneasy in strange surroundings, in strange places, or among strangers.My bracelet, too, he now callskopita.Mannis a new word.O-patzmeans "playing on the piano," as well as "below, down there." When the piano is played he sings in a hoarse voice, with lips protruded, as well as he can, but does not get the tune. He likes to dance, and always dances in time.Nocho(noch, yet) is a new word, which he uses much in place ofmehr(more), e. g., when he wants more food.He often plays with apples, which for this reason, and very likely because they are round, he callsBall, as he does his rubber ball. Yesterday he had baked apples, mashed, with milk. He recognized the apple at once in this altered form, and said as he ate,Ball!At this time he was not yet sixteen months old.16th Month.—He is often heard to beg, or rather order,Mamma opatz(play the piano). If I do not at once obey, he moves his little hands like a piano-player and begstatata,tatata, imitating the music. He likes also to hear songs sung, and can already tell some of them, asGigagack,kuckatralla. He joins in singing the last of these.17th Month.—He speaks his own name correctly, and when asked "Where is Adolph?" he points to his breast. As he is always addressed in the third person, i. e., by his name, he does not know any personal pronouns.The syllableeihe often changes toal; e. g., he saysPapagalinstead of "Papagei."He had some grapes given to him for the first time, and he at once called themmammut(berries). Being asked, "How do you like them?" he pressed his hand on his heart in an ecstasy of delight that was comical, cryingach! ach!18th Month.—He comprehends and answers questions; e. g., "Where are you going?"Zu Tuhl(to the chair). "What is that?"Bett tuddu, i. e., a bed for sleeping. "Who gave you this?"Mamma,Pappa.He can now say almost any word that is said to him, often mutilating it; but, if pains be taken to repeat it for him, he pronounces it correctly. He often tacks on the syllablega, as if in endearment,mammaga,pappaga,nianiaga. Theforming of sentences is also beginning, for he joins two words together, e. g.,Mamma kommt(comes),Papa gut(good),Ferd(forPferd)halt(horse stop). He sayswiebackafor Zwieback (biscuit),Bratifor Braten (roast meat), Goossmama for Grossmama (grandmamma). He pronounces correctly "Onkel Kuno, Suppe, Fuchs, Rabe, Kameel."When others are conversing in his presence, he often says to himself the words he hears, especially the last words in the sentence. The word "Nein" (no) he uses as a sign of refusal; e. g., "Will you have some roast meat?"Nein.Ja(yes), on the other hand, he does not use, but he answers in the affirmative by repeating frequently with vehemence what he wants, e. g., "Do you want some roast?"Brati, Brati(i. e., I do want roast).He gives names to his puppets. He calls them Grandmamma, Grandpapa, Uncle Kuno, Uncle Grünberg, gardener, cook, etc. The puppets are from his Noah's ark.Now appear his first attempts at drawing. He draws, as he imagines, all kinds of animals: ducks, camels, tigers. He lately made marks, calling outTorch und noch ein Torch(a stork and another stork). (cf. pp. 172, 247.)The book of birds is his greatest delight. I have to imitate the notes of birds, and he does it after me, showing memory in it. He knows at once stork, woodpecker, pigeon, duck, pelican, siskin, andswallow. The little verses I sing at the same time amuse him, e. g., "Zeislein, Zeislein, wo ist dein Häuslein?" (Little siskin, where is your little house?); and he retains them when he hears them often. Russian words also are repeated by him.For the first time I observe the attempt to communicate to others some experience of his own. He had been looking at the picture-book with me, and when he went to the nurse he told her,Mamma, Bilder, Papagei(Mamma, pictures, parrot).19th Month.—From the time he was a year and a half old he has walked alone.He speaks whole sentences, but without connectives, e. g.,Niana Braten holen(nurse bring roast);Caro draussen wauwau(Caro outside, bow-wow);Mamma tuddut(sleeps, inflected correctly);Decke um(cover over);Papa koppa Stadt(Papa driven to city);Mamma sitzt tuhl(Mamma sits chair);Adolph bei Mama bleiben(Adolph stay with mamma);Noch tanzen(more dance);Pappa Fuchs machen(Papa make fox).Certain words make him nervous. He does not like the refrain of the children's song of the goat. If I say "Darum, darum, meck, meck, meck," he looks at me indignantly and runs off. Sometimes he lays his hand on my mouth or screams loudly for the nurse. He gives up any play he is engaged in as soon as I say "darum, darum."Pax vobiscumhas the same effect.The songs amuse him chiefly on account of the words, particularly through the imitations of the sounds of animals.He knows the songs and asks of his own accord forKucku Esaal,Kater putz,Kucku tralla, but commonly hears only the first stanza, and then wants a different song. Lately, however, he listened very earnestly to the three stanzas of "Möpschen," and when I asked "What now?" he answeredNoch Mops(more Mops). Playing with his puppets, he hummed to himself,tu, tu, errsen, tu tu errsen. I guessed that it was "Du, du liegst mir im Herzen," which he had on the previous day wanted to hear often and had tried to repeat.20th Month.—Now for the first timejais used for affirmation, chiefly in the formja wohl(yes, indeed, certainly), which he retains. "Do you want this?"Ja wohl.Being asked "Whose feet are these?" he answers correctly,Mine; but no personal pronouns appear yet. He often retains a new and difficult word that he has heard only once, e. g., "Chocolade."To my question, after his grandfather had gone away, "Where is Grandpapa now?" he answers sorrowfully,verloren(lost). (Cf. p. 145.)In his plays he imitates the doings and sayings of adults, puts a kerchief about his head and says,Adolph go stable, give oats.Not long ago, as he said good-night to us, he went also to his image in the glass and kissed it repeatedly, saying,Adolph, good-night!24th Month.—He knows a good many flowers, their names and colors; calls pansies "the dark flowers."He also caught the air and rhythm of certain songs, e. g.,Kommt a Vogel angeflogen, Du, du, liegst mir im Herzen, machst mir viel Serzen, and used to sing to himself continually when he was on a walk. Now that he is four years old, on the contrary, he hardly ever sings.25th Month.—Beetles have a great interest for him. He brings a dead beetle into the parlor, and cries, "Run now!" His astonishment is great that the creature does not run.If he sees something disagreeable (e. g., he saw the other day an organ-grinder with a monkey), he covers his face with his hands weeping aloud and crying,Monkey go away. So, too, when he sees strangers.The Latin names of flowers and insects are easily retained by him. They are not taught him, he simply hears them daily.26th and 27th Months.—Of his childish language he has retained only the termmammut, for berries. Milk, which he used to callmima, is now calledmilch(cf., pp. 140, 157).The child's use of the personal pronoun is strange. During my absence an aunt of his took my place, and she addressed him for thefirst timewith the word "Du" (thou), and spoke of herself as "I," whereas I always called myself "Mama." The consequence was that the boy for a long time used "thou" as the first person, "I" as the second person, with logical consistency. He hands me bread, saying,I am hungry, or, when I am to go with him,I come too. Referring to himself, he says,You want flowers;you will play with Niania. All other persons are addressed with "I" instead of "you."He tells his uncle,There's an awfully pretty gentian in the yard. He gets the nurse occasionally to repeat the Latin names, because they are difficult for her, and his correction of her is very comical.28th Month.—He speaks long sentences.Papa, come drink coffee,please do.Papa, I drive(for "you drive")to town, to Reval, and bring some parrots (Bellensittiche).He often changes the form of words for fun, e. g.,guten Porgen(for guten Morgen). On going out, he says, with a knowing air, "Splendid weather, the sun shines so warm." He alters songs also, putting in different expressions: e. g., instead ofLieber Vogel fliege weiter, nimm a Kuss und a Gruss, Adolph sings,Lieber Vogel fliege weiter in die Wolken hinein(dear bird, fly farther,into the clouds, instead oftake a kiss and a greeting). It is a proof of logical thinking that he asks, at sight of the moon,The moon is in the sky, has it wings?I had been sick; when I was better and was caressing him again, he said,Mama is well, the dear Jesus has made mama well with sealing-wax. "With sealing-wax?" I asked, in astonishment.Yes, from the writing-desk.He had often seen his toys, when they had been broken, "made well", as he called it, by being stuck together with sealing-wax.He now asks,Where is the dear Jesus?"In heaven."Can he fly then; has he wings?Religious conceptions are difficult to impart to him, even at a much later period: e. g., heaven is too cold for him, his nose would freeze up there, etc.He now asks questions a good deal in general, especiallyWhat is that called?e. g.,What are chestnuts called?"Horse-chestnuts."What are these pears called?"Bergamots." He jests:Nein, Bergapots, or,What kind of mots are those?He will not eat an apple until he has learned what the name of it is.He would often keep asking, in wanton sport,What are books called?orducks?orsoup?He uses the words "to-day, to-morrow," and the names of the days of the week, but without understanding their meaning.Instead of saying "zu Mittag gehen" (go to noon-meal), he says, logically, "zu Nachmittag gehen" (go to afternoon-meal).The child does not know what is true, what is actual. I never can depend on his statements, except, as it appears, when he tells what he has had to eat. If riding is spoken of, e. g., he has a vivid picture of riding in his mind. To-day, when I asked him "Did you see papa ride?" he answered,Yes, indeed, papa rode away off into the woods. Yet his father had not gone to ride at all.In the same way he often denies what he has seen and done. Hecomes out of his father's room and I ask, "Well, have you said good-night to papa?"No.His father told me afterward that the child had done it.In the park we see some crested titmice, and I tell the nurse that, in the previous autumn, I saw for the first time Finnish parrots or cross-bills here, but that I have not seen any since. When the child's father asked later, "Well, Adolph, what did you see in the park?"Crested titmice, with golden crests(he adds out of his own invention)and Finnish parrots. He mixes up what he has heard and seen with what he imagines.Truth has to be taught to a child. The less this is done, the easier it is to inoculate him with religious notions, i. e., of miraculous revelation; otherwise one must be prepared for many questions that are hard to answer.29th month.—Sad stories affect him to tears, and he runs away.Names of animals and plants he remembers often more easily than I do, and informs me. He reasons logically. Lately, when he asked for some foolish thing, I said to him, "Sha'n't I bring the moon for you, too?"No, said he,you can't do that, it is too high up in the clouds.30th to 33d months.—He now often calls himself "Adolph," and then speaks of himself in the third person. He frequently confounds "I" and "you," and does not so consistently use the first person for the second, and the reverse. The transition is very gradually taking place to the correct use of the personal pronoun. Instead ofmy mamma, he repeats often, when he is in an affectionate mood,your mamma,your mamma.Some new books are given to him. In the book of beetles there are shown to him the party-colored and the gray, so-called "sad," grave-digger (necrophorus). The latter now becomes prominent in his plays. "Why is he called the sad?" I asked the child yesterday.Ah! because he has no children, he answered, sorrowfully. Probably he has at some time overheard this sentence, which has no meaning for him, from a grown person. Adult persons' ways of speaking are thus employed without an understanding of them; pure verbal memory.In the same way, he retains the names, in his new book, of butterflies (few of them German) better than I do, however crabbed and difficult they may be.This (pure) memory for mere sounds or tones has become lessstrong in the now four-year-old boy, who has more to do with ideas and concepts, although his memory in other respects is good.In the thirty-seventh month he sang, quite correctly, airs he had heard, and he could sing some songs to the piano, if they were frequently repeated with him. His fancy for this soon passed away, and these exercises ceased. On the other hand, he tells stories a great deal and with pleasure. His pronunciation is distinct, the construction of the sentences is mostly correct, apart from errors acquired from his nurse. The confounding of the first and second persons, the "I" and "you," or rather his use of the one for the other, has ceased, and the child designates himself byI, others bythouandyou. Men are ordinarily addressed by him withthou, as his father and uncle are; women withyou, as are even his mother and nurse. This continues for a long time. The boy of four years counts objects, with effort, up to six; numbers remain for a long time merely empty words (pp. 165, 172). In the same way, he has, as yet, but small notion of the order of the days of the week, and mixes up the names of them. To-day, to-morrow, yesterday, have gradually become more intelligible to him.
In the first five months I heard from my son, when he cried, all the vowels. The soundäwas the first and most frequent. Of the consonants, on the other hand, I heard onlyg, which appeared after seven weeks. When the child was fretful he often criedgege; when in good humor he often repeated the syllablesagu,agö,äou,ogö,eia; thenlcame in,ül.
The same sounds in the case of my daughter; but from her I heard, up to her tenth month, in spite of all my observation, no other consonants thang,b,w, rarelyl, and finallym-sounds. With my son at the beginning of the seventh month an R-sound appeared—grr,grrr, plainly associated withdindirr dirr. These sounds were decidedly sounds of discomfort, which expressed dissatisfaction, violent excitement, sleepiness; and they are made even now by the boy at four years of age when, e. g., he is in pain. In the ninth monthdadaandb,bab-a,bäb-äare added.Agöalso is often said, andöstill more often. Thisöis already a kind of conscious attempt at speaking, for he uses it when he sees anything new, e. g., the dog Caro, which he observes with eager attention, as he does the cat, uttering aloud meanwhileö, ö.
If any one is called, the child calls in a very loud voice,Ö, oe!First imitation. (Gestures have been imitated since the eighth month, and the making of grimaces in the child's presence had to be strictly forbidden.) Understanding for what is said is also present,for when one calls "Caro, Caro," in his hearing, he looks about him as if he were looking for the dog. In the tenth month he often repeatsPap-ba, but it has no significance.
If "Backe backe kuchen" ("bake cakes," corresponding to our "pat-a-cake") is said to him, he immediately pats his hands as if preparing bread for baking. In the eleventh monthPap-bais dropped. He now says oftendädädädä, and, when he is dull or excited (erregt) or sleepy,drin, drin. Theser-sounds do not occur with my daughter; but since her tenth month she usesm-sounds,mämmäwhen she is sleepy or dull. The boy now stretches out his hand and beckons when he sees any one at a distance. At sight of anything new, he no longer saysö, butäda(twelfth month). He likes to imitate gestures with his arms and mouth; he observes attentively themovements of the lips of one who is speaking, sometimestouchingat the same time themouth of the speaker with his finger.
At ten months the first teeth came. In the eleventh month the child was for the first time taken out into the open air. Now theg-sounds again become prominent—aga,ga,gugag. The child begins to creep, but often falls, and while making his toilsome efforts keeps crying out in a very comical manner,äch, äch, äch!
At eleven and a half months a great advance. The child is now much out of doors, and enjoys seeing horses, cows, hens, and ducks. When he sees the hens he saysgog, gog, and even utters some croaking sounds. He can also imitate at once the soundprrrwhen it is pronounced to him. Ifpapais pronounced for him (he has lost this word), he responds regularlywawaorwawawa. I have only once heardwauwaufrom him. If he hears anybody cough, he immediately gives a little imitative cough in fun (vol. i, p. 288), and this sounds very comical.
He makes much use ofod,ädo, andäd, and this also when he sees pictures. When the boy had reached the age of a year, he was weaned; from that time his mental development was very rapid. If any one sings to him gi ga gack, he responds invariablygack.
He begins to adapt sounds to objects: imitation of sound is the chief basis of this adaptation. He calls the ducks withgäk, gäk, and imitates the cock, after a fashion, names the dogaua(this he got from his nurse), not only when he sees the animal, but also when he hears him bark. e. g., the child is playing busily with pasteboard boxes; the dog begins to bark outside of the house; the child listens and saysaua. I roll his little carriage back and forth; heimmediately saysbrrr, pointing to it with his hand; he wants to ride, and I have to put him in (he had heardburra, as a name for riding, from his nurse). When he sees a horse, he saysprr(this has likewise been said for him).
I remark here that the notion that the child thinks out its own language—a notion I have often met with, held by people not well informed in regard to this matter—rests on defective observation. The child has part of his language given to him by others; part is the result of his own sound-imitations—of animals, e. g.—and part rests on mutilations of our language. At the beginning of the thirteenth month he suddenly names all objects and pictures, for some days,dodo,toto, which takes the place of his formerö; then he calls themniana, which he heard frequently, as it means "nurse" in Russian. Everything now is calledniana:dirrcontinues to be the sign of extreme discomfort.
Papbais no more said, ever; on the other hand,mammaappears for the first time, but without any significance, still less with any application to the mother.
The wordnianabecomes now the expression of desire, whether of his food or of going to somebody or somewhere. Sometimes, also, under the same circumstances, he criesmämmäandmamma; the dog is now decidedly calledaua, the horseprr.
14th Month.—He now names also single objects in his picture-book: the dog,aua, the cats,tith(pronounced as in English),kiss kisshaving been said for him; horses,prr, all birds,gockorgack. In the house of a neighbor he observes at once the picture, although it hangs high up on the wall, of the emperor driving in a sleigh, and criesprrr. Animals that he does not know he calls, whether in the book or the real animals,auaorua, e. g. cows.
His nurse, to whom he is much attached, he now calls decidedlyniania, although he continues to use this word in another sense also. If she is absent for some time, he calls, longingly,niania,niania. He sometimes calls memamma; but not quite surely yet. He babbles a good deal to himself; says over all his words, and makes variations in his repertory, e. g.,niana,kanna,danna; repeats syllables and words, producing also quite strange and unusual sounds, and accumulations of consonants, likemba,mpta. As soon as he wakes in the morning he takes up these meaningless language-exercises, and I hear him then going on in an endless babble.
When he does not want a thing, he shakes his head as a sign ofrefusal; this no one has taught him. Nodding the head as a sign of assent or affirmation he is not yet acquainted with, and learns it much later.
The nurse speaks with me of Caro; the child attends and saysaua; he knows what we were talking about. If his grandmother says, "Give the little hand," he at once stretches it out toward her. He understands what is said, and begins consciously to repeat it. His efforts to pronounce the word Grossmama (grandmamma) are comical; in spite of all his pains, he can not get beyond thegr; saysGr-mama, and finallyGoo-mama, and makes this utterance every time he sees his grandmother. At this time he learns also from his nurse the wordkoppaas a name for horse, instead ofprr,burra, which, from this time forth, denotes only going in a carriage.Koppais probably a formation from "hoppa koppati," an imitation of the sound of the hoofs.
At the end of the fourteenth month, his stock of words is much enlarged. The child plays much in the open air, sees much, and advances in his development; words and sounds are more and more suited to conceptions. He wakes in the night and saysappa, which means "Give me some drink." The ball he callsBall; flower,Bume(for Blume); cat,katzandkotz(Katze)—whatkalla,kanna,kottasignify we do not know. He imitates the barking of the dog withauauauau. He saysteinefor Steine (stones); calls Braten (roast meat)pâatiandpâa, and Brod (bread) the same. If he hits against anything in creeping, he immediately saysba(it hurts). If he comes near a dangerous object, and some one says to him,ba, he is on his guard at once.
A decided step in advance, at the end of the fourteenth month, is his calling meMama. At sight of me he often cries out, in a loud voice and in a coaxing tone,ei-mamma!just as he calls the nurseei-niana. His father he now callsPapa, too, but not until now, although this sound,papba, made its appearance in the tenth month, after which time it was completely forgotten. His grandmother, as he can not get beyond thegr, is now called simplygrrru; not until later,Go-mamma.
15th Month.—He now saysGuten Tag(good-day), but not always at the right time; alsoGuttag. He likes to see pictures, and calls picture-booksgaorgock, probably because a good many birds are represented in them. He likes to have stories told to him, and to have pictures explained or rather named.
"Hinauf" (up) he callsüppa, e. g., when he is to be lifted into his chair. For "unten, hinab" (below, down), he sayspatz. Not long ago he repeated unweariedlypka, pta(pp. 139, 144),mba, mbwa.
At this period he begins to raise himself erect, holding on by chairs and such things.
Of horses he is passionately fond; but he begins to use the wordkoppa, as the Chinese do their words, in various meanings. He calls my large gold hair-pinskoppa. Perhaps in his imagination they represent horses, as do many other objects also with which he plays. Berries he now callsmamma. He has a sharp eye for insects, and calls them allputika, from the Esthonianputtukas(beetle), which he has got from the maid.
All large birds in the picture-book he now callspapa, the word being probably derived fromPapagei(parrot), which he also pronouncespapagoi. The smaller birds are calledgogandgack.
His image in the glass he callstitta(Esthonian designation for child, doll). Does he recognize himself in it (p. 196,et seq.)?
Once he heard me in the garden calling some one in a loud voice. He immediately imitated me, and afterward when he was asked "What does mamma do?" he understood the question at once, put out his lips, and made the same sound. He is very uneasy in strange surroundings, in strange places, or among strangers.
My bracelet, too, he now callskopita.Mannis a new word.O-patzmeans "playing on the piano," as well as "below, down there." When the piano is played he sings in a hoarse voice, with lips protruded, as well as he can, but does not get the tune. He likes to dance, and always dances in time.
Nocho(noch, yet) is a new word, which he uses much in place ofmehr(more), e. g., when he wants more food.
He often plays with apples, which for this reason, and very likely because they are round, he callsBall, as he does his rubber ball. Yesterday he had baked apples, mashed, with milk. He recognized the apple at once in this altered form, and said as he ate,Ball!At this time he was not yet sixteen months old.
16th Month.—He is often heard to beg, or rather order,Mamma opatz(play the piano). If I do not at once obey, he moves his little hands like a piano-player and begstatata,tatata, imitating the music. He likes also to hear songs sung, and can already tell some of them, asGigagack,kuckatralla. He joins in singing the last of these.
17th Month.—He speaks his own name correctly, and when asked "Where is Adolph?" he points to his breast. As he is always addressed in the third person, i. e., by his name, he does not know any personal pronouns.
The syllableeihe often changes toal; e. g., he saysPapagalinstead of "Papagei."
He had some grapes given to him for the first time, and he at once called themmammut(berries). Being asked, "How do you like them?" he pressed his hand on his heart in an ecstasy of delight that was comical, cryingach! ach!
18th Month.—He comprehends and answers questions; e. g., "Where are you going?"Zu Tuhl(to the chair). "What is that?"Bett tuddu, i. e., a bed for sleeping. "Who gave you this?"Mamma,Pappa.
He can now say almost any word that is said to him, often mutilating it; but, if pains be taken to repeat it for him, he pronounces it correctly. He often tacks on the syllablega, as if in endearment,mammaga,pappaga,nianiaga. Theforming of sentences is also beginning, for he joins two words together, e. g.,Mamma kommt(comes),Papa gut(good),Ferd(forPferd)halt(horse stop). He sayswiebackafor Zwieback (biscuit),Bratifor Braten (roast meat), Goossmama for Grossmama (grandmamma). He pronounces correctly "Onkel Kuno, Suppe, Fuchs, Rabe, Kameel."
When others are conversing in his presence, he often says to himself the words he hears, especially the last words in the sentence. The word "Nein" (no) he uses as a sign of refusal; e. g., "Will you have some roast meat?"Nein.Ja(yes), on the other hand, he does not use, but he answers in the affirmative by repeating frequently with vehemence what he wants, e. g., "Do you want some roast?"Brati, Brati(i. e., I do want roast).
He gives names to his puppets. He calls them Grandmamma, Grandpapa, Uncle Kuno, Uncle Grünberg, gardener, cook, etc. The puppets are from his Noah's ark.
Now appear his first attempts at drawing. He draws, as he imagines, all kinds of animals: ducks, camels, tigers. He lately made marks, calling outTorch und noch ein Torch(a stork and another stork). (cf. pp. 172, 247.)
The book of birds is his greatest delight. I have to imitate the notes of birds, and he does it after me, showing memory in it. He knows at once stork, woodpecker, pigeon, duck, pelican, siskin, andswallow. The little verses I sing at the same time amuse him, e. g., "Zeislein, Zeislein, wo ist dein Häuslein?" (Little siskin, where is your little house?); and he retains them when he hears them often. Russian words also are repeated by him.
For the first time I observe the attempt to communicate to others some experience of his own. He had been looking at the picture-book with me, and when he went to the nurse he told her,Mamma, Bilder, Papagei(Mamma, pictures, parrot).
19th Month.—From the time he was a year and a half old he has walked alone.
He speaks whole sentences, but without connectives, e. g.,Niana Braten holen(nurse bring roast);Caro draussen wauwau(Caro outside, bow-wow);Mamma tuddut(sleeps, inflected correctly);Decke um(cover over);Papa koppa Stadt(Papa driven to city);Mamma sitzt tuhl(Mamma sits chair);Adolph bei Mama bleiben(Adolph stay with mamma);Noch tanzen(more dance);Pappa Fuchs machen(Papa make fox).
Certain words make him nervous. He does not like the refrain of the children's song of the goat. If I say "Darum, darum, meck, meck, meck," he looks at me indignantly and runs off. Sometimes he lays his hand on my mouth or screams loudly for the nurse. He gives up any play he is engaged in as soon as I say "darum, darum."Pax vobiscumhas the same effect.
The songs amuse him chiefly on account of the words, particularly through the imitations of the sounds of animals.
He knows the songs and asks of his own accord forKucku Esaal,Kater putz,Kucku tralla, but commonly hears only the first stanza, and then wants a different song. Lately, however, he listened very earnestly to the three stanzas of "Möpschen," and when I asked "What now?" he answeredNoch Mops(more Mops). Playing with his puppets, he hummed to himself,tu, tu, errsen, tu tu errsen. I guessed that it was "Du, du liegst mir im Herzen," which he had on the previous day wanted to hear often and had tried to repeat.
20th Month.—Now for the first timejais used for affirmation, chiefly in the formja wohl(yes, indeed, certainly), which he retains. "Do you want this?"Ja wohl.
Being asked "Whose feet are these?" he answers correctly,Mine; but no personal pronouns appear yet. He often retains a new and difficult word that he has heard only once, e. g., "Chocolade."
To my question, after his grandfather had gone away, "Where is Grandpapa now?" he answers sorrowfully,verloren(lost). (Cf. p. 145.)
In his plays he imitates the doings and sayings of adults, puts a kerchief about his head and says,Adolph go stable, give oats.
Not long ago, as he said good-night to us, he went also to his image in the glass and kissed it repeatedly, saying,Adolph, good-night!
24th Month.—He knows a good many flowers, their names and colors; calls pansies "the dark flowers."
He also caught the air and rhythm of certain songs, e. g.,Kommt a Vogel angeflogen, Du, du, liegst mir im Herzen, machst mir viel Serzen, and used to sing to himself continually when he was on a walk. Now that he is four years old, on the contrary, he hardly ever sings.
25th Month.—Beetles have a great interest for him. He brings a dead beetle into the parlor, and cries, "Run now!" His astonishment is great that the creature does not run.
If he sees something disagreeable (e. g., he saw the other day an organ-grinder with a monkey), he covers his face with his hands weeping aloud and crying,Monkey go away. So, too, when he sees strangers.
The Latin names of flowers and insects are easily retained by him. They are not taught him, he simply hears them daily.
26th and 27th Months.—Of his childish language he has retained only the termmammut, for berries. Milk, which he used to callmima, is now calledmilch(cf., pp. 140, 157).
The child's use of the personal pronoun is strange. During my absence an aunt of his took my place, and she addressed him for thefirst timewith the word "Du" (thou), and spoke of herself as "I," whereas I always called myself "Mama." The consequence was that the boy for a long time used "thou" as the first person, "I" as the second person, with logical consistency. He hands me bread, saying,I am hungry, or, when I am to go with him,I come too. Referring to himself, he says,You want flowers;you will play with Niania. All other persons are addressed with "I" instead of "you."
He tells his uncle,There's an awfully pretty gentian in the yard. He gets the nurse occasionally to repeat the Latin names, because they are difficult for her, and his correction of her is very comical.
28th Month.—He speaks long sentences.Papa, come drink coffee,please do.Papa, I drive(for "you drive")to town, to Reval, and bring some parrots (Bellensittiche).
He often changes the form of words for fun, e. g.,guten Porgen(for guten Morgen). On going out, he says, with a knowing air, "Splendid weather, the sun shines so warm." He alters songs also, putting in different expressions: e. g., instead ofLieber Vogel fliege weiter, nimm a Kuss und a Gruss, Adolph sings,Lieber Vogel fliege weiter in die Wolken hinein(dear bird, fly farther,into the clouds, instead oftake a kiss and a greeting). It is a proof of logical thinking that he asks, at sight of the moon,The moon is in the sky, has it wings?
I had been sick; when I was better and was caressing him again, he said,Mama is well, the dear Jesus has made mama well with sealing-wax. "With sealing-wax?" I asked, in astonishment.Yes, from the writing-desk.He had often seen his toys, when they had been broken, "made well", as he called it, by being stuck together with sealing-wax.
He now asks,Where is the dear Jesus?"In heaven."Can he fly then; has he wings?
Religious conceptions are difficult to impart to him, even at a much later period: e. g., heaven is too cold for him, his nose would freeze up there, etc.
He now asks questions a good deal in general, especiallyWhat is that called?e. g.,What are chestnuts called?"Horse-chestnuts."What are these pears called?"Bergamots." He jests:Nein, Bergapots, or,What kind of mots are those?He will not eat an apple until he has learned what the name of it is.
He would often keep asking, in wanton sport,What are books called?orducks?orsoup?
He uses the words "to-day, to-morrow," and the names of the days of the week, but without understanding their meaning.
Instead of saying "zu Mittag gehen" (go to noon-meal), he says, logically, "zu Nachmittag gehen" (go to afternoon-meal).
The child does not know what is true, what is actual. I never can depend on his statements, except, as it appears, when he tells what he has had to eat. If riding is spoken of, e. g., he has a vivid picture of riding in his mind. To-day, when I asked him "Did you see papa ride?" he answered,Yes, indeed, papa rode away off into the woods. Yet his father had not gone to ride at all.
In the same way he often denies what he has seen and done. Hecomes out of his father's room and I ask, "Well, have you said good-night to papa?"No.His father told me afterward that the child had done it.
In the park we see some crested titmice, and I tell the nurse that, in the previous autumn, I saw for the first time Finnish parrots or cross-bills here, but that I have not seen any since. When the child's father asked later, "Well, Adolph, what did you see in the park?"Crested titmice, with golden crests(he adds out of his own invention)and Finnish parrots. He mixes up what he has heard and seen with what he imagines.
Truth has to be taught to a child. The less this is done, the easier it is to inoculate him with religious notions, i. e., of miraculous revelation; otherwise one must be prepared for many questions that are hard to answer.
29th month.—Sad stories affect him to tears, and he runs away.
Names of animals and plants he remembers often more easily than I do, and informs me. He reasons logically. Lately, when he asked for some foolish thing, I said to him, "Sha'n't I bring the moon for you, too?"No, said he,you can't do that, it is too high up in the clouds.
30th to 33d months.—He now often calls himself "Adolph," and then speaks of himself in the third person. He frequently confounds "I" and "you," and does not so consistently use the first person for the second, and the reverse. The transition is very gradually taking place to the correct use of the personal pronoun. Instead ofmy mamma, he repeats often, when he is in an affectionate mood,your mamma,your mamma.
Some new books are given to him. In the book of beetles there are shown to him the party-colored and the gray, so-called "sad," grave-digger (necrophorus). The latter now becomes prominent in his plays. "Why is he called the sad?" I asked the child yesterday.Ah! because he has no children, he answered, sorrowfully. Probably he has at some time overheard this sentence, which has no meaning for him, from a grown person. Adult persons' ways of speaking are thus employed without an understanding of them; pure verbal memory.
In the same way, he retains the names, in his new book, of butterflies (few of them German) better than I do, however crabbed and difficult they may be.
This (pure) memory for mere sounds or tones has become lessstrong in the now four-year-old boy, who has more to do with ideas and concepts, although his memory in other respects is good.
In the thirty-seventh month he sang, quite correctly, airs he had heard, and he could sing some songs to the piano, if they were frequently repeated with him. His fancy for this soon passed away, and these exercises ceased. On the other hand, he tells stories a great deal and with pleasure. His pronunciation is distinct, the construction of the sentences is mostly correct, apart from errors acquired from his nurse. The confounding of the first and second persons, the "I" and "you," or rather his use of the one for the other, has ceased, and the child designates himself byI, others bythouandyou. Men are ordinarily addressed by him withthou, as his father and uncle are; women withyou, as are even his mother and nurse. This continues for a long time. The boy of four years counts objects, with effort, up to six; numbers remain for a long time merely empty words (pp. 165, 172). In the same way, he has, as yet, but small notion of the order of the days of the week, and mixes up the names of them. To-day, to-morrow, yesterday, have gradually become more intelligible to him.
Notwithstanding the aphoristic character of these extracts from a full and detailed diary of observations, I have thought they ought to be given, because they form a valuable supplement to my observations in the nineteenth chapter, and show particularly how far independent thought may be developed, even in the second and third years, while there is, as yet, small knowledge of language. The differences in mental development between this child and mine are no less worthy of notice than are the agreements. Among the latter is the fact, extremely important in a pedagogical point of view, that, the less we teach the child the simple truth from the beginning, so much the easier it is to inoculate him permanently with religious notions, i. e., of "miraculous revelation." Fairy tales, ghost-stories, and the like easily make the childish imagination, of itself very active, hypertrophic, and cloud the judgment concerning actual events. Morals and nature offer such an abundance of facts with which we may connect the teaching of language, that it is better to dispense with legends. Æsop's fables combine the moral and the natural in a manner unsurpassable. My child tells me one of these fables every morning.
FOOTNOTES:[D]The vowels have the Continental, not the English, sounds.[E]Or possibly for the worddrink, which a child of my acquaintance calledghing.—Editor.[F]"The First Three Years of Childhood," edited and translated by Alice M. Christie; published in Chicago, 1885.
[D]The vowels have the Continental, not the English, sounds.
[E]Or possibly for the worddrink, which a child of my acquaintance calledghing.—Editor.
[F]"The First Three Years of Childhood," edited and translated by Alice M. Christie; published in Chicago, 1885.
The data we have concerning the behavior of children born, living, without head or without brain, and of microcephalous children, as well as of idiots and cretins more advanced in age, are of great interest, as helping us to a knowledge of the dependence of the first psychical processes upon the development of the brain, especially of the cerebral cortex. Unfortunately, these data are scanty and scattered.
Very important, too, for psychogenesis, are reports concerning the physiological condition and activity of children whose mental development has seemed to be stopped for months, or to be made considerably slower, or to be unusually hastened.
Scanty as are the notes I have met with on this matter, after much search, yet I collect and present some of them, in the hope that they will incite to more abundant and more careful observation in the future than has been made up to this time.
A good many data concerning the behavior of cretin children are to be found in the very painstaking book, "Neue Untersuchungen über den Kretinismus oder die Entartung des Menschen in ihren verschiedenen Gradenund Formen" ("New Investigations concerning Cretinism, or Human Deterioration, in its Various Forms and Degrees"), by Maffei and Rösch (two vols, Erlangen, 1844). But, in order that these data should be of value, the observed anomalies and defects of the cerebral functions ought to be capable of being referred to careful morphological investigations of the cretin brain. As the authors give no results ofpost-mortemexaminations, I simply refer to their work here.
I once had the opportunity myself of seeing a hemicephalus, living, who was brought to the clinic of my respected colleague, Prof. B. Schultze, in Jena. The child was of the male sex, and was born on the 1st of July, 1883, at noon, along with a perfectly normal twin sister. The parents are of sound condition. I saw the child for the first time on the 3d of July, at two o'clock. I found all the parts of the body, except the head, like those of ordinary children born at the right time. The head had on it a great red lump like a tumor, and came to an end directly over the eyes, going down abruptly behind; but, even if the tumor were supposed to be covered with skin, there would by no means be the natural arched formation of the cranium of a newly-born child. The face, too, absolutely without forehead, was smaller in comparison than the rest of the body. I found now, in the case of this child, already two days old, a remarkably regular breathing, a very cool skin—in the forenoon a specific warmth of 32° C. had been found—and slight mobility. The eyes remained closed. When I opened them, without violence, the pupil was seen to be immobile. It did not react in the least upon the direct light of the sun on either side. The left eye did not move at all, the right made rare, convulsive, lateral movements. The conjunctiva was very much reddened. The child did not react in the least to pricksof a dull needle tried on all parts of the body, and reacted only very feebly to pinches; not at all to sound-stimuli, but regularly to stronger, prolonged cutaneous stimuli; in particular, the child moved its arms after a slap on the back, just like normal new-born children, and uttered very harsh, feeble tones when its back was rubbed. When I put my finger in its mouth vigorous sucking movements began, which induced me to offer the bottle—this had not yet been done. Some cubic centimetres of milk were vigorously swallowed, and soon afterward the breast of a nurse was taken. While this was going on I could feel quite distinctly with my finger, under the chin, the movements of swallowing. It was easy to establish the further fact that my finger, which I laid in the hollow of the child's hand, was frequently clasped firmly by the little fingers, which had well-developed nails. Not unfrequently, sometimes without previous contact, sometimes after it, the tip of the tongue, and even a larger part of the tongue, was thrust out between the lips, and once, when I held the child erect, he plainly gave a prolonged yawn. Finally, the fact seemed to me very noteworthy that, after being taken and held erect, sometimes also without any assignable outward occasion, the child inclined its head forward and turned it vigorously both to the right and to the left. When the child had sucked lustily a few times, it opened both eyes about two millimetres wide, and went on with its nursing. An assistant physician saw the child sneeze.
These observations upon a human child, two days old, unquestionably acephalous, i. e., absolutely without cerebrum, but as to the rest of its body not in the least abnormal, prove what I have already advanced (vol. i, p. 203), that the cerebrum takes no part at all in the first movements of the newly-born. In this respect the extremelyrare case of an acephalous child, living for some days, supplies the place of an experiment of vivisection. Unfortunately, the child died so early that I could not carry on further observations and experiments. The report of thepost-mortemexamination will be published by itself.
Every observer of young children knows the great variety in the rapidity of their development, and will agree with me in general that a slow and steady development of the cerebral functions in the first four years, but especially in the first two years, justifies a more favorable prognosis than does a very hasty and unsteady development; but when during that period of time there occurs a complete and prolonged interruption of the mental development, then the danger is always great that the normal course will not be resumed. So much the more instructive, therefore, are the cases in which the children after such a standstill have come back to the normal condition. Four observations of this kind have been published by R. Demme ("19. Bericht über das Jenner'sche Kinderspital in Bern, 1882," S. 31 bis 52). These are of so great interest in their bearing on psychogenesis, and they confirm in so striking a manner some of the propositions laid down by me in this book, that I should like to print them here word for word, especially as the original does not appear to have found a wide circulation; but that would make my book altogether too large. I confine myself, therefore, to this reference, with the request that further cases of partial or total interruption of mental development during the first year of life, with a later progress in it, may be collected and made public.
It is only in rare cases that microcephalous children can be observed, while living, for any considerable length of time continuously. In this respect a case described by Aeby is particularly instructive.
A microcephalous boy was born of healthy parents—he was their first child—about four weeks too soon. His whole body had something of stiffness and awkwardness. The legs were worse off in this respect than the arms; they showed, as they continued to show up to the time of his death, a tendency to become crossed. The boy was never able to stand or walk. He made attempts to seize striking objects, white or party-colored, but never learned actually to hold anything. The play of feature was animated. The dark eyes, shining and rapidly moving, never lingered long upon one and the same object. The child was much inclined to bite, and always bit very sharply. Mentally there was pronounced imbecility. In spite of his four years the boy never got so far as to produce any articulate sounds whatever. Even simple words like "papa" and "mamma" were beyond his ability. His desire for anything was expressed in inarticulate and not specially expressive tones. His sleep was short and light; he often lay whole nights through with open eyes. He seldom shed tears; his discomfort was manifested chiefly by shrill screaming. He died of pulmonary paralysis at the end of the fourth year.
The autopsy showed that the frontal lobes were surprisingly small, and that there was a partial deficiency of the median longitudinal fissure. The fissure did not begin till beyond the crown of the head, in the region of the occiput. The anterior half of the cerebrum consequently lacked the division into lateral hemispheres. It had few convolutions also, and the smoothness of its surface was at once obvious. Thecorpus callosumand thefornixwere undeveloped. "The gray cortical layer attained in general only about a third of the normal thickness, and was especially weakly represented in the frontal region." The cerebellum not being stunted, seemed, by the side of the greatly shrunken cerebrum, surprisingly large.
In this case the microcephalous of four years behaves, as far as the development of will is concerned, like the normal boy of four months. The latter is, in fact, superior to him inseizing, while the former in no way manifests any advantage in a psychical point of view.
Two cases of microcephaly have been described by Fletcher Beach (in the "Transactions of the International Medical Congress," London, 1881, iii, 615-626).
E. R. was, in May, 1875, received into his institution at the age of eleven years. She had at the time of her birth a small head, and had at no time manifested much intelligence. She could not stand or walk, but was able to move her arms and legs. Her sight and hearing were normal. She was quiet and obedient, and sat most of the time in her chair. She paid no attention to her bodily needs. She could not speak and had to be fed with a spoon. After six months she became a little more intelligent, made an attempt to speak, and muttered something indistinctly. She would stretch out her hand when told to give it, and she recognized with a smile her nurse and the physician. Some four months later she would grind her teeth when in a pleasant mood, and would act as if she were shy when spoken to, holding her hand before her eyes. She was fond of her nurse. Thus there was capacity of observation, there were attention, memory, affection, and some power of voluntary movement. She died in January, 1876. Her brain weighed, two days after her death, seven ounces. It is minutely described by the author—but after it had been preserved in alcohol for six years, and it then weighed only two ounces. The author found a number of convolutions not so far developed as in the fœtus of six months, according to Gratiolet, and he is of opinion that the cerebellum was further developed after the cerebrum had ceased to grow, so that there was not an arrest of the development but an irregularity. The cerebral hemispheres were asymmetrical, the frontal lobes, corresponding to the psychical performances in the case, being relatively pretty large, while the posterior portion of the third convolution on the left side, the island of Reil, and the operculum were very small, corresponding to the inability to learn to speak. The author connects the slight mobility with the smallness of the parietal and frontal ascending convolutions.The other case is that of a girl of six years (E. H.), who came to the institution in January, 1879, and died inJuly of the same year. She could walk about, and she had complete control of her limbs. She was cheerful, easy to be amused, and greatly attached to her nurse. She associated with other children, but could not speak a word. Her hearing was good, her habits bad. Although she could pick up objects and play with them, it did not occur to her to feed herself. She could take notice and observe, and could remember certain persons. Her brain weighed, two days after death, 20-1/2 ounces, and was, in many respects, as simple as that of an infant; but, in regard to the convolutions, it was far superior to the brain of a monkey—was superior also to that of E. R. The ascending frontal and parietal convolutions were larger, corresponding to the greater mobility. The third frontal convolution and the island of Reil were small on both sides, corresponding to the alalia. The author is of opinion that the ganglionic cells in this brain lacked processes, so that the intercentral connections did not attain development.
E. R. was, in May, 1875, received into his institution at the age of eleven years. She had at the time of her birth a small head, and had at no time manifested much intelligence. She could not stand or walk, but was able to move her arms and legs. Her sight and hearing were normal. She was quiet and obedient, and sat most of the time in her chair. She paid no attention to her bodily needs. She could not speak and had to be fed with a spoon. After six months she became a little more intelligent, made an attempt to speak, and muttered something indistinctly. She would stretch out her hand when told to give it, and she recognized with a smile her nurse and the physician. Some four months later she would grind her teeth when in a pleasant mood, and would act as if she were shy when spoken to, holding her hand before her eyes. She was fond of her nurse. Thus there was capacity of observation, there were attention, memory, affection, and some power of voluntary movement. She died in January, 1876. Her brain weighed, two days after her death, seven ounces. It is minutely described by the author—but after it had been preserved in alcohol for six years, and it then weighed only two ounces. The author found a number of convolutions not so far developed as in the fœtus of six months, according to Gratiolet, and he is of opinion that the cerebellum was further developed after the cerebrum had ceased to grow, so that there was not an arrest of the development but an irregularity. The cerebral hemispheres were asymmetrical, the frontal lobes, corresponding to the psychical performances in the case, being relatively pretty large, while the posterior portion of the third convolution on the left side, the island of Reil, and the operculum were very small, corresponding to the inability to learn to speak. The author connects the slight mobility with the smallness of the parietal and frontal ascending convolutions.
The other case is that of a girl of six years (E. H.), who came to the institution in January, 1879, and died inJuly of the same year. She could walk about, and she had complete control of her limbs. She was cheerful, easy to be amused, and greatly attached to her nurse. She associated with other children, but could not speak a word. Her hearing was good, her habits bad. Although she could pick up objects and play with them, it did not occur to her to feed herself. She could take notice and observe, and could remember certain persons. Her brain weighed, two days after death, 20-1/2 ounces, and was, in many respects, as simple as that of an infant; but, in regard to the convolutions, it was far superior to the brain of a monkey—was superior also to that of E. R. The ascending frontal and parietal convolutions were larger, corresponding to the greater mobility. The third frontal convolution and the island of Reil were small on both sides, corresponding to the alalia. The author is of opinion that the ganglionic cells in this brain lacked processes, so that the intercentral connections did not attain development.
A more accurate description of two brains of microcephali is given by Julius Sander in the "Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nerven-Krankheiten" (i, 299-307; Berlin, 1868), accompanied by good plates. One of these cases is that of which an account is given by Johannes Müller (in the "Medicinische Zeitung des Vereins für Heilkunde in Preussen," 1836, Nr. 2 und 3).
In the full and detailed treatises concerning microcephali by Karl Vogt ("Archiv für Anthropologie," ii, 2, 228) and Von Flesch ("Würzburger Festschrift," ii, 95, 1882) may be found further data in regard to more recent cases.
Many questions of physiological and psychological importance in respect to the capacity of development in cases of imperfectly developed brain are discussed in the "Zeitschrift für das Idioten-Wesen" by W. Schröter (Dresden) and E. Reichelt (Hubertusburg).
But thus far the methods of microscopical investigation of the brain are still so little developed that we can not yet with certainty establish a causal connection, in individual cases, between the deviations of microcephalic brains from the normal brain and the defects of the psychical functions. The number of brains of microcephali that have been examined with reference to this point is very small, although their scientific value, after thorough-going observation of the possessors of them during life, is immense. For microcephalous children of some years of age are a substitute for imaginary, because never practicable, vivisectory experiments, concerning the connection of body and mind.
To conclude these fragments, let me add here some observations concerning a case of rare interest, that of the microcephalous child, Margarethe Becker (born 1869), very well known in Germany. These observations I recorded on the 9th of July, 1877, in Jena, while the child was left free to do what she pleased.
The girl, eight years of age, born, according to the testimony of her father, with the frontal fontanelle (fonticulus anterior) closed and solid, had a smaller head than a child of one year. The notes follow the same order as that of the observations.
Time, 8.15 A. M.—The child yawns. She grasps with animation at some human skulls that she sees on a table near her, and directs her look to charts on the walls. She puts her fingers into her nostrils, brushes her apron with both hands, polishes my watch, which I have offered her and she has seized, holds it to one ear, then to one of her father's ears, draws her mouth into a smile, seems to be pleased by the ticking, holds the watch to her father's other ear, then to her own other ear, laughs, and repeats the experiment several times. Her head is very mobile.
The child now folds a bit of paper that I have given her, rolls it up awkwardly, wrinkling her forehead the while, chews up the paper and laughs aloud. Saliva flows from her mouth almost incessantly. Then the child begins to eat a biscuit, giving some of it, however, to her father and the attendant, putting her biscuit to their lips, and this with accuracy at once, whereas in the former case the watch was held at first near the ear, to the temple, and not till afterward to the ear itself.
The girl is very lively; she strikes about her in a lively manner with her hands, sees charts hanging high on the walls, points to them with her finger, throws her head back upon her neck to see them better, andmoves her fingers in the direction of the linesof the diagrams. At last weariness seems to come on. The child puts an arm around the neck of her father, sits on his lap, but is more and more restless.
8.50.—Quiet. To appearance, the child has fallen asleep.
8.55.—Awake again. The childseeswell,hearswell,smellswell; obeys some few commands, e. g., she gives her hand. But with this her intellectual accomplishments are exhausted. She does not utter a word.
Kollmann, who saw this microcephalous subject in September, 1877, writes, among other things, of her ("Correspondenzblatt der Deutschengesellschaft für Anthropologie," Nr. 11, S. 132):
"Her gait is tottering, the movements of the head and extremities jerky, not always co-ordinated, hence unsteady, inappropriate and spasmodic; her look is restless, objects are not definitely fixated. The normal functions of her mind are far inferior to those of a child of four years. The eight-year-old Margaret speaks only the wordMama; no other articulate sound has been learned by her. She makes known her need of food by plaints, by sounds ofweeping, and by distortion of countenance; she laughs when presented with something to eat or with toys. It is only within the last two years that she has become cleanly; since then her appetite has improved. Her nutrition has gained, in comparison with the first years of life, and with it her comprehension also; she helps her mother set the table, and brings plates and knives, when requested to do so, from the place where they are kept. Further, she shows a tender sympathy with her microcephalous brother; she takes bread from the table, goes to her brother's bedside and feeds him, as he is not of himself capable of putting food into his mouth. She shows a very manifest liking for her relatives and a fear of strangers. When taken into the parlor she gave the most decided evidences of fear; being placed upon the table she hid her head in her father's coat, and did not become quiet until her mother took her in her arms. This awakening of mental activity shows that, notwithstanding the extremely small quantity of brain-substance, there exists a certain degree of intellectual development with advancing years. With the fourth year, in the case of M., independent movements began; up to that time she lay, as her five-year-old brother still lies, immovable in body and limbs, with the exception of slight bendings and stretchings."
"Her gait is tottering, the movements of the head and extremities jerky, not always co-ordinated, hence unsteady, inappropriate and spasmodic; her look is restless, objects are not definitely fixated. The normal functions of her mind are far inferior to those of a child of four years. The eight-year-old Margaret speaks only the wordMama; no other articulate sound has been learned by her. She makes known her need of food by plaints, by sounds ofweeping, and by distortion of countenance; she laughs when presented with something to eat or with toys. It is only within the last two years that she has become cleanly; since then her appetite has improved. Her nutrition has gained, in comparison with the first years of life, and with it her comprehension also; she helps her mother set the table, and brings plates and knives, when requested to do so, from the place where they are kept. Further, she shows a tender sympathy with her microcephalous brother; she takes bread from the table, goes to her brother's bedside and feeds him, as he is not of himself capable of putting food into his mouth. She shows a very manifest liking for her relatives and a fear of strangers. When taken into the parlor she gave the most decided evidences of fear; being placed upon the table she hid her head in her father's coat, and did not become quiet until her mother took her in her arms. This awakening of mental activity shows that, notwithstanding the extremely small quantity of brain-substance, there exists a certain degree of intellectual development with advancing years. With the fourth year, in the case of M., independent movements began; up to that time she lay, as her five-year-old brother still lies, immovable in body and limbs, with the exception of slight bendings and stretchings."
Richard Pott, who (1879) likewise observed this microcephalous subject, found that she wandered about aimlessly, restlessly, and nimbly, from corner to corner [as if], groping and seeking; yet objects held before her were only momentarily fixated, scarcely holding her attention; often she did not once grasp at them. "The girl goes alone, without tottering or staggering, but her locomotive movements are absolutely without motive, having no end or aim, frequently changing their direction. Notwithstanding her size, the child gives the impression of the most extreme helplessness." She was fed, but was not indifferent as to food, seeming to prefer sour to sweet. She would come, indeed, when she was called, but seemednot to understand the words spoken to her; she spoke no word herself, but uttered shrill, inarticulate sounds; she felt shame when she was undressed, hiding her face in her sister's lap. The expression of her countenance was harmless, changeable, manifesting no definite psychical processes.
The statements contradictory to those of Kollmann are probably to be explained by the brevity of the observations.
Virchow ("Correspondenzblatt," S. 135), in his remarks upon this case, says: "I am convinced that every one who observes the microcephalic child will find that psychologically it has nothing whatever of the ape. All the positive faculties and qualities of the ape are wanting here; there is nothing of the psychology of the ape, but only the psychology of an imperfectly developed and deficient little child. Every characteristic is human; every single trait. I had the girl in my room a few months since, for hours together, and occupied myself with her; I never observed anything in her that reminds me even remotely of the psychological conditions of apes. She is a human being, in a low stage of development, but in no way deviating from the nature of humanity."
From these reports it is plain to be seen that for all mental development an hereditary physical growth of the cerebrum is indispensable. If the sensuous impressions experienced anew in each case by each human being, and the original movements, were sufficient without the development of the cerebral convolutions and of the gray cortex, then these microcephalous beings, upon whom the same impressions operated as upon other new-born children, must have had better brains and must have learned more. But the brain, notwithstanding the peripheral impressions received in seeing, hearing, and feeling, couldnot grow, and so the rudimentary human child could not learn anything, and could not even form the ideas requisite for articulate voluntary movement, or combine these ideas. Only the motor centers of lower rank could be developed.
In peculiar contrast with these cases of genuine microcephaly stands the exceedingly remarkable case, observed by Dr. Rudolf Krause (Hamburg), of a boy whose brain is not at all morbidly affected or abnormally small, but exhibits decidedly the type of the brain of the ape. The discoverer reported upon it to the Anthropological Society ("Correspondenzblatt a.a. O., S. 132-135) the following facts among others: