[Contents]CHAPTER XIXIVAN III SUBDUES NOVGORODOn January 22, 1440, Ivan III, son of Vassili the Blind, was born. This future solidifier of Russia passed his youth in the turmoil and terror of civil dissension, during which his father was imprisoned and blinded. When restored to power the sightless sovereign hastened to secure the inheritance to Ivan, making him his associate, with the title of Grand Prince. By the accounts given us, Ivan, while still a stripling, took active part in his father’s principality. He campaigned more than once against Mongols, at first under veteran commanders. At the age of nineteen, he repelled a Horde invasion, and won a victory of importance. On coming to the throne in 1462, at the age of twenty-two, he had had much experience both in civil and military labors. His great mental gifts and exceptional will power were felt soon by all who had to deal with him. Ivan was cold, imperious and calculating. He acted always on the lines sharply drawn by the history of Moscow, hence the policy of Russia in his time presented three vital problems: to consolidate Russia under Moscow; to struggle with the Mongols till Russia should be free of the humiliating yoke; to settle relations with Lithuania and Poland.In consolidating Russia, Ivan’s great achievement was the union of Novgorod, with all its immense lands, to Moscow. We have seen that Novgorod was declining, and that Vassili’s expedition in 1456 proved clearly that the end of the Commonwealth was imminent. Complaints that there was no justice, that the poor suffered from the rich; the hatred of the poor for those above them; factions; warring parties; want of zeal in those who governed; the decline of a warlike spirit; love of gain dominating all things; these taken together proclaimed the approaching downfall. But we must remember also that the ruling cause was still[455]the power of Moscow and the unavoidable and dominant necessity for Moscow to annex Novgorod.Moscow had reached such strength that Novgorod unassisted could not meet her. Hence there rose a large party in Novgorod which sought an alliance with Moscow’s main enemy, Kazimir IV, “the Grand Prince of Lithuania and Russia and King of Poland.” Kazimir’s Novgorod partisans hoped to find in him a preponderant protector and ally. But the king was a Catholic, and that turned many men from him. Especially opposed were the Russian clergy, and among them Iona the archbishop, who enjoyed the love and respect of the people. Hence only after Iona’s death in 1470 did the Kazimir party set to work with decision and openly. Nothing shows the decay of the Novgorod Commonwealth as does the absence of capable men at that period of peril. In that most dangerous time a woman appeared, who, by energy, ability and devotion to the city, towered above all her contemporaries. This woman was Martha, the wife of Isaac Boretski, a former posadnik. Boretski had left much wealth to his widow and his sons, Dmitri and Feodor. The elder of these sons had been posadnik. Martha, thinking to save the independence of Novgorod, sought to throw the city into the arms of Kazimir, King of Poland, thus betraying the cause of Russia, and of Orthodoxy. At her house on the bank of the Volkof, partisans of an alliance with Kazimir met to feast and discuss means of struggling against the power of Moscow. As soon as Iona had favored the men of this party by dying, they summoned a man whom we have mentioned already, namely, a great-grandson of Olgerd, Michael, son of Alexander, and brother of Simeon, the Kief prince. Michael came with his personal following. At this time the Kazimir party had, as candidate for archbishop, Pimen, the key-keeper of the recent archbishop Iona. Pimen, having had charge of the treasury of the Sophia Cathedral, had taken church money in the time of Iona and had given it to Martha, for the purchase of partisans. Martha’s adherents, determined on breaking with Moscow, wished that Iona’s successor should be ordained, not by Philip, metropolitan of Moscow, but by Gregory of Kief, a pupil of Isidor, erstwhile metropolitan of Moscow, a man who was looked on as recreant by the Orthodox. Pimen was willing, but his partisans met failure, and could only make him one of three candidates. Not on Pimen did the choice[456]fall, but on Feofil. When dispute rose as to who should ordain him, the choice went to Moscow, and an envoy was sent to the Grand Prince to secure a safe-conduct for Feofil. Thus the Boretski party was defeated.Meanwhile various disputes rose with Moscow. Novgorod men began openly to break the last treaty. Ivan was thinking of annexation to quell the unruly, and called on Pskoff to prepare to advance unless the Novgorod people would correct themselves. He received the Novgorod envoy with favor, and gave a safe-conduct to Feofil.The Boretskis began now to kindle dissensions between the boyars and the people, to rouse men through bribery, drink and persuasion of all kinds. Especially useful was the report that Ivan was inciting Pskoff against Novgorod. The bells were sounded, and a mob gathered speedily: “We will not have the Grand Prince of Moscow,” cried the people, “We will have Kazimir!” The Moscow party, which was composed mainly of medium and well-to-do people, declared that it was impossible for Orthodox men to join a king who was a Catholic. From shouts the affair went to blows. The boyar youth and the mob stoned their opponents and frightened enough of them to secure a majority at the Assembly. Thus the Boretski party determined in assembly to recognize the Polish king as Prince of Novgorod, and they sent him an embassy at the head of which were two former posadniks, Dmitri Boretski, and Afanasi Astafievitch. This embassy concluded a treaty with Kazimir on almost the same basis as previous treaties with Moscow, adding only one article, namely: “The king’s representative must be an Orthodox Christian, and never a Catholic. He must not have more than fifty attendants in Novgorod.”When Ivan of Moscow heard of this treaty, he acted with calculation and prudence. Before he undertook a campaign he sent envoys repeatedly to Novgorod. With them he sent letters, in which he said that Novgorod had formerly supported Saint Vladimir’s descendants, and never Lithuanian princes. He invited them to change their plans now, and promised them favor. At the same time the metropolitan Philip wrote epistles to the Novgorod people. He counseled them not to betray their religion, not to go over to the Latins. He pointed to the example of the Byzantine Empire,[457]which remained strong while it clung to its religion, but fell under Turks when it turned to the Latins. He wrote also to the clergy, boyars and merchants, beseeching them to stand firmly for the Orthodox faith, and restrain men from all evil courses.Thus Moscow touched the most sensitive chord in the Russians, and for the first time gave that alliance of Novgorod with Kazimir the aspect of treason. These remonstrances influenced a great many people. The Boretskis, however, were more active and determined than most men, and outshouting all others, they declared: “We are not an inheritance of Moscow! We are free! We are for the king!”War was now unavoidable. Great disasters, according to popular belief, are preceded by wonders. The fall of Novgorod had also its admonishing marvels: A storm broke the cross on St. Sophia. Blood appeared on the graves of two archbishops whom the people had loved. In the Hutin monastery a bell sounded, though no man rang it. In the church of Yevfimia tears dropped from the eyes of an image of the Virgin. A holy hermit went to Novgorod to a feast at the mansion of Martha; all at once, while sitting at the table, he became terrified. At the moment he did not speak of it, but afterward he explained to an anchoret that among the boyars present he had seen some who appeared to be headless, and he mentioned their names. Later the heads of those same boyars were cut off in the struggle with the Grand Prince.Ivan, calculating every step carefully, acted with decision and with unbending resolve against Novgorod. At first he took counsel with his mother, the metropolitan Philip, and intimate boyars. They advised him to trust in God firmly, to advance against Novgorod and punish it for its treason. After this small, or preliminary council, he summoned a great one, at which appeared his brothers, the bishops of Russia, the subordinate princes, boyars, voevodas, and nobles. Explaining to them the disobedience and treason of Novgorod, he asked: “Shall I march against the place straightway?”Summer was coming, and the Novgorod country abounded in rivers, lakes, swamps and morasses; former Grand Princes rarely made the march during summer, but the great council, like the small one, decided to confide in the Lord and the Holy Virgin, and[458]march with all promptness, making a holy war against the allies of the Pope and the Poles.On this, as on every occasion, appeared the old rivalry of Novgorod and Suzdal, and the perfect sympathy of Moscow with the consolidation of Russia, under the leadership of its Grand Prince. To this was now added great indignation at Novgorod, for deserting its Orthodox connections. Resting on this sympathy, which even rose to enthusiasm, Ivan sent general commands to move against the city. Notice was given to Novgorod, and troops were requested of Tver and Pskoff. Ivan ordered the campaign as follows: He despatched the boyar, Boris Slaipets, to Vyatka, to attack the Dvina region with warriors from Vyatka. Vassili Obrazets, the Ustyug voevoda, was to join him. To Novgorod, Ivan sent two divisions, one under Holmski with orders to march against Russa and then, joining Pskoff forces, to attack Novgorod’s western boundary; another, under StrigaObolenski, was to attack on the east side. The Grand Prince himself, after giving large alms and praying at the grave of his father, received a blessing from the metropolitan, and on June 20 marched out of Moscow with the main army. With him went Stephen Vorobati, a man deeply read in Russian chronicles, who could remind Novgorod of all its former treaties.Ivan left Moscow to the care of two of his brothers, and took three with him. At Torjok the Tver forces joined him.Nature itself seemed to favor the expedition. The summer was unaccountably dry; every soft place had become passable. Warriors and wagons moved over ground on which ordinarily no one could go at that season of the year.How did Novgorod meet these men moving from three sides? All hope in Kazimir was illusive. Drawn off by other questions, the king took no part whatever in the war between Novgorod and Moscow. Prince Michael, the son of Alexander, who might have helped, received news of the death of his brother, and left immediately, taking his troops with him. He passed through the country like an enemy, extorting taxes with violence, and robbing towns till he touched the boundary.There was in Novgorod another man hostile to Moscow, Prince Shuiski, a descendant of those Suzdal princes who had lost their lands somewhat earlier. Shuiski was despatched to the Dvina.[459]The envoys seeking Pskoff aid received nothing; for the Pskoff men had already yielded to Moscow’s demands, and sent troops to act against Novgorod. Obliged to depend upon their own strength and resources, the Novgorod men did not falter. They equipped a considerable army, and noting Ivan’s blunder in strategy, took advantage of it. His troops, though numerous, were scattered, and were advancing along various roads, without much precaution. The city thought to defeat them in detail by acting with swiftness, and by concentrating forces.The Novgorod troops marched at once against Holmski, who had taken and burned Russa, and was advancing slowly, while waiting for Pskoff men. Their plan was to crush Holmski before he could be reinforced by the Pskoff army, and then to rout the latter. Meanwhile, the Novgorod horse were moving along the west bank of Lake Ilmen. A part of the warriors had debarked on its southern border, near Korostyno, but the Moscow guard noted this movement quickly, and despatched couriers to Holmski, who struck on the Novgorod foot at once. They fought bravely, but were scattered, because the horsemen, though near, could not help them. The troops sent by the archbishop excused themselves, saying: “We were sent against Pskoff, and not to fight Moscow.” The victors learned also that Novgorod forces, embarked at the mouth of the Pola, were sailing toward Russa, so the Moscow men turned to this town and dispersed the warriors who landed there, thus baffling Novgorod’s plan against Holmski. The Novgorod infantry was scattered and crushed, but the cavalry was uninjured and numerous, forty thousand in all, as reckoned by Moscow, while Holmski’s division was less than one fourth of that number.The Moscow voevodas laid siege to Deman, the town nearest Russa, not wishing to leave it behind them. But the Grand Prince, on hearing of victory, sent them to Sheloni, where they joined Pskoff men; and to Deman he sent Prince Vereiski. At Sheloni Prince Holmski found the Novgorod horse on the opposite bank of the river. They intended apparently to fall on the Pskoff men, who had at last entered Novgorod regions, and were plundering and taking everything before them.Seeing the preponderance on their side, the Novgorod men, keeping up the old custom, began to boast of their strength, and[460]ridicule their opponents. The sight of this well-armed and active body confused the Moscow troops somewhat, but only for a moment. They had made many campaigns, and were under trained leaders, while the defenders of the city were potters, carpenters and tanners, who had hurried to arms quickly under threat of losing their houses, or being drowned in the river. If they were trained it was only in boxing, or fighting with bludgeons, not in handling sharp weapons and horses. Obedience and concord were wholly unknown to them, and they had no experienced leaders.When the Moscow voevodas reached the ford, they cried to those under them, “Brothers, it is better for us to lay down our lives with honor than to go back defeated.” With these words they urged their horses down the steep bank, and were the first to plunge into the river. After them rushed the whole army, wading and swimming to the opposite side, and with shouts of “Moscow! Moscow!” they hurled themselves against the enemy.The city men, answering with “Holy Sophia!” “Great Novgorod!” rushed to the onset. The Moscow troops had a difficult task before them, but the attackers showed judgment; they struck mainly the horses. Thus, though the Novgorod men struggled desperately, the men of Moscow were overcoming them, for the rearing and plunging of their wounded beasts caused dreadful confusion in the ranks. Then a division attacked their rear, and this gave a decisive victory to Moscow.A large number of Novgorod men fell or were captured; the remainder rushed wildly through forests or galloped home to the city. Among the captives were many boyars and some former posadniks; with these men were the sons of Martha Boretski.The treaty between King Kazimir and Novgorod was found in the deserted camp and sent to the Grand Prince, together with news of the triumph. The Moscow camp was filled with delight and rejoicing. Ivan moved now to Russa, and there the captives were brought to receive judgment. The prisoners of importance he met with stern severity. Of those who would have given Novgorod to Kazimir four were beheaded: Dmitri Boretski, Vassili Selezneff, Yeremi Suhoscheka, and Cyprian Arbuzieff. Other notable persons, among them Vassili Kazimir and Matthew Selezen, were removed to Kolomna and kept there in irons; still[461]others he sentenced to imprisonment in Moscow; unimportant people were dismissed to their families.From Russa, Ivan moved toward the mouth of the Sheloni. Meanwhile Holmski conquered all the west to the German boundary.Moscow troops were now approaching Novgorod from various directions, to force the people to open the gates to them. Chaos reigned in the city. There was heard on all sides the wail of widows and orphans mourning for the men who had perished. The Boretskis, however, encouraged the people, and roused them to desperate effort. On the walls and the towers guards were changed frequently, both night and day. The defenders burned monasteries and houses near the city. A courier was sent to King Kazimir, imploring his immediate assistance. But the courier came back soon. The Livonian Grand Master had barred the way to him. Meanwhile a certain Upadysh had spiked guns on the walls of the city and straightway had suffered death for treason. Great numbers of people had come from the country to Novgorod; and now disease appeared. Communication with the world was interrupted, and hunger was approaching. To complete the disaster, evil news came from Dvina regions: The voevodas of Moscow had scattered the Novgorod army; Prince Shuiski, its leader, was wounded severely; the inhabitants had taken the oath to the Grand Prince.The Novgorod adherents of peace and alliance with Moscow attacked the opponents for listening to women and destroying the Commonwealth. The Assembly sent envoys to Ivan. From the five ends of the city went five notable persons, and five ex-posadniks. At the head of those ten was the archbishop. The envoys sailed over the Ilmen to Korostyno, but were not admitted at once to an audience. When the Grand Prince saw them, the archbishop asked him to give pardon to Novgorod, and not take its territory.Ivan listened kindly, and agreed to stop bloodshed. The question of peace he committed to boyars. August 9 and 11, 1471, papers were signed by which Ivan seemed to acknowledge the old-time conditions, and almost repeat the peace clauses framed by Vassili, his father. To these was added only the bond not to join Lithuania deceitfully and to have the archbishop ordained[462]always in Moscow, at the tomb of the first metropolitan, Peter. The Grand Prince returned the towns won from the city and its districts. Novgorod agreed to pay an indemnity of fifteen thousand five hundred rubles. Ivan’s voevoda was to take the oath from all Novgorod to observe this new treaty. After the oath had been given, Ivan went to Moscow.Thus the Grand Prince conquered Novgorod, sparing it this first time, and seeming not to entirely deprive it of independence. With his usual caution, he did not bring men to despair; he left his final blow for another day. A wise man might have foreseen easily that such a day was inevitable, and in the near future. Ivan had the strength to wait for it.How pleasing and how popular the victory was in Moscow was shown by the welcome which that city gave the Grand Prince at his coming. People in thousands went a number of versts from the city to greet him. The metropolitan and the clergy met him with banners and crosses. His son and attendants were waiting one day’s journey from the city.While men of Moscow were rejoicing in this way, an evil fate seemed to frown upon Novgorod. After all the reverses and plunders a new misfortune came to that place. Among people from outside who had fled to the city were families from Russa. After peace was made, they took boats and were sailing homeward by Lake Ilmen when a dreadful tempest rose and drowned nearly all of them. It is said that seven thousand died in the water. In Novgorod itself there were fires which raged with great havoc.[463]
[Contents]CHAPTER XIXIVAN III SUBDUES NOVGORODOn January 22, 1440, Ivan III, son of Vassili the Blind, was born. This future solidifier of Russia passed his youth in the turmoil and terror of civil dissension, during which his father was imprisoned and blinded. When restored to power the sightless sovereign hastened to secure the inheritance to Ivan, making him his associate, with the title of Grand Prince. By the accounts given us, Ivan, while still a stripling, took active part in his father’s principality. He campaigned more than once against Mongols, at first under veteran commanders. At the age of nineteen, he repelled a Horde invasion, and won a victory of importance. On coming to the throne in 1462, at the age of twenty-two, he had had much experience both in civil and military labors. His great mental gifts and exceptional will power were felt soon by all who had to deal with him. Ivan was cold, imperious and calculating. He acted always on the lines sharply drawn by the history of Moscow, hence the policy of Russia in his time presented three vital problems: to consolidate Russia under Moscow; to struggle with the Mongols till Russia should be free of the humiliating yoke; to settle relations with Lithuania and Poland.In consolidating Russia, Ivan’s great achievement was the union of Novgorod, with all its immense lands, to Moscow. We have seen that Novgorod was declining, and that Vassili’s expedition in 1456 proved clearly that the end of the Commonwealth was imminent. Complaints that there was no justice, that the poor suffered from the rich; the hatred of the poor for those above them; factions; warring parties; want of zeal in those who governed; the decline of a warlike spirit; love of gain dominating all things; these taken together proclaimed the approaching downfall. But we must remember also that the ruling cause was still[455]the power of Moscow and the unavoidable and dominant necessity for Moscow to annex Novgorod.Moscow had reached such strength that Novgorod unassisted could not meet her. Hence there rose a large party in Novgorod which sought an alliance with Moscow’s main enemy, Kazimir IV, “the Grand Prince of Lithuania and Russia and King of Poland.” Kazimir’s Novgorod partisans hoped to find in him a preponderant protector and ally. But the king was a Catholic, and that turned many men from him. Especially opposed were the Russian clergy, and among them Iona the archbishop, who enjoyed the love and respect of the people. Hence only after Iona’s death in 1470 did the Kazimir party set to work with decision and openly. Nothing shows the decay of the Novgorod Commonwealth as does the absence of capable men at that period of peril. In that most dangerous time a woman appeared, who, by energy, ability and devotion to the city, towered above all her contemporaries. This woman was Martha, the wife of Isaac Boretski, a former posadnik. Boretski had left much wealth to his widow and his sons, Dmitri and Feodor. The elder of these sons had been posadnik. Martha, thinking to save the independence of Novgorod, sought to throw the city into the arms of Kazimir, King of Poland, thus betraying the cause of Russia, and of Orthodoxy. At her house on the bank of the Volkof, partisans of an alliance with Kazimir met to feast and discuss means of struggling against the power of Moscow. As soon as Iona had favored the men of this party by dying, they summoned a man whom we have mentioned already, namely, a great-grandson of Olgerd, Michael, son of Alexander, and brother of Simeon, the Kief prince. Michael came with his personal following. At this time the Kazimir party had, as candidate for archbishop, Pimen, the key-keeper of the recent archbishop Iona. Pimen, having had charge of the treasury of the Sophia Cathedral, had taken church money in the time of Iona and had given it to Martha, for the purchase of partisans. Martha’s adherents, determined on breaking with Moscow, wished that Iona’s successor should be ordained, not by Philip, metropolitan of Moscow, but by Gregory of Kief, a pupil of Isidor, erstwhile metropolitan of Moscow, a man who was looked on as recreant by the Orthodox. Pimen was willing, but his partisans met failure, and could only make him one of three candidates. Not on Pimen did the choice[456]fall, but on Feofil. When dispute rose as to who should ordain him, the choice went to Moscow, and an envoy was sent to the Grand Prince to secure a safe-conduct for Feofil. Thus the Boretski party was defeated.Meanwhile various disputes rose with Moscow. Novgorod men began openly to break the last treaty. Ivan was thinking of annexation to quell the unruly, and called on Pskoff to prepare to advance unless the Novgorod people would correct themselves. He received the Novgorod envoy with favor, and gave a safe-conduct to Feofil.The Boretskis began now to kindle dissensions between the boyars and the people, to rouse men through bribery, drink and persuasion of all kinds. Especially useful was the report that Ivan was inciting Pskoff against Novgorod. The bells were sounded, and a mob gathered speedily: “We will not have the Grand Prince of Moscow,” cried the people, “We will have Kazimir!” The Moscow party, which was composed mainly of medium and well-to-do people, declared that it was impossible for Orthodox men to join a king who was a Catholic. From shouts the affair went to blows. The boyar youth and the mob stoned their opponents and frightened enough of them to secure a majority at the Assembly. Thus the Boretski party determined in assembly to recognize the Polish king as Prince of Novgorod, and they sent him an embassy at the head of which were two former posadniks, Dmitri Boretski, and Afanasi Astafievitch. This embassy concluded a treaty with Kazimir on almost the same basis as previous treaties with Moscow, adding only one article, namely: “The king’s representative must be an Orthodox Christian, and never a Catholic. He must not have more than fifty attendants in Novgorod.”When Ivan of Moscow heard of this treaty, he acted with calculation and prudence. Before he undertook a campaign he sent envoys repeatedly to Novgorod. With them he sent letters, in which he said that Novgorod had formerly supported Saint Vladimir’s descendants, and never Lithuanian princes. He invited them to change their plans now, and promised them favor. At the same time the metropolitan Philip wrote epistles to the Novgorod people. He counseled them not to betray their religion, not to go over to the Latins. He pointed to the example of the Byzantine Empire,[457]which remained strong while it clung to its religion, but fell under Turks when it turned to the Latins. He wrote also to the clergy, boyars and merchants, beseeching them to stand firmly for the Orthodox faith, and restrain men from all evil courses.Thus Moscow touched the most sensitive chord in the Russians, and for the first time gave that alliance of Novgorod with Kazimir the aspect of treason. These remonstrances influenced a great many people. The Boretskis, however, were more active and determined than most men, and outshouting all others, they declared: “We are not an inheritance of Moscow! We are free! We are for the king!”War was now unavoidable. Great disasters, according to popular belief, are preceded by wonders. The fall of Novgorod had also its admonishing marvels: A storm broke the cross on St. Sophia. Blood appeared on the graves of two archbishops whom the people had loved. In the Hutin monastery a bell sounded, though no man rang it. In the church of Yevfimia tears dropped from the eyes of an image of the Virgin. A holy hermit went to Novgorod to a feast at the mansion of Martha; all at once, while sitting at the table, he became terrified. At the moment he did not speak of it, but afterward he explained to an anchoret that among the boyars present he had seen some who appeared to be headless, and he mentioned their names. Later the heads of those same boyars were cut off in the struggle with the Grand Prince.Ivan, calculating every step carefully, acted with decision and with unbending resolve against Novgorod. At first he took counsel with his mother, the metropolitan Philip, and intimate boyars. They advised him to trust in God firmly, to advance against Novgorod and punish it for its treason. After this small, or preliminary council, he summoned a great one, at which appeared his brothers, the bishops of Russia, the subordinate princes, boyars, voevodas, and nobles. Explaining to them the disobedience and treason of Novgorod, he asked: “Shall I march against the place straightway?”Summer was coming, and the Novgorod country abounded in rivers, lakes, swamps and morasses; former Grand Princes rarely made the march during summer, but the great council, like the small one, decided to confide in the Lord and the Holy Virgin, and[458]march with all promptness, making a holy war against the allies of the Pope and the Poles.On this, as on every occasion, appeared the old rivalry of Novgorod and Suzdal, and the perfect sympathy of Moscow with the consolidation of Russia, under the leadership of its Grand Prince. To this was now added great indignation at Novgorod, for deserting its Orthodox connections. Resting on this sympathy, which even rose to enthusiasm, Ivan sent general commands to move against the city. Notice was given to Novgorod, and troops were requested of Tver and Pskoff. Ivan ordered the campaign as follows: He despatched the boyar, Boris Slaipets, to Vyatka, to attack the Dvina region with warriors from Vyatka. Vassili Obrazets, the Ustyug voevoda, was to join him. To Novgorod, Ivan sent two divisions, one under Holmski with orders to march against Russa and then, joining Pskoff forces, to attack Novgorod’s western boundary; another, under StrigaObolenski, was to attack on the east side. The Grand Prince himself, after giving large alms and praying at the grave of his father, received a blessing from the metropolitan, and on June 20 marched out of Moscow with the main army. With him went Stephen Vorobati, a man deeply read in Russian chronicles, who could remind Novgorod of all its former treaties.Ivan left Moscow to the care of two of his brothers, and took three with him. At Torjok the Tver forces joined him.Nature itself seemed to favor the expedition. The summer was unaccountably dry; every soft place had become passable. Warriors and wagons moved over ground on which ordinarily no one could go at that season of the year.How did Novgorod meet these men moving from three sides? All hope in Kazimir was illusive. Drawn off by other questions, the king took no part whatever in the war between Novgorod and Moscow. Prince Michael, the son of Alexander, who might have helped, received news of the death of his brother, and left immediately, taking his troops with him. He passed through the country like an enemy, extorting taxes with violence, and robbing towns till he touched the boundary.There was in Novgorod another man hostile to Moscow, Prince Shuiski, a descendant of those Suzdal princes who had lost their lands somewhat earlier. Shuiski was despatched to the Dvina.[459]The envoys seeking Pskoff aid received nothing; for the Pskoff men had already yielded to Moscow’s demands, and sent troops to act against Novgorod. Obliged to depend upon their own strength and resources, the Novgorod men did not falter. They equipped a considerable army, and noting Ivan’s blunder in strategy, took advantage of it. His troops, though numerous, were scattered, and were advancing along various roads, without much precaution. The city thought to defeat them in detail by acting with swiftness, and by concentrating forces.The Novgorod troops marched at once against Holmski, who had taken and burned Russa, and was advancing slowly, while waiting for Pskoff men. Their plan was to crush Holmski before he could be reinforced by the Pskoff army, and then to rout the latter. Meanwhile, the Novgorod horse were moving along the west bank of Lake Ilmen. A part of the warriors had debarked on its southern border, near Korostyno, but the Moscow guard noted this movement quickly, and despatched couriers to Holmski, who struck on the Novgorod foot at once. They fought bravely, but were scattered, because the horsemen, though near, could not help them. The troops sent by the archbishop excused themselves, saying: “We were sent against Pskoff, and not to fight Moscow.” The victors learned also that Novgorod forces, embarked at the mouth of the Pola, were sailing toward Russa, so the Moscow men turned to this town and dispersed the warriors who landed there, thus baffling Novgorod’s plan against Holmski. The Novgorod infantry was scattered and crushed, but the cavalry was uninjured and numerous, forty thousand in all, as reckoned by Moscow, while Holmski’s division was less than one fourth of that number.The Moscow voevodas laid siege to Deman, the town nearest Russa, not wishing to leave it behind them. But the Grand Prince, on hearing of victory, sent them to Sheloni, where they joined Pskoff men; and to Deman he sent Prince Vereiski. At Sheloni Prince Holmski found the Novgorod horse on the opposite bank of the river. They intended apparently to fall on the Pskoff men, who had at last entered Novgorod regions, and were plundering and taking everything before them.Seeing the preponderance on their side, the Novgorod men, keeping up the old custom, began to boast of their strength, and[460]ridicule their opponents. The sight of this well-armed and active body confused the Moscow troops somewhat, but only for a moment. They had made many campaigns, and were under trained leaders, while the defenders of the city were potters, carpenters and tanners, who had hurried to arms quickly under threat of losing their houses, or being drowned in the river. If they were trained it was only in boxing, or fighting with bludgeons, not in handling sharp weapons and horses. Obedience and concord were wholly unknown to them, and they had no experienced leaders.When the Moscow voevodas reached the ford, they cried to those under them, “Brothers, it is better for us to lay down our lives with honor than to go back defeated.” With these words they urged their horses down the steep bank, and were the first to plunge into the river. After them rushed the whole army, wading and swimming to the opposite side, and with shouts of “Moscow! Moscow!” they hurled themselves against the enemy.The city men, answering with “Holy Sophia!” “Great Novgorod!” rushed to the onset. The Moscow troops had a difficult task before them, but the attackers showed judgment; they struck mainly the horses. Thus, though the Novgorod men struggled desperately, the men of Moscow were overcoming them, for the rearing and plunging of their wounded beasts caused dreadful confusion in the ranks. Then a division attacked their rear, and this gave a decisive victory to Moscow.A large number of Novgorod men fell or were captured; the remainder rushed wildly through forests or galloped home to the city. Among the captives were many boyars and some former posadniks; with these men were the sons of Martha Boretski.The treaty between King Kazimir and Novgorod was found in the deserted camp and sent to the Grand Prince, together with news of the triumph. The Moscow camp was filled with delight and rejoicing. Ivan moved now to Russa, and there the captives were brought to receive judgment. The prisoners of importance he met with stern severity. Of those who would have given Novgorod to Kazimir four were beheaded: Dmitri Boretski, Vassili Selezneff, Yeremi Suhoscheka, and Cyprian Arbuzieff. Other notable persons, among them Vassili Kazimir and Matthew Selezen, were removed to Kolomna and kept there in irons; still[461]others he sentenced to imprisonment in Moscow; unimportant people were dismissed to their families.From Russa, Ivan moved toward the mouth of the Sheloni. Meanwhile Holmski conquered all the west to the German boundary.Moscow troops were now approaching Novgorod from various directions, to force the people to open the gates to them. Chaos reigned in the city. There was heard on all sides the wail of widows and orphans mourning for the men who had perished. The Boretskis, however, encouraged the people, and roused them to desperate effort. On the walls and the towers guards were changed frequently, both night and day. The defenders burned monasteries and houses near the city. A courier was sent to King Kazimir, imploring his immediate assistance. But the courier came back soon. The Livonian Grand Master had barred the way to him. Meanwhile a certain Upadysh had spiked guns on the walls of the city and straightway had suffered death for treason. Great numbers of people had come from the country to Novgorod; and now disease appeared. Communication with the world was interrupted, and hunger was approaching. To complete the disaster, evil news came from Dvina regions: The voevodas of Moscow had scattered the Novgorod army; Prince Shuiski, its leader, was wounded severely; the inhabitants had taken the oath to the Grand Prince.The Novgorod adherents of peace and alliance with Moscow attacked the opponents for listening to women and destroying the Commonwealth. The Assembly sent envoys to Ivan. From the five ends of the city went five notable persons, and five ex-posadniks. At the head of those ten was the archbishop. The envoys sailed over the Ilmen to Korostyno, but were not admitted at once to an audience. When the Grand Prince saw them, the archbishop asked him to give pardon to Novgorod, and not take its territory.Ivan listened kindly, and agreed to stop bloodshed. The question of peace he committed to boyars. August 9 and 11, 1471, papers were signed by which Ivan seemed to acknowledge the old-time conditions, and almost repeat the peace clauses framed by Vassili, his father. To these was added only the bond not to join Lithuania deceitfully and to have the archbishop ordained[462]always in Moscow, at the tomb of the first metropolitan, Peter. The Grand Prince returned the towns won from the city and its districts. Novgorod agreed to pay an indemnity of fifteen thousand five hundred rubles. Ivan’s voevoda was to take the oath from all Novgorod to observe this new treaty. After the oath had been given, Ivan went to Moscow.Thus the Grand Prince conquered Novgorod, sparing it this first time, and seeming not to entirely deprive it of independence. With his usual caution, he did not bring men to despair; he left his final blow for another day. A wise man might have foreseen easily that such a day was inevitable, and in the near future. Ivan had the strength to wait for it.How pleasing and how popular the victory was in Moscow was shown by the welcome which that city gave the Grand Prince at his coming. People in thousands went a number of versts from the city to greet him. The metropolitan and the clergy met him with banners and crosses. His son and attendants were waiting one day’s journey from the city.While men of Moscow were rejoicing in this way, an evil fate seemed to frown upon Novgorod. After all the reverses and plunders a new misfortune came to that place. Among people from outside who had fled to the city were families from Russa. After peace was made, they took boats and were sailing homeward by Lake Ilmen when a dreadful tempest rose and drowned nearly all of them. It is said that seven thousand died in the water. In Novgorod itself there were fires which raged with great havoc.[463]
CHAPTER XIXIVAN III SUBDUES NOVGOROD
On January 22, 1440, Ivan III, son of Vassili the Blind, was born. This future solidifier of Russia passed his youth in the turmoil and terror of civil dissension, during which his father was imprisoned and blinded. When restored to power the sightless sovereign hastened to secure the inheritance to Ivan, making him his associate, with the title of Grand Prince. By the accounts given us, Ivan, while still a stripling, took active part in his father’s principality. He campaigned more than once against Mongols, at first under veteran commanders. At the age of nineteen, he repelled a Horde invasion, and won a victory of importance. On coming to the throne in 1462, at the age of twenty-two, he had had much experience both in civil and military labors. His great mental gifts and exceptional will power were felt soon by all who had to deal with him. Ivan was cold, imperious and calculating. He acted always on the lines sharply drawn by the history of Moscow, hence the policy of Russia in his time presented three vital problems: to consolidate Russia under Moscow; to struggle with the Mongols till Russia should be free of the humiliating yoke; to settle relations with Lithuania and Poland.In consolidating Russia, Ivan’s great achievement was the union of Novgorod, with all its immense lands, to Moscow. We have seen that Novgorod was declining, and that Vassili’s expedition in 1456 proved clearly that the end of the Commonwealth was imminent. Complaints that there was no justice, that the poor suffered from the rich; the hatred of the poor for those above them; factions; warring parties; want of zeal in those who governed; the decline of a warlike spirit; love of gain dominating all things; these taken together proclaimed the approaching downfall. But we must remember also that the ruling cause was still[455]the power of Moscow and the unavoidable and dominant necessity for Moscow to annex Novgorod.Moscow had reached such strength that Novgorod unassisted could not meet her. Hence there rose a large party in Novgorod which sought an alliance with Moscow’s main enemy, Kazimir IV, “the Grand Prince of Lithuania and Russia and King of Poland.” Kazimir’s Novgorod partisans hoped to find in him a preponderant protector and ally. But the king was a Catholic, and that turned many men from him. Especially opposed were the Russian clergy, and among them Iona the archbishop, who enjoyed the love and respect of the people. Hence only after Iona’s death in 1470 did the Kazimir party set to work with decision and openly. Nothing shows the decay of the Novgorod Commonwealth as does the absence of capable men at that period of peril. In that most dangerous time a woman appeared, who, by energy, ability and devotion to the city, towered above all her contemporaries. This woman was Martha, the wife of Isaac Boretski, a former posadnik. Boretski had left much wealth to his widow and his sons, Dmitri and Feodor. The elder of these sons had been posadnik. Martha, thinking to save the independence of Novgorod, sought to throw the city into the arms of Kazimir, King of Poland, thus betraying the cause of Russia, and of Orthodoxy. At her house on the bank of the Volkof, partisans of an alliance with Kazimir met to feast and discuss means of struggling against the power of Moscow. As soon as Iona had favored the men of this party by dying, they summoned a man whom we have mentioned already, namely, a great-grandson of Olgerd, Michael, son of Alexander, and brother of Simeon, the Kief prince. Michael came with his personal following. At this time the Kazimir party had, as candidate for archbishop, Pimen, the key-keeper of the recent archbishop Iona. Pimen, having had charge of the treasury of the Sophia Cathedral, had taken church money in the time of Iona and had given it to Martha, for the purchase of partisans. Martha’s adherents, determined on breaking with Moscow, wished that Iona’s successor should be ordained, not by Philip, metropolitan of Moscow, but by Gregory of Kief, a pupil of Isidor, erstwhile metropolitan of Moscow, a man who was looked on as recreant by the Orthodox. Pimen was willing, but his partisans met failure, and could only make him one of three candidates. Not on Pimen did the choice[456]fall, but on Feofil. When dispute rose as to who should ordain him, the choice went to Moscow, and an envoy was sent to the Grand Prince to secure a safe-conduct for Feofil. Thus the Boretski party was defeated.Meanwhile various disputes rose with Moscow. Novgorod men began openly to break the last treaty. Ivan was thinking of annexation to quell the unruly, and called on Pskoff to prepare to advance unless the Novgorod people would correct themselves. He received the Novgorod envoy with favor, and gave a safe-conduct to Feofil.The Boretskis began now to kindle dissensions between the boyars and the people, to rouse men through bribery, drink and persuasion of all kinds. Especially useful was the report that Ivan was inciting Pskoff against Novgorod. The bells were sounded, and a mob gathered speedily: “We will not have the Grand Prince of Moscow,” cried the people, “We will have Kazimir!” The Moscow party, which was composed mainly of medium and well-to-do people, declared that it was impossible for Orthodox men to join a king who was a Catholic. From shouts the affair went to blows. The boyar youth and the mob stoned their opponents and frightened enough of them to secure a majority at the Assembly. Thus the Boretski party determined in assembly to recognize the Polish king as Prince of Novgorod, and they sent him an embassy at the head of which were two former posadniks, Dmitri Boretski, and Afanasi Astafievitch. This embassy concluded a treaty with Kazimir on almost the same basis as previous treaties with Moscow, adding only one article, namely: “The king’s representative must be an Orthodox Christian, and never a Catholic. He must not have more than fifty attendants in Novgorod.”When Ivan of Moscow heard of this treaty, he acted with calculation and prudence. Before he undertook a campaign he sent envoys repeatedly to Novgorod. With them he sent letters, in which he said that Novgorod had formerly supported Saint Vladimir’s descendants, and never Lithuanian princes. He invited them to change their plans now, and promised them favor. At the same time the metropolitan Philip wrote epistles to the Novgorod people. He counseled them not to betray their religion, not to go over to the Latins. He pointed to the example of the Byzantine Empire,[457]which remained strong while it clung to its religion, but fell under Turks when it turned to the Latins. He wrote also to the clergy, boyars and merchants, beseeching them to stand firmly for the Orthodox faith, and restrain men from all evil courses.Thus Moscow touched the most sensitive chord in the Russians, and for the first time gave that alliance of Novgorod with Kazimir the aspect of treason. These remonstrances influenced a great many people. The Boretskis, however, were more active and determined than most men, and outshouting all others, they declared: “We are not an inheritance of Moscow! We are free! We are for the king!”War was now unavoidable. Great disasters, according to popular belief, are preceded by wonders. The fall of Novgorod had also its admonishing marvels: A storm broke the cross on St. Sophia. Blood appeared on the graves of two archbishops whom the people had loved. In the Hutin monastery a bell sounded, though no man rang it. In the church of Yevfimia tears dropped from the eyes of an image of the Virgin. A holy hermit went to Novgorod to a feast at the mansion of Martha; all at once, while sitting at the table, he became terrified. At the moment he did not speak of it, but afterward he explained to an anchoret that among the boyars present he had seen some who appeared to be headless, and he mentioned their names. Later the heads of those same boyars were cut off in the struggle with the Grand Prince.Ivan, calculating every step carefully, acted with decision and with unbending resolve against Novgorod. At first he took counsel with his mother, the metropolitan Philip, and intimate boyars. They advised him to trust in God firmly, to advance against Novgorod and punish it for its treason. After this small, or preliminary council, he summoned a great one, at which appeared his brothers, the bishops of Russia, the subordinate princes, boyars, voevodas, and nobles. Explaining to them the disobedience and treason of Novgorod, he asked: “Shall I march against the place straightway?”Summer was coming, and the Novgorod country abounded in rivers, lakes, swamps and morasses; former Grand Princes rarely made the march during summer, but the great council, like the small one, decided to confide in the Lord and the Holy Virgin, and[458]march with all promptness, making a holy war against the allies of the Pope and the Poles.On this, as on every occasion, appeared the old rivalry of Novgorod and Suzdal, and the perfect sympathy of Moscow with the consolidation of Russia, under the leadership of its Grand Prince. To this was now added great indignation at Novgorod, for deserting its Orthodox connections. Resting on this sympathy, which even rose to enthusiasm, Ivan sent general commands to move against the city. Notice was given to Novgorod, and troops were requested of Tver and Pskoff. Ivan ordered the campaign as follows: He despatched the boyar, Boris Slaipets, to Vyatka, to attack the Dvina region with warriors from Vyatka. Vassili Obrazets, the Ustyug voevoda, was to join him. To Novgorod, Ivan sent two divisions, one under Holmski with orders to march against Russa and then, joining Pskoff forces, to attack Novgorod’s western boundary; another, under StrigaObolenski, was to attack on the east side. The Grand Prince himself, after giving large alms and praying at the grave of his father, received a blessing from the metropolitan, and on June 20 marched out of Moscow with the main army. With him went Stephen Vorobati, a man deeply read in Russian chronicles, who could remind Novgorod of all its former treaties.Ivan left Moscow to the care of two of his brothers, and took three with him. At Torjok the Tver forces joined him.Nature itself seemed to favor the expedition. The summer was unaccountably dry; every soft place had become passable. Warriors and wagons moved over ground on which ordinarily no one could go at that season of the year.How did Novgorod meet these men moving from three sides? All hope in Kazimir was illusive. Drawn off by other questions, the king took no part whatever in the war between Novgorod and Moscow. Prince Michael, the son of Alexander, who might have helped, received news of the death of his brother, and left immediately, taking his troops with him. He passed through the country like an enemy, extorting taxes with violence, and robbing towns till he touched the boundary.There was in Novgorod another man hostile to Moscow, Prince Shuiski, a descendant of those Suzdal princes who had lost their lands somewhat earlier. Shuiski was despatched to the Dvina.[459]The envoys seeking Pskoff aid received nothing; for the Pskoff men had already yielded to Moscow’s demands, and sent troops to act against Novgorod. Obliged to depend upon their own strength and resources, the Novgorod men did not falter. They equipped a considerable army, and noting Ivan’s blunder in strategy, took advantage of it. His troops, though numerous, were scattered, and were advancing along various roads, without much precaution. The city thought to defeat them in detail by acting with swiftness, and by concentrating forces.The Novgorod troops marched at once against Holmski, who had taken and burned Russa, and was advancing slowly, while waiting for Pskoff men. Their plan was to crush Holmski before he could be reinforced by the Pskoff army, and then to rout the latter. Meanwhile, the Novgorod horse were moving along the west bank of Lake Ilmen. A part of the warriors had debarked on its southern border, near Korostyno, but the Moscow guard noted this movement quickly, and despatched couriers to Holmski, who struck on the Novgorod foot at once. They fought bravely, but were scattered, because the horsemen, though near, could not help them. The troops sent by the archbishop excused themselves, saying: “We were sent against Pskoff, and not to fight Moscow.” The victors learned also that Novgorod forces, embarked at the mouth of the Pola, were sailing toward Russa, so the Moscow men turned to this town and dispersed the warriors who landed there, thus baffling Novgorod’s plan against Holmski. The Novgorod infantry was scattered and crushed, but the cavalry was uninjured and numerous, forty thousand in all, as reckoned by Moscow, while Holmski’s division was less than one fourth of that number.The Moscow voevodas laid siege to Deman, the town nearest Russa, not wishing to leave it behind them. But the Grand Prince, on hearing of victory, sent them to Sheloni, where they joined Pskoff men; and to Deman he sent Prince Vereiski. At Sheloni Prince Holmski found the Novgorod horse on the opposite bank of the river. They intended apparently to fall on the Pskoff men, who had at last entered Novgorod regions, and were plundering and taking everything before them.Seeing the preponderance on their side, the Novgorod men, keeping up the old custom, began to boast of their strength, and[460]ridicule their opponents. The sight of this well-armed and active body confused the Moscow troops somewhat, but only for a moment. They had made many campaigns, and were under trained leaders, while the defenders of the city were potters, carpenters and tanners, who had hurried to arms quickly under threat of losing their houses, or being drowned in the river. If they were trained it was only in boxing, or fighting with bludgeons, not in handling sharp weapons and horses. Obedience and concord were wholly unknown to them, and they had no experienced leaders.When the Moscow voevodas reached the ford, they cried to those under them, “Brothers, it is better for us to lay down our lives with honor than to go back defeated.” With these words they urged their horses down the steep bank, and were the first to plunge into the river. After them rushed the whole army, wading and swimming to the opposite side, and with shouts of “Moscow! Moscow!” they hurled themselves against the enemy.The city men, answering with “Holy Sophia!” “Great Novgorod!” rushed to the onset. The Moscow troops had a difficult task before them, but the attackers showed judgment; they struck mainly the horses. Thus, though the Novgorod men struggled desperately, the men of Moscow were overcoming them, for the rearing and plunging of their wounded beasts caused dreadful confusion in the ranks. Then a division attacked their rear, and this gave a decisive victory to Moscow.A large number of Novgorod men fell or were captured; the remainder rushed wildly through forests or galloped home to the city. Among the captives were many boyars and some former posadniks; with these men were the sons of Martha Boretski.The treaty between King Kazimir and Novgorod was found in the deserted camp and sent to the Grand Prince, together with news of the triumph. The Moscow camp was filled with delight and rejoicing. Ivan moved now to Russa, and there the captives were brought to receive judgment. The prisoners of importance he met with stern severity. Of those who would have given Novgorod to Kazimir four were beheaded: Dmitri Boretski, Vassili Selezneff, Yeremi Suhoscheka, and Cyprian Arbuzieff. Other notable persons, among them Vassili Kazimir and Matthew Selezen, were removed to Kolomna and kept there in irons; still[461]others he sentenced to imprisonment in Moscow; unimportant people were dismissed to their families.From Russa, Ivan moved toward the mouth of the Sheloni. Meanwhile Holmski conquered all the west to the German boundary.Moscow troops were now approaching Novgorod from various directions, to force the people to open the gates to them. Chaos reigned in the city. There was heard on all sides the wail of widows and orphans mourning for the men who had perished. The Boretskis, however, encouraged the people, and roused them to desperate effort. On the walls and the towers guards were changed frequently, both night and day. The defenders burned monasteries and houses near the city. A courier was sent to King Kazimir, imploring his immediate assistance. But the courier came back soon. The Livonian Grand Master had barred the way to him. Meanwhile a certain Upadysh had spiked guns on the walls of the city and straightway had suffered death for treason. Great numbers of people had come from the country to Novgorod; and now disease appeared. Communication with the world was interrupted, and hunger was approaching. To complete the disaster, evil news came from Dvina regions: The voevodas of Moscow had scattered the Novgorod army; Prince Shuiski, its leader, was wounded severely; the inhabitants had taken the oath to the Grand Prince.The Novgorod adherents of peace and alliance with Moscow attacked the opponents for listening to women and destroying the Commonwealth. The Assembly sent envoys to Ivan. From the five ends of the city went five notable persons, and five ex-posadniks. At the head of those ten was the archbishop. The envoys sailed over the Ilmen to Korostyno, but were not admitted at once to an audience. When the Grand Prince saw them, the archbishop asked him to give pardon to Novgorod, and not take its territory.Ivan listened kindly, and agreed to stop bloodshed. The question of peace he committed to boyars. August 9 and 11, 1471, papers were signed by which Ivan seemed to acknowledge the old-time conditions, and almost repeat the peace clauses framed by Vassili, his father. To these was added only the bond not to join Lithuania deceitfully and to have the archbishop ordained[462]always in Moscow, at the tomb of the first metropolitan, Peter. The Grand Prince returned the towns won from the city and its districts. Novgorod agreed to pay an indemnity of fifteen thousand five hundred rubles. Ivan’s voevoda was to take the oath from all Novgorod to observe this new treaty. After the oath had been given, Ivan went to Moscow.Thus the Grand Prince conquered Novgorod, sparing it this first time, and seeming not to entirely deprive it of independence. With his usual caution, he did not bring men to despair; he left his final blow for another day. A wise man might have foreseen easily that such a day was inevitable, and in the near future. Ivan had the strength to wait for it.How pleasing and how popular the victory was in Moscow was shown by the welcome which that city gave the Grand Prince at his coming. People in thousands went a number of versts from the city to greet him. The metropolitan and the clergy met him with banners and crosses. His son and attendants were waiting one day’s journey from the city.While men of Moscow were rejoicing in this way, an evil fate seemed to frown upon Novgorod. After all the reverses and plunders a new misfortune came to that place. Among people from outside who had fled to the city were families from Russa. After peace was made, they took boats and were sailing homeward by Lake Ilmen when a dreadful tempest rose and drowned nearly all of them. It is said that seven thousand died in the water. In Novgorod itself there were fires which raged with great havoc.[463]
On January 22, 1440, Ivan III, son of Vassili the Blind, was born. This future solidifier of Russia passed his youth in the turmoil and terror of civil dissension, during which his father was imprisoned and blinded. When restored to power the sightless sovereign hastened to secure the inheritance to Ivan, making him his associate, with the title of Grand Prince. By the accounts given us, Ivan, while still a stripling, took active part in his father’s principality. He campaigned more than once against Mongols, at first under veteran commanders. At the age of nineteen, he repelled a Horde invasion, and won a victory of importance. On coming to the throne in 1462, at the age of twenty-two, he had had much experience both in civil and military labors. His great mental gifts and exceptional will power were felt soon by all who had to deal with him. Ivan was cold, imperious and calculating. He acted always on the lines sharply drawn by the history of Moscow, hence the policy of Russia in his time presented three vital problems: to consolidate Russia under Moscow; to struggle with the Mongols till Russia should be free of the humiliating yoke; to settle relations with Lithuania and Poland.
In consolidating Russia, Ivan’s great achievement was the union of Novgorod, with all its immense lands, to Moscow. We have seen that Novgorod was declining, and that Vassili’s expedition in 1456 proved clearly that the end of the Commonwealth was imminent. Complaints that there was no justice, that the poor suffered from the rich; the hatred of the poor for those above them; factions; warring parties; want of zeal in those who governed; the decline of a warlike spirit; love of gain dominating all things; these taken together proclaimed the approaching downfall. But we must remember also that the ruling cause was still[455]the power of Moscow and the unavoidable and dominant necessity for Moscow to annex Novgorod.
Moscow had reached such strength that Novgorod unassisted could not meet her. Hence there rose a large party in Novgorod which sought an alliance with Moscow’s main enemy, Kazimir IV, “the Grand Prince of Lithuania and Russia and King of Poland.” Kazimir’s Novgorod partisans hoped to find in him a preponderant protector and ally. But the king was a Catholic, and that turned many men from him. Especially opposed were the Russian clergy, and among them Iona the archbishop, who enjoyed the love and respect of the people. Hence only after Iona’s death in 1470 did the Kazimir party set to work with decision and openly. Nothing shows the decay of the Novgorod Commonwealth as does the absence of capable men at that period of peril. In that most dangerous time a woman appeared, who, by energy, ability and devotion to the city, towered above all her contemporaries. This woman was Martha, the wife of Isaac Boretski, a former posadnik. Boretski had left much wealth to his widow and his sons, Dmitri and Feodor. The elder of these sons had been posadnik. Martha, thinking to save the independence of Novgorod, sought to throw the city into the arms of Kazimir, King of Poland, thus betraying the cause of Russia, and of Orthodoxy. At her house on the bank of the Volkof, partisans of an alliance with Kazimir met to feast and discuss means of struggling against the power of Moscow. As soon as Iona had favored the men of this party by dying, they summoned a man whom we have mentioned already, namely, a great-grandson of Olgerd, Michael, son of Alexander, and brother of Simeon, the Kief prince. Michael came with his personal following. At this time the Kazimir party had, as candidate for archbishop, Pimen, the key-keeper of the recent archbishop Iona. Pimen, having had charge of the treasury of the Sophia Cathedral, had taken church money in the time of Iona and had given it to Martha, for the purchase of partisans. Martha’s adherents, determined on breaking with Moscow, wished that Iona’s successor should be ordained, not by Philip, metropolitan of Moscow, but by Gregory of Kief, a pupil of Isidor, erstwhile metropolitan of Moscow, a man who was looked on as recreant by the Orthodox. Pimen was willing, but his partisans met failure, and could only make him one of three candidates. Not on Pimen did the choice[456]fall, but on Feofil. When dispute rose as to who should ordain him, the choice went to Moscow, and an envoy was sent to the Grand Prince to secure a safe-conduct for Feofil. Thus the Boretski party was defeated.
Meanwhile various disputes rose with Moscow. Novgorod men began openly to break the last treaty. Ivan was thinking of annexation to quell the unruly, and called on Pskoff to prepare to advance unless the Novgorod people would correct themselves. He received the Novgorod envoy with favor, and gave a safe-conduct to Feofil.
The Boretskis began now to kindle dissensions between the boyars and the people, to rouse men through bribery, drink and persuasion of all kinds. Especially useful was the report that Ivan was inciting Pskoff against Novgorod. The bells were sounded, and a mob gathered speedily: “We will not have the Grand Prince of Moscow,” cried the people, “We will have Kazimir!” The Moscow party, which was composed mainly of medium and well-to-do people, declared that it was impossible for Orthodox men to join a king who was a Catholic. From shouts the affair went to blows. The boyar youth and the mob stoned their opponents and frightened enough of them to secure a majority at the Assembly. Thus the Boretski party determined in assembly to recognize the Polish king as Prince of Novgorod, and they sent him an embassy at the head of which were two former posadniks, Dmitri Boretski, and Afanasi Astafievitch. This embassy concluded a treaty with Kazimir on almost the same basis as previous treaties with Moscow, adding only one article, namely: “The king’s representative must be an Orthodox Christian, and never a Catholic. He must not have more than fifty attendants in Novgorod.”
When Ivan of Moscow heard of this treaty, he acted with calculation and prudence. Before he undertook a campaign he sent envoys repeatedly to Novgorod. With them he sent letters, in which he said that Novgorod had formerly supported Saint Vladimir’s descendants, and never Lithuanian princes. He invited them to change their plans now, and promised them favor. At the same time the metropolitan Philip wrote epistles to the Novgorod people. He counseled them not to betray their religion, not to go over to the Latins. He pointed to the example of the Byzantine Empire,[457]which remained strong while it clung to its religion, but fell under Turks when it turned to the Latins. He wrote also to the clergy, boyars and merchants, beseeching them to stand firmly for the Orthodox faith, and restrain men from all evil courses.
Thus Moscow touched the most sensitive chord in the Russians, and for the first time gave that alliance of Novgorod with Kazimir the aspect of treason. These remonstrances influenced a great many people. The Boretskis, however, were more active and determined than most men, and outshouting all others, they declared: “We are not an inheritance of Moscow! We are free! We are for the king!”
War was now unavoidable. Great disasters, according to popular belief, are preceded by wonders. The fall of Novgorod had also its admonishing marvels: A storm broke the cross on St. Sophia. Blood appeared on the graves of two archbishops whom the people had loved. In the Hutin monastery a bell sounded, though no man rang it. In the church of Yevfimia tears dropped from the eyes of an image of the Virgin. A holy hermit went to Novgorod to a feast at the mansion of Martha; all at once, while sitting at the table, he became terrified. At the moment he did not speak of it, but afterward he explained to an anchoret that among the boyars present he had seen some who appeared to be headless, and he mentioned their names. Later the heads of those same boyars were cut off in the struggle with the Grand Prince.
Ivan, calculating every step carefully, acted with decision and with unbending resolve against Novgorod. At first he took counsel with his mother, the metropolitan Philip, and intimate boyars. They advised him to trust in God firmly, to advance against Novgorod and punish it for its treason. After this small, or preliminary council, he summoned a great one, at which appeared his brothers, the bishops of Russia, the subordinate princes, boyars, voevodas, and nobles. Explaining to them the disobedience and treason of Novgorod, he asked: “Shall I march against the place straightway?”
Summer was coming, and the Novgorod country abounded in rivers, lakes, swamps and morasses; former Grand Princes rarely made the march during summer, but the great council, like the small one, decided to confide in the Lord and the Holy Virgin, and[458]march with all promptness, making a holy war against the allies of the Pope and the Poles.
On this, as on every occasion, appeared the old rivalry of Novgorod and Suzdal, and the perfect sympathy of Moscow with the consolidation of Russia, under the leadership of its Grand Prince. To this was now added great indignation at Novgorod, for deserting its Orthodox connections. Resting on this sympathy, which even rose to enthusiasm, Ivan sent general commands to move against the city. Notice was given to Novgorod, and troops were requested of Tver and Pskoff. Ivan ordered the campaign as follows: He despatched the boyar, Boris Slaipets, to Vyatka, to attack the Dvina region with warriors from Vyatka. Vassili Obrazets, the Ustyug voevoda, was to join him. To Novgorod, Ivan sent two divisions, one under Holmski with orders to march against Russa and then, joining Pskoff forces, to attack Novgorod’s western boundary; another, under StrigaObolenski, was to attack on the east side. The Grand Prince himself, after giving large alms and praying at the grave of his father, received a blessing from the metropolitan, and on June 20 marched out of Moscow with the main army. With him went Stephen Vorobati, a man deeply read in Russian chronicles, who could remind Novgorod of all its former treaties.
Ivan left Moscow to the care of two of his brothers, and took three with him. At Torjok the Tver forces joined him.
Nature itself seemed to favor the expedition. The summer was unaccountably dry; every soft place had become passable. Warriors and wagons moved over ground on which ordinarily no one could go at that season of the year.
How did Novgorod meet these men moving from three sides? All hope in Kazimir was illusive. Drawn off by other questions, the king took no part whatever in the war between Novgorod and Moscow. Prince Michael, the son of Alexander, who might have helped, received news of the death of his brother, and left immediately, taking his troops with him. He passed through the country like an enemy, extorting taxes with violence, and robbing towns till he touched the boundary.
There was in Novgorod another man hostile to Moscow, Prince Shuiski, a descendant of those Suzdal princes who had lost their lands somewhat earlier. Shuiski was despatched to the Dvina.[459]The envoys seeking Pskoff aid received nothing; for the Pskoff men had already yielded to Moscow’s demands, and sent troops to act against Novgorod. Obliged to depend upon their own strength and resources, the Novgorod men did not falter. They equipped a considerable army, and noting Ivan’s blunder in strategy, took advantage of it. His troops, though numerous, were scattered, and were advancing along various roads, without much precaution. The city thought to defeat them in detail by acting with swiftness, and by concentrating forces.
The Novgorod troops marched at once against Holmski, who had taken and burned Russa, and was advancing slowly, while waiting for Pskoff men. Their plan was to crush Holmski before he could be reinforced by the Pskoff army, and then to rout the latter. Meanwhile, the Novgorod horse were moving along the west bank of Lake Ilmen. A part of the warriors had debarked on its southern border, near Korostyno, but the Moscow guard noted this movement quickly, and despatched couriers to Holmski, who struck on the Novgorod foot at once. They fought bravely, but were scattered, because the horsemen, though near, could not help them. The troops sent by the archbishop excused themselves, saying: “We were sent against Pskoff, and not to fight Moscow.” The victors learned also that Novgorod forces, embarked at the mouth of the Pola, were sailing toward Russa, so the Moscow men turned to this town and dispersed the warriors who landed there, thus baffling Novgorod’s plan against Holmski. The Novgorod infantry was scattered and crushed, but the cavalry was uninjured and numerous, forty thousand in all, as reckoned by Moscow, while Holmski’s division was less than one fourth of that number.
The Moscow voevodas laid siege to Deman, the town nearest Russa, not wishing to leave it behind them. But the Grand Prince, on hearing of victory, sent them to Sheloni, where they joined Pskoff men; and to Deman he sent Prince Vereiski. At Sheloni Prince Holmski found the Novgorod horse on the opposite bank of the river. They intended apparently to fall on the Pskoff men, who had at last entered Novgorod regions, and were plundering and taking everything before them.
Seeing the preponderance on their side, the Novgorod men, keeping up the old custom, began to boast of their strength, and[460]ridicule their opponents. The sight of this well-armed and active body confused the Moscow troops somewhat, but only for a moment. They had made many campaigns, and were under trained leaders, while the defenders of the city were potters, carpenters and tanners, who had hurried to arms quickly under threat of losing their houses, or being drowned in the river. If they were trained it was only in boxing, or fighting with bludgeons, not in handling sharp weapons and horses. Obedience and concord were wholly unknown to them, and they had no experienced leaders.
When the Moscow voevodas reached the ford, they cried to those under them, “Brothers, it is better for us to lay down our lives with honor than to go back defeated.” With these words they urged their horses down the steep bank, and were the first to plunge into the river. After them rushed the whole army, wading and swimming to the opposite side, and with shouts of “Moscow! Moscow!” they hurled themselves against the enemy.
The city men, answering with “Holy Sophia!” “Great Novgorod!” rushed to the onset. The Moscow troops had a difficult task before them, but the attackers showed judgment; they struck mainly the horses. Thus, though the Novgorod men struggled desperately, the men of Moscow were overcoming them, for the rearing and plunging of their wounded beasts caused dreadful confusion in the ranks. Then a division attacked their rear, and this gave a decisive victory to Moscow.
A large number of Novgorod men fell or were captured; the remainder rushed wildly through forests or galloped home to the city. Among the captives were many boyars and some former posadniks; with these men were the sons of Martha Boretski.
The treaty between King Kazimir and Novgorod was found in the deserted camp and sent to the Grand Prince, together with news of the triumph. The Moscow camp was filled with delight and rejoicing. Ivan moved now to Russa, and there the captives were brought to receive judgment. The prisoners of importance he met with stern severity. Of those who would have given Novgorod to Kazimir four were beheaded: Dmitri Boretski, Vassili Selezneff, Yeremi Suhoscheka, and Cyprian Arbuzieff. Other notable persons, among them Vassili Kazimir and Matthew Selezen, were removed to Kolomna and kept there in irons; still[461]others he sentenced to imprisonment in Moscow; unimportant people were dismissed to their families.
From Russa, Ivan moved toward the mouth of the Sheloni. Meanwhile Holmski conquered all the west to the German boundary.
Moscow troops were now approaching Novgorod from various directions, to force the people to open the gates to them. Chaos reigned in the city. There was heard on all sides the wail of widows and orphans mourning for the men who had perished. The Boretskis, however, encouraged the people, and roused them to desperate effort. On the walls and the towers guards were changed frequently, both night and day. The defenders burned monasteries and houses near the city. A courier was sent to King Kazimir, imploring his immediate assistance. But the courier came back soon. The Livonian Grand Master had barred the way to him. Meanwhile a certain Upadysh had spiked guns on the walls of the city and straightway had suffered death for treason. Great numbers of people had come from the country to Novgorod; and now disease appeared. Communication with the world was interrupted, and hunger was approaching. To complete the disaster, evil news came from Dvina regions: The voevodas of Moscow had scattered the Novgorod army; Prince Shuiski, its leader, was wounded severely; the inhabitants had taken the oath to the Grand Prince.
The Novgorod adherents of peace and alliance with Moscow attacked the opponents for listening to women and destroying the Commonwealth. The Assembly sent envoys to Ivan. From the five ends of the city went five notable persons, and five ex-posadniks. At the head of those ten was the archbishop. The envoys sailed over the Ilmen to Korostyno, but were not admitted at once to an audience. When the Grand Prince saw them, the archbishop asked him to give pardon to Novgorod, and not take its territory.
Ivan listened kindly, and agreed to stop bloodshed. The question of peace he committed to boyars. August 9 and 11, 1471, papers were signed by which Ivan seemed to acknowledge the old-time conditions, and almost repeat the peace clauses framed by Vassili, his father. To these was added only the bond not to join Lithuania deceitfully and to have the archbishop ordained[462]always in Moscow, at the tomb of the first metropolitan, Peter. The Grand Prince returned the towns won from the city and its districts. Novgorod agreed to pay an indemnity of fifteen thousand five hundred rubles. Ivan’s voevoda was to take the oath from all Novgorod to observe this new treaty. After the oath had been given, Ivan went to Moscow.
Thus the Grand Prince conquered Novgorod, sparing it this first time, and seeming not to entirely deprive it of independence. With his usual caution, he did not bring men to despair; he left his final blow for another day. A wise man might have foreseen easily that such a day was inevitable, and in the near future. Ivan had the strength to wait for it.
How pleasing and how popular the victory was in Moscow was shown by the welcome which that city gave the Grand Prince at his coming. People in thousands went a number of versts from the city to greet him. The metropolitan and the clergy met him with banners and crosses. His son and attendants were waiting one day’s journey from the city.
While men of Moscow were rejoicing in this way, an evil fate seemed to frown upon Novgorod. After all the reverses and plunders a new misfortune came to that place. Among people from outside who had fled to the city were families from Russa. After peace was made, they took boats and were sailing homeward by Lake Ilmen when a dreadful tempest rose and drowned nearly all of them. It is said that seven thousand died in the water. In Novgorod itself there were fires which raged with great havoc.[463]