OBJECT LESSONS

NOUN LESSON

We may call persons and objects by theirname(theirnoun). People answer if we call them, so do animals. Inanimate objects, however, never answer, because they cannot; but if they could answer they would; for example, if I sayMary, Mary answers; if I saypeas, the peas do not answer, because they cannot. You childrendounderstand when I call an object and you bring it to me. I say for example,book,beans,peas. If I don't tell you the name of the object you don't understand what I am talking about; because every object has a different name. This name is the word that stands for the object. This name is anoun. When I mention a noun you understand immediately the object which the noun represents:tree,chair,pen,book,lamb, etc. If I do not give this noun, you don't know what I am talking about; for, if I say simply,Bring me ... at once, I want it, you do not know what I want, unless I tell you the name of the object. Unless I give you thenoun, you do not understand. Thus every object is represented by a word which is itsnameand this name is anoun. To understand whether a word is a noun or not, you simple ask "Is it a thing?" "Would it answer if I spoke to it!" "Could I carry it to the teacher?" For instance,bread. Yes,breadis an object;table,yes, it is an object;conductor, yes, the conductor would answer, if I were to speak to him.Let us look through our cards now. I take several cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is the wordsweet. Bring mesweet. Is there anything to answer when I callsweet?But you are bringing me a piece of candy! I didn't saycandy:I saidsweet!And now you have given me sugar! I saidsweet. If I saycandy,sugar, then you understand what I want, what object I am thinking about, because the wordscandy,sugar, stand for objects. Those words arenouns. Now let us look through the noun cards. Let us read a couple of lines in our reading books and see whether there are any nouns there. Tell me, are there any nouns? How are we to find some nouns? Look around you! Look at yourself, your clothes, etc.! Name every object that you see! Every word you thus pronounce will be a noun: Teacher, clothing, necktie, chair, class, children, books, etc. Just look at this picture which represents so many things! The figures represent persons and objects. Name each of these figures! Every word you pronounce will be a noun!

Let us look through our cards now. I take several cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is the wordsweet. Bring mesweet. Is there anything to answer when I callsweet?But you are bringing me a piece of candy! I didn't saycandy:I saidsweet!And now you have given me sugar! I saidsweet. If I saycandy,sugar, then you understand what I want, what object I am thinking about, because the wordscandy,sugar, stand for objects. Those words arenouns. Now let us look through the noun cards. Let us read a couple of lines in our reading books and see whether there are any nouns there. Tell me, are there any nouns? How are we to find some nouns? Look around you! Look at yourself, your clothes, etc.! Name every object that you see! Every word you thus pronounce will be a noun: Teacher, clothing, necktie, chair, class, children, books, etc. Just look at this picture which represents so many things! The figures represent persons and objects. Name each of these figures! Every word you pronounce will be a noun!

VERB: ACTION

Mary, rise from your seat! Walk! Mary has performed a number ofactions. She hasrisen. She has performed theactionof rising. She haswalked.Walkstands for an action. Now write your name on the blackboard!Writingis an action. Erase what you have written.Erasingis an action. When I spoke to Mary, I performed the action of speaking. (Just as the noun was taught with objects, here we must have actions. Objects represented in pictures will be of no use, since actions cannot be portrayed by pictures.)The next step will be to suggest a little exercise of imagination. Look at all these objects! Try to imagine some action which each might perform! Aclass, for instance; what actions might a class perform?Store:what actions might take place in a store? Let us now look through our cards after we have shuffled them. Next try our reading book. Show me which of the words are verbs. Give me some words which are verbs (infinitive).

The next step will be to suggest a little exercise of imagination. Look at all these objects! Try to imagine some action which each might perform! Aclass, for instance; what actions might a class perform?Store:what actions might take place in a store? Let us now look through our cards after we have shuffled them. Next try our reading book. Show me which of the words are verbs. Give me some words which are verbs (infinitive).

NOUN

Persons, things (proper and common nouns). Singular, plural, masculine and feminine. The articles: "Choose the article that goes with this noun!" etc.

VERB

Present, past, future. I am performing an action now. Have I performed it before? Did I do it yesterday? Have I always done it in the past? When I walk now, I say Iam walking, Iwalk. When I mean the action that I performed yesterday, I say: Iwas walking, Iwalked. The same action performed at different times is described differently. How strange that is! The word referring to an object never changes. The beads are beads to-day. They were beads yesterday.Actions, however, are represented by words which change according to the time in which they are performed. To-day Iwalk. Yesterday Iwalked. To-morrow Ishall walk. It is alwaysIwho do the walking,Iwho perform theactionof walking; and I walk always in the same way, putting one foot in front of the other. The objects you see perform an action always perform it. Do you see that little bird which is flying—which is performing theactionof flying? It was flying yesterday. It flew at some time in the past. To-morrow also, that is, at somefuturetime, if the little bird lives, it will fly and it will fly always in the same way, beating its wings to and fro. You see what a strange thing a verb is! It changes its words according to thetimein which the action is performed. It is different according as it represents action inpresenttime, or action inpasttime, or action infuturetime. Now, see! I am going to take out some of my cards and make up a little sentence:cardsNow I am going to change the word which stands for the time when the action takes place. In place of the cardnowI am going to use this one:cardIs this a good sentence? No! Supposing we change the time of the verb:Yesterday George ate an apple. This makes good sense. Put these cards back now in the boxes where they belong.

cards

Now I am going to change the word which stands for the time when the action takes place. In place of the cardnowI am going to use this one:

card

Is this a good sentence? No! Supposing we change the time of the verb:Yesterday George ate an apple. This makes good sense. Put these cards back now in the boxes where they belong.

ADJECTIVE

Every object possesses certainqualities. Tell me what you can about this apple. It is red, it is round, it is sweet. What qualities can you find in this chair? It is hard, it is brown, it is wooden. What about your school-mates, the children? Are they good, are they pretty, are they polite, are they obedient, or are they naughty, impolite, disobedient, disorderly? Let us look through our cards to see whether we can find words which stand for the qualities of objects. Supposing we select some from the drawer of the adjective and some from the drawer of the noun. Now let us place beside each noun a card which makes sense with it: here, for instance, I haveCharles,red,quadruped,transparent. Does that mean anything? Well then find me some adjectives which will go well withCharles. Adjectives are words which stand for qualities of a given object. They must go well with their noun. Find me some adjectives which fit well with the noundog. They must be words which stand for some quality of the dog. Now put all the cards back in the compartments where they belong. (This latter exercise is very instructive.)In this method of teaching grammar we make use of objects and actions directly relating to life. Such lessons may be made more attractive with story telling, etc. The teaching of grammar at this period should be extended as far as is possible without forcing the pupil.

In this method of teaching grammar we make use of objects and actions directly relating to life. Such lessons may be made more attractive with story telling, etc. The teaching of grammar at this period should be extended as far as is possible without forcing the pupil.

There should be concise and vivid descriptions of some object. The attention of the child should be sustained by changing the tone of voice, by exclamations calculated to excite the child's curiosity, by praise, etc. Never begin with theword,but always with theobject. All the notions possessed by the child should be as far as practicable in a given case applied to his study of the object. First it should be described as to its qualities; next as to its uses, then as to its origin; for example, Here is anobject!What color is it? What is its shape? Feel of it! Taste of it! etc. If possible, have the childseethe use of the object and its origin in every possible way. Just as the concrete idea of the object is imparted by verbal description and by various appeals to the senses of the child, so the different uses of the object should be brought out indescribing actionswhich the childseesperformed with it before him. This, of course, is an ideal which the teacher should try to realize as far as possible. The object should be shown the child in different circumstances and under different aspects so as to give it always the appearance of something new and something to excite and hold the attention of the child. Take, for instance, a lesson on the wordhen. Show a paper model of the hen, the live hen in the courtyard, the stereopticon slide of the hen; the print of the hen in the reading book; the hen alive among other domestic fowls; pictures of the hen among pictures of other birds, etc. Each new step should be taken on a different day and each time the word should be connected with the object. Write the word on the blackboard; make up the printed card for the card file and put it in its proper box. "Who wants to take the blackboard out-doors? We are going to write some words in the yard. Now in your reading books there is the figure of the hen. Next to it is the wordhen. Write this word in your copy books. Who can repeat what we have said about the hen? Write down what you know about the hen." The amount of information given about a particular object will depend, of course, upon the class. The simplest description should be followed by one more minute, passing thus to speak of uses, habits, origin, etc. The writing of a simple word may be developed into a written description. But the lessons on the given object should always be short, and they should be repeated on different days. For the lessons on trees, plants, and vegetables, a garden is necessary: the children should see the seeds planted, a growing vegetable, a picture of the fruit, etc. If possible the domestic use of the gardenproducts should be demonstrated. This applies also to flowers. The blackboard with crayon should never be lacking in the garden. For object lessons we need toys to represent furniture, dishes, various objects used in the home, tools of different trades, rooms and the furniture that goes in each, houses, trees, a church (to build villages), etc.; dolls equipped with all the necessaries for dressing. There should be a shelf for bottles containing specimens of different drinks; various kinds of cloths (for tactile exercises); the raw materials out of which they are made, demonstrations of the way they are manufactured, etc. Show also specimens of the various minerals, etc.

History is taught first on a little stage with living tableaux, gradually advancing to action; second, by descriptions of large illustrations and colored pictures; third, by story-telling based on stereopticon views. The teacher should strive for brevity, conciseness, and vivacity in descriptions. Historical story telling should, as in the case of all other lessons, bring about additions of printed cards to the word boxes. Various information of the seasons, months of the year, etc., should be imparted by illustrations and pictures. Every morning the child should be asked: "What day is it? What day was yesterday? What day will to-morrow be?" and "What day of the month is it?"

1. Exercises on the plane for the cardinal points, with various gymnastic and guessing games. 2. Building games out of doors. Make a lake, an island, a peninsula, a river. 3. Carry the houses and church into the yard and construct a small village. Put the church on the north; the schoolhouse on the east; the mountain on the west; in front of the school place the national flag. 4. In the classroom fit out a room with its proper furniture to be placed on a map of the room outlined on a large chart. As the furniture is removed, make a mark on the map to indicate where each article was. Make a little village in the same way, houses, church, etc. Take away the church, etc.; mark the place of each object on the map as it isremoved. Then identify each spot. "Where was the church?" "What was over here?" etc. Thus we get a conception of the geographical map. Read the map, making use of the cardinal points. 5. Physical characteristics of regions may be shown by clay modeling to represent hills, etc. Draw outlines around each model, remove the clay and read thegeographical mapresulting.

The children are to count: 1 nose; 1 mouth; 1, 2 hands; 1, 2 feet; 1, 2, 3, 4 points in the insets; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 soldiers on the plane. How many blocks did they use in the building? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Thus for the elementary steps in counting.

Computation should be taught practically in the store from the very beginning. The shopkeeper sells 1 cherry for 1c. The children have 2c and get two cherries. Next they get two nuts for 1c. Place 1c on the counter and place 2 nuts beside it. Then count all the nuts and there are 2 for 1c, etc. The child must give him 1c in change (2 + 2 = 4; 2 - 1 = 1). In money changing it will be observed that at first some children recognize the coins more easily by touch than by sight (motor types).

Charts with the nine numbers: one for each number. Each chart has picture representing quantities of the most varied objects arranged around the number, which is indicated by a large design on the chart. For instance: on the1card there is one cherry, one dog, one ball, etc. Yesterday the shopkeeper sold one cherry for 1c. Is the cherry here? Yes, there is the cherry! And what is this?Onechurch! And this?Onecent! etc. What is this figure here? It is the numberone. Now bring out the wooden figure: What is this? Numberone!Put it on the figure on the chart! It isone.Now take the charts to the store. Who has 1c? Who has2c? etc. Let us look for the number among the charts. The shopkeeper is selling three peas for 1c. Let us look for number3among the charts! Numbers should be taught in the afternoon lesson in the store. The designs representing the figures should be shown the following morning. Next time the charts with the figures previously taught should be taken to the shop to be recognized again. Other numbers are brought out in the new computations. The figures for the new numbers then taught in the store should be shown the following day, etc. To make the store interesting, the topic lesson on the objects offered for sale should be frequently repeated. The child should be taught to buy only perfect objects, so that on receiving them he may examine them carefully, observing them in all their parts. He should give them back if they are not perfect or if mistakes are made by the shopkeeper in giving them out. For instance: A spoiled apple should not be accepted. "I refuse to buy it!" Beans should not be accepted for peas. Again the child refuses to buy them. He must pay only when he is sure he has been served properly (exercise in practical life).The storekeeper will make mistakes: first, inkindsof objects, to sharpen the observation ofqualitiesby the children who purchase; second, in thenumberof objects given, to accustom the child to purchasing properquantities.

Now take the charts to the store. Who has 1c? Who has2c? etc. Let us look for the number among the charts. The shopkeeper is selling three peas for 1c. Let us look for number3among the charts! Numbers should be taught in the afternoon lesson in the store. The designs representing the figures should be shown the following morning. Next time the charts with the figures previously taught should be taken to the shop to be recognized again. Other numbers are brought out in the new computations. The figures for the new numbers then taught in the store should be shown the following day, etc. To make the store interesting, the topic lesson on the objects offered for sale should be frequently repeated. The child should be taught to buy only perfect objects, so that on receiving them he may examine them carefully, observing them in all their parts. He should give them back if they are not perfect or if mistakes are made by the shopkeeper in giving them out. For instance: A spoiled apple should not be accepted. "I refuse to buy it!" Beans should not be accepted for peas. Again the child refuses to buy them. He must pay only when he is sure he has been served properly (exercise in practical life).

The storekeeper will make mistakes: first, inkindsof objects, to sharpen the observation ofqualitiesby the children who purchase; second, in thenumberof objects given, to accustom the child to purchasing properquantities.

Even numbers are red. Odd numbers are blue. There are: movable figures in wood; red and blue cubes in numbers corresponding to the figures on them; finally, charts with numbers drawn in color. Under each design are small red and blue squares arranged in such a way as to emphasize the divisibility ofevennumbers by 2 and similarly the indivisibility by 2 ofoddnumbers. In the latter case one square is always left by itself in the center.123456-- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- --- -The child places the movable numbers and the cubes on the figures on the charts. The teacher then makes two equal rows of cubes to correspond to the even numbers (red). The division is easy! But try to separate the odd numbers (blue). It is not possible! A block is always left in the middle! The child takes the figures and the blocks and arranges them on his table, imitating the design on the chart. He tries to make two equal rows of cubes for the even numbers. He succeeds. He does not succeed in doing so with the odd numbers. The numbers which can be divided thus areeven;those which cannot be so divided areodd.Number boxes:On these boxes are designed red and blue figures identical with those on the charts. The child puts into each box the number of cubes called for by the figure on the box. This exercise follows immediately the work on odd and even numbers described above. As the child transfers each series of cubes from his table to the boxes, he pronounces the number and addsoddoreven.Exercises in attention and memory:A chart of odd and even numbers in colors is placed on the teacher's desk in view of all the children. The red and blue cubes are piled on the teacher's desk. The teacher passes the wooden figures to the children and tells them to examine them. Immediately afterwards the children leave their seats, go to the teacher's desk, and get the numbers which correspond to their own figures. On going back to their places they fit the cubes under the corresponding figure in the arrangement just learned. The teacher is to observe1. Whether the child has remembered the color of his figure (frequently a child with a red number takes the blue cubes).2. Whether he has remembered hisnumber.3. Whether he remembers the proper arrangement.4. Whether the child remembers that the chart from which hecan copyis before him on the stand and whether he thinks of looking at it.When mistakes are made, the teacher has the child correct himself by calling his attention to the chart.

123456-- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- --- -

The child places the movable numbers and the cubes on the figures on the charts. The teacher then makes two equal rows of cubes to correspond to the even numbers (red). The division is easy! But try to separate the odd numbers (blue). It is not possible! A block is always left in the middle! The child takes the figures and the blocks and arranges them on his table, imitating the design on the chart. He tries to make two equal rows of cubes for the even numbers. He succeeds. He does not succeed in doing so with the odd numbers. The numbers which can be divided thus areeven;those which cannot be so divided areodd.

Number boxes:On these boxes are designed red and blue figures identical with those on the charts. The child puts into each box the number of cubes called for by the figure on the box. This exercise follows immediately the work on odd and even numbers described above. As the child transfers each series of cubes from his table to the boxes, he pronounces the number and addsoddoreven.

Exercises in attention and memory:A chart of odd and even numbers in colors is placed on the teacher's desk in view of all the children. The red and blue cubes are piled on the teacher's desk. The teacher passes the wooden figures to the children and tells them to examine them. Immediately afterwards the children leave their seats, go to the teacher's desk, and get the numbers which correspond to their own figures. On going back to their places they fit the cubes under the corresponding figure in the arrangement just learned. The teacher is to observe

1. Whether the child has remembered the color of his figure (frequently a child with a red number takes the blue cubes).

2. Whether he has remembered hisnumber.

3. Whether he remembers the proper arrangement.

4. Whether the child remembers that the chart from which hecan copyis before him on the stand and whether he thinks of looking at it.

When mistakes are made, the teacher has the child correct himself by calling his attention to the chart.

COUNTING BY TENS(For more advanced classes)

In the store ten objects are sold for one cent, e.g.:(10 beans), one cent for eachten.One ten = ten, 10.Two tens = twenty, 20.Three tens = thirty, 30, etc.From forty on (in English from sixty on) the numbers are more easily learned because their names are like simple numbers with the ending -ty(Italian -anta).Charts should be prepared (rectangular in shape) on which nine tens appear arranged one under the other; then nine cards where each ten is repeated nine times in a column; finally, numerous cards with the unit figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to be fitted on the zeros on the cards where the tens are repeated nine times.10—10—2020—10—2030—10—2040—10—2050—10—2060—10—2070—10—2080—10—2090—10—20Some difficulty will be experienced with the tens where the names do not correspond to the simple numbers: 11, 12, 13, etc. The other tens, however, will be very easy. When a little child is able to count to 20, he can go on to 100 without difficulty. The next step is to superimpose the little cards on the first chart of the tens series, having the resultant numbers read aloud.Problems:Problems are, at first, simple memory exercises for the children. In fact the problems are solved practically in the store in the form of a game; buying, lending, sharing with their schoolmates, taking a part of what is bought and givingit to some other child, etc. The store exercises should be repeated in the form of a problem on the following morning. The children have simply to remember what happened and reproduce it in writing.Problems are next developed contemporaneouslywith the various arithmetical operations and computations (addition, multiplication, etc.). The teacher explains the operations starting with the problem, which becomes for the children a very amusing game. The problem, finally, becomes an imaginative exercise: "Suppose you are going to the store to buy," etc., etc. We can ultimately arrive at real problems that require reasoning. In the store the teacher illustrates the various operations on the blackboard, using simple marks at first: "You have bought 2c worth of beans, at three for a cent. Let us write that down: III—III. Then let us count. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are six.III IIIWell, then,3 + 3= 6.We can also say: 2 groups of III equals 6; twice, three, six; two times three, six; 2 × 3 = 6. How much is 3 + 3? How much is 2 × 3? How much is 3 × 2?"The following morning, when the written problem is given, the child should have before him for reference the computation charts with all the combinations possible.The transition to mental computation will come after this and not before.

In the store ten objects are sold for one cent, e.g.:

(10 beans), one cent for eachten.

One ten = ten, 10.

Two tens = twenty, 20.

Three tens = thirty, 30, etc.

From forty on (in English from sixty on) the numbers are more easily learned because their names are like simple numbers with the ending -ty(Italian -anta).

Charts should be prepared (rectangular in shape) on which nine tens appear arranged one under the other; then nine cards where each ten is repeated nine times in a column; finally, numerous cards with the unit figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to be fitted on the zeros on the cards where the tens are repeated nine times.

10—10—2020—10—2030—10—2040—10—2050—10—2060—10—2070—10—2080—10—2090—10—20

Some difficulty will be experienced with the tens where the names do not correspond to the simple numbers: 11, 12, 13, etc. The other tens, however, will be very easy. When a little child is able to count to 20, he can go on to 100 without difficulty. The next step is to superimpose the little cards on the first chart of the tens series, having the resultant numbers read aloud.

Problems:Problems are, at first, simple memory exercises for the children. In fact the problems are solved practically in the store in the form of a game; buying, lending, sharing with their schoolmates, taking a part of what is bought and givingit to some other child, etc. The store exercises should be repeated in the form of a problem on the following morning. The children have simply to remember what happened and reproduce it in writing.Problems are next developed contemporaneouslywith the various arithmetical operations and computations (addition, multiplication, etc.). The teacher explains the operations starting with the problem, which becomes for the children a very amusing game. The problem, finally, becomes an imaginative exercise: "Suppose you are going to the store to buy," etc., etc. We can ultimately arrive at real problems that require reasoning. In the store the teacher illustrates the various operations on the blackboard, using simple marks at first: "You have bought 2c worth of beans, at three for a cent. Let us write that down: III—III. Then let us count. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are six.

III IIIWell, then,3 + 3= 6.

We can also say: 2 groups of III equals 6; twice, three, six; two times three, six; 2 × 3 = 6. How much is 3 + 3? How much is 2 × 3? How much is 3 × 2?"

The following morning, when the written problem is given, the child should have before him for reference the computation charts with all the combinations possible.

The transition to mental computation will come after this and not before.

Sample Cards

(Addition)

1 + 1 = 22 + 1 = 33 + 1 = 41 + 2 = 32 + 2 = 43 + 2 = 51 + 3 = 42 + 3 = 53 + 3 = 61 + 4 = 52 + 4 = 63 + 4 = 7

(Multiplication)

1 × 1 = 12 × 1 = 23 × 1 = 31 × 2 = 22 × 2 = 43 × 2 = 61 × 3 = 32 × 3 = 63 × 3 = 9

Subtraction in the same way. The development of these various operations followed logically on the practical exercise in the store, where multiplication proved to be a product of sums, division, a process of successive subtractions.In our classes we have arithmetic lessons every day. The afternoon practice in the store prepares for the theoretical lesson of the following morning. Accordingly, on the day when the practical exercise occurs, there is no theoretical lesson and vice versa.The decimal metric system applied to weights, measures and coinage is taught in the same way. The store should be equipped with scales, weights, dry and liquid measures, etc. All kinds of coins should be available, including bills up to $20 (100 francs). Work in the store should continue to be not only a help toward arithmetical computation but also toward the preparation for practical life. For instance, when cloth is sold, some attention should be given to its actual market value; its qualities should be emphasized by feeling, etc.; and the child should be taught to observe whether the storekeeper has given him the right amount and the right quality. Money changing should be made ready and easy. The money which the children spend at the store should be earned by them as a reward for their application to study and their good behavior.

In our classes we have arithmetic lessons every day. The afternoon practice in the store prepares for the theoretical lesson of the following morning. Accordingly, on the day when the practical exercise occurs, there is no theoretical lesson and vice versa.

The decimal metric system applied to weights, measures and coinage is taught in the same way. The store should be equipped with scales, weights, dry and liquid measures, etc. All kinds of coins should be available, including bills up to $20 (100 francs). Work in the store should continue to be not only a help toward arithmetical computation but also toward the preparation for practical life. For instance, when cloth is sold, some attention should be given to its actual market value; its qualities should be emphasized by feeling, etc.; and the child should be taught to observe whether the storekeeper has given him the right amount and the right quality. Money changing should be made ready and easy. The money which the children spend at the store should be earned by them as a reward for their application to study and their good behavior.

To attract the attention of defective children strong sensory stimulants are necessary. The lessons, therefore, should be eminently practical. Every lesson should begin with the presentation of the object to be illustrated by the teacher in a few words distinctly pronounced with continual modulations of the voice and accompanied by vivid imitative expression. The lessons should be made as attractive as possible and, as far as practicable, presented under the form of games, so as to arouse the curiosity of the child: guessing games, blindman's buff, store-keeping, the sleep walker, the blind store-keeper, etc. But however amusing the game may be, the lesson should always be stopped while the child is still willing to continue. His attention, which is easily fatigued, should never be exhausted. Tofix ideas, lessons should be repeated many times. Each time, however, the same objects should be presented under different forms and in a different environment, so that it will always be interesting by appearing as something new: story-telling, living tableaux, large illustrations; colored pictures; stereopticon views, etc. In case individual teaching is necessary, as happens in the most elementary classes, care should be exercised to keep all the other children busy with different toys: insets, lacing-and-buttoning-frames, hooks and eyes, etc. When children refuse to take part in their lessons it is better not to use coercion, but to aim at obtaining obedience indirectly through the child's imitation of his schoolmates. Glowing praise of the pupils who are showing good will in their work almost always brings the recalcitrants to time. When a child shows he has understood the point under discussion, it is better not to ask for a repetition. His attention is easily fatigued, and the second time he may say badly what at first he gave successfully; and the failure may discourage him. It is well to be satisfied with the first good answer, bestow such praise as will afford the child a pleasant memory of what he has been doing; and go back to the subject on the following day, or, at the earliest, several hours later.In manual training, however, the situation is different. The lesson in this subject can be a whole hour long and should take the form of serious work and not of play. The child should be set early at some useful task, even if a little hard work, not unattended with risk, be involved (wood-cutting, boring, etc.). From the outset, thus, the child will become familiar with the difficulties of bread-winning effort and will learn to overcome them.Interest in work may be stimulated by appropriate rewards. The child may earn during work-hours the money for his purchases at the store, for his tickets to the theater and the stereopticon lecture. The child who does not work may be kept away from the more attractive lessons, such as dancing and music, which come immediately after the work hour. As a matter of fact, these children take to manual training very readily, provided the tasks assigned are adapted to the natural inclinations of the individual child in such a way that he maytake in his work the greatest possible satisfaction and thus by natural bent attain a skill useful to himself and society.

In manual training, however, the situation is different. The lesson in this subject can be a whole hour long and should take the form of serious work and not of play. The child should be set early at some useful task, even if a little hard work, not unattended with risk, be involved (wood-cutting, boring, etc.). From the outset, thus, the child will become familiar with the difficulties of bread-winning effort and will learn to overcome them.

Interest in work may be stimulated by appropriate rewards. The child may earn during work-hours the money for his purchases at the store, for his tickets to the theater and the stereopticon lecture. The child who does not work may be kept away from the more attractive lessons, such as dancing and music, which come immediately after the work hour. As a matter of fact, these children take to manual training very readily, provided the tasks assigned are adapted to the natural inclinations of the individual child in such a way that he maytake in his work the greatest possible satisfaction and thus by natural bent attain a skill useful to himself and society.

By the expression "moral education" we mean an education which tends to make a social being of an individual who is by nature extra- or anti-social. It presents two aspects which may be paralleled with the education thus far treated and which we call "intellectual education."In this latter training of the mind, we began by an appropriate hygienic cure of all those physical defects which could stand in the way of successful mental education. In moral education, likewise, we try to eliminate such defects as arise from some passing physical ailment. We should carefully consider the apparently causeless "naughtiness" of children, to see whether it may not be due to some intestinal disturbance, or to the early stages of some infectious disease. The symptoms of such diseases should be known to the teacher. I have been told that English mothers use the empirical method of administering purgatives or cold shower baths to "naughty children," often with good correctional effect. I suggest that such empiricism is hardly prudent where science is able to prescribe much safer and more efficacious methods. Child hygiene must be well known to the educator and should be the pivotal point of every educational system.In mental education, we began by reducing the child totonic quiescence;here we must begin by reducing the child toobedience.In mental education, to give the child his first notions of his physical person (personal imitation: touching of the parts of the body) and of his relations to environment (personal imitation: moving of objects, etc.) we had recourse toimitation;here, to instil in the child elementary notions of his duties, we must throw around the child an atmosphere morally correct, an environment in which, after attaining obedience, he canimitatepersons who act properly.In mental education we went on to the training of the senses; here we pass to the education offeelings. Our next step, inthe one case, was to the education proper of the mind; here it is to the training of the will.The parallel is perfect:hygienic training: hygiene;tonic quiescence:obedience;imitation: imitation (environment);sensory education: education of the feelings (sensibilities);mental education proper: education of the will.

In this latter training of the mind, we began by an appropriate hygienic cure of all those physical defects which could stand in the way of successful mental education. In moral education, likewise, we try to eliminate such defects as arise from some passing physical ailment. We should carefully consider the apparently causeless "naughtiness" of children, to see whether it may not be due to some intestinal disturbance, or to the early stages of some infectious disease. The symptoms of such diseases should be known to the teacher. I have been told that English mothers use the empirical method of administering purgatives or cold shower baths to "naughty children," often with good correctional effect. I suggest that such empiricism is hardly prudent where science is able to prescribe much safer and more efficacious methods. Child hygiene must be well known to the educator and should be the pivotal point of every educational system.

In mental education, we began by reducing the child totonic quiescence;here we must begin by reducing the child toobedience.

In mental education, to give the child his first notions of his physical person (personal imitation: touching of the parts of the body) and of his relations to environment (personal imitation: moving of objects, etc.) we had recourse toimitation;here, to instil in the child elementary notions of his duties, we must throw around the child an atmosphere morally correct, an environment in which, after attaining obedience, he canimitatepersons who act properly.

In mental education we went on to the training of the senses; here we pass to the education offeelings. Our next step, inthe one case, was to the education proper of the mind; here it is to the training of the will.

The parallel is perfect:

hygienic training: hygiene;tonic quiescence:obedience;imitation: imitation (environment);sensory education: education of the feelings (sensibilities);mental education proper: education of the will.

In a command the will of the teacher is imposed upon the defective child who is lacking in will. The will of the teacher is substituted for the child's will in impelling to action or inhibiting the child's impulses. From the very first the child must feel this will, which is imposed upon him and is irrevocably destined to overcome him. The child must understand that against this will he cannot offer any resistance. The teacher's command must be obeyed at whatever cost, even if coercive measures must be resorted to. No consideration should ever lead the teacher to desist from enforcing her command. The childmustsubmit and obey. The teacher accordingly, should be careful at first to command the child to move; since, if necessary she canforcehim to move. She may command the child to stand motionless because, if necessary, she can tie him or put him in a straight-jacket. She should never, on the other hand, command the child to "beg pardon," because the child may refuse, and in the face of this refusal the teacher may find herself helpless and lose her authority. To acquire authority in command, the teacher must possess a considerable power of suggestion; and this she can partially acquire. The teacher should be physically attractive, of an "imposing personality." She should have a clear musical voice, and some power of facial expression and gesture. These things may be in large part acquired by actual study of declamation and imitation, subjects in which the perfect teacher should be proficient. The artistic study ofcommand, which the teacher may undertake, presents itself under three aspects: voice study, gesture, facial expression.Voice and speech:The voice should be clear and musical, word articulation perfect. Any defect in pronunciation should effectually bar a teacher from the education of defective children. On days when the teacher has a cold and her voice is likely to assume false or ridiculous intonations, she should not think of correcting orcommandinga defective child. The teacher's voice must be impressive and suggestive to the child. If shouting and declamatory tirades have gone out of fashion in the education of normal children, they may serve very well in the education of defectives. Whereas, in the mental education of these unfortunates, we are to pronounce a few words, but very distinctly, here there is no objection to a veritable flood of speech, provided such lectures be free from monotony, the voice passing from tones of reproof to tones of sorrow, pathos, tenderness, etc. A few words are to receive special emphasis—those which we intend shall convey to the child what we wish him to understand. The rest of all we say will constitute for the child merely modulated, musical or painful sound. It is in the music of the human voice that the elements of the education of the feelings reside; whether in the prohibition against doing something wrong, we introduce the corrective command, or, in the order to perform some action, we include encouragement, menace, or promise of reward.Often the command is very simple. When the child is told to do something, he does not refuse. Nevertheless he is not easily persuaded. He must try to understand, first of all, what we want of him. The technique of such a simple command falls into two parts. We may call the firstincitement, and the secondexplanation. The whole command should be repeated several times with varied intonations and with stress on different words until each word in its order has been emphasized. "James, put that book on the table." In the first instance the command will beincitivein character, calling the attention of the child to the action and urging him to perform it. Here the accent should fall on the name of the child and on the imperative. The tone should be that of absolute command. "James,putthat book on the table." As we pass from the command to the explanation, the tone should be changed and somewhat softened. The first word should be clear and impelling,followed by slow, insistent words—"James, putthat bookon the table": "James, put that book on thetable": "James, put that bookonthe table." Thus the voice both in commanding and in describing what was commanded, while urging the child to perform the required action and guiding him to do it, was also affording us help in its suggestive power and by explanation.Gesture:The teacher must study particularly expressive gesture. She must always accompany what she says with gestures serving both to impel the child to actions and which suggest imitation and explain the command. Gestures should be expressive enough to be readily intelligible even without words; for example, if it is desirable to bring the child to perfect quiescence, as the command is given, the teacher should stop, become almost rigid, looking sharply at the child in such a way that he may be impressed by that rigid fixity which he sees before him and be brought by suggesting to imitate it. Then to keep the child motionless, the teacher may attract his attention by a slight almost continuous hypnotizing sort of whistle. To excite an apathetic child to movement the teacher should herself move, accompanying the stress of her voice with motion in her whole body.In thesimple command, arm gesture only should be used and as follows:ForIncitement:rapid movement in straight line.ForExplanation:slow movement in curve.Command ofquiescence:gesture up and down, from without toward the body.Command ofmovement:gesture from down, up, from within, out from the body.Facial expression and gaze:The gaze has a powerful effect on the child. It is the same gaze which impressed the child and brought him to the first steps in his education (see our chapter on theEducation of the Gaze). All the expressions of the eye are useful provided the teacher employs them properly. It is not a question of scowling at the child to frighten him, as might be supposed; but rather of bringing the eye as well as the whole face to express all those emotions which the teachermust herself actually feel in the presence of an obedient or rebellious, a patient or angry child; and of giving to this expression such clearness that the child cannot possibly be mistaken as to its meaning (Séguin, page 679). The teacher's face must be expressive, mobile, hence in harmonious relationship with what is to be expressed (calmness, gaiety, effort). The expression must never vary momentarily on account of any extraneous diversion which may occur; otherwise the children will soon learn to provoke such distractions of the teacher's attention. Such commands, which demand on the teacher's part so much artistic study, will, of course, not be necessary during the whole period of the child's education.

Voice and speech:The voice should be clear and musical, word articulation perfect. Any defect in pronunciation should effectually bar a teacher from the education of defective children. On days when the teacher has a cold and her voice is likely to assume false or ridiculous intonations, she should not think of correcting orcommandinga defective child. The teacher's voice must be impressive and suggestive to the child. If shouting and declamatory tirades have gone out of fashion in the education of normal children, they may serve very well in the education of defectives. Whereas, in the mental education of these unfortunates, we are to pronounce a few words, but very distinctly, here there is no objection to a veritable flood of speech, provided such lectures be free from monotony, the voice passing from tones of reproof to tones of sorrow, pathos, tenderness, etc. A few words are to receive special emphasis—those which we intend shall convey to the child what we wish him to understand. The rest of all we say will constitute for the child merely modulated, musical or painful sound. It is in the music of the human voice that the elements of the education of the feelings reside; whether in the prohibition against doing something wrong, we introduce the corrective command, or, in the order to perform some action, we include encouragement, menace, or promise of reward.

Often the command is very simple. When the child is told to do something, he does not refuse. Nevertheless he is not easily persuaded. He must try to understand, first of all, what we want of him. The technique of such a simple command falls into two parts. We may call the firstincitement, and the secondexplanation. The whole command should be repeated several times with varied intonations and with stress on different words until each word in its order has been emphasized. "James, put that book on the table." In the first instance the command will beincitivein character, calling the attention of the child to the action and urging him to perform it. Here the accent should fall on the name of the child and on the imperative. The tone should be that of absolute command. "James,putthat book on the table." As we pass from the command to the explanation, the tone should be changed and somewhat softened. The first word should be clear and impelling,followed by slow, insistent words—"James, putthat bookon the table": "James, put that book on thetable": "James, put that bookonthe table." Thus the voice both in commanding and in describing what was commanded, while urging the child to perform the required action and guiding him to do it, was also affording us help in its suggestive power and by explanation.

Gesture:The teacher must study particularly expressive gesture. She must always accompany what she says with gestures serving both to impel the child to actions and which suggest imitation and explain the command. Gestures should be expressive enough to be readily intelligible even without words; for example, if it is desirable to bring the child to perfect quiescence, as the command is given, the teacher should stop, become almost rigid, looking sharply at the child in such a way that he may be impressed by that rigid fixity which he sees before him and be brought by suggesting to imitate it. Then to keep the child motionless, the teacher may attract his attention by a slight almost continuous hypnotizing sort of whistle. To excite an apathetic child to movement the teacher should herself move, accompanying the stress of her voice with motion in her whole body.

In thesimple command, arm gesture only should be used and as follows:

ForIncitement:rapid movement in straight line.

ForExplanation:slow movement in curve.

Command ofquiescence:gesture up and down, from without toward the body.

Command ofmovement:gesture from down, up, from within, out from the body.

Facial expression and gaze:The gaze has a powerful effect on the child. It is the same gaze which impressed the child and brought him to the first steps in his education (see our chapter on theEducation of the Gaze). All the expressions of the eye are useful provided the teacher employs them properly. It is not a question of scowling at the child to frighten him, as might be supposed; but rather of bringing the eye as well as the whole face to express all those emotions which the teachermust herself actually feel in the presence of an obedient or rebellious, a patient or angry child; and of giving to this expression such clearness that the child cannot possibly be mistaken as to its meaning (Séguin, page 679). The teacher's face must be expressive, mobile, hence in harmonious relationship with what is to be expressed (calmness, gaiety, effort). The expression must never vary momentarily on account of any extraneous diversion which may occur; otherwise the children will soon learn to provoke such distractions of the teacher's attention. Such commands, which demand on the teacher's part so much artistic study, will, of course, not be necessary during the whole period of the child's education.

THE END

Transcriber's Notes:Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Varied hyphenation was retained.Page 29, the translations for "il lavoratore" and "l'italiano" were reversed. This was corrected.Page 29, order of feminine column of list from "la santa" down were out of order. The original read:il santola tagliatricethe saintil tagliatorela donnathe cutterl'uomola vecchiathe manil vecchiola visitatricethe old manil visitatorela ziathe visitorlo ziola santathe uncleThis was repaired.Page 30, "visitor" changed to "visitors" ("le visitatrici the visitors)Page 78, "vincino" changed to "vicino" (vicino a, accosto a)Page 90, "ziz-zag" changed to "zig-zag" (straight, zig-zag)Page 93, repeated word "a" deleted. Original read (into a a new kind of activity)Page 122, "oihmè" changed to "ohimè" (ahi! ohi! ohimè!)Page 156, "casual" changed to "causal" (causal clause)Page 198, "promesai" changed to "promessi" (I promessi sposi)Page 231, "discription" changed to "description" (Although this description may)Page 277, "demonator" changed to "denominator" (by the denominator)Page 363, third line of music, third note in bar five should be an "e" and not a "d" as shown. The attached midi plays the "e".Page 366, song, "Bethleem" changed to "Bethlehem" (Puer natus Bethlehem)Page 378, "passe" changed to "passa" (qualcuno passa e parla)Page 386, "spunta" changed to "spúnta" (Quinci spúnta per l'ária)Page 394, the symbols used were "U" and "—" in the tables as the figures used were not available. Starting with this table, the original puts an acute accent above the "—".Page 403, "In" changed to "Ín" (Ín there stépped)Page 437, "processs" changed to "process" (in the process of distinguishing)

Transcriber's Notes:

Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Varied hyphenation was retained.

Page 29, the translations for "il lavoratore" and "l'italiano" were reversed. This was corrected.

Page 29, order of feminine column of list from "la santa" down were out of order. The original read:

il santola tagliatricethe saintil tagliatorela donnathe cutterl'uomola vecchiathe manil vecchiola visitatricethe old manil visitatorela ziathe visitorlo ziola santathe uncle

This was repaired.

Page 30, "visitor" changed to "visitors" ("le visitatrici the visitors)

Page 78, "vincino" changed to "vicino" (vicino a, accosto a)

Page 90, "ziz-zag" changed to "zig-zag" (straight, zig-zag)

Page 93, repeated word "a" deleted. Original read (into a a new kind of activity)

Page 122, "oihmè" changed to "ohimè" (ahi! ohi! ohimè!)

Page 156, "casual" changed to "causal" (causal clause)

Page 198, "promesai" changed to "promessi" (I promessi sposi)

Page 231, "discription" changed to "description" (Although this description may)

Page 277, "demonator" changed to "denominator" (by the denominator)

Page 363, third line of music, third note in bar five should be an "e" and not a "d" as shown. The attached midi plays the "e".

Page 366, song, "Bethleem" changed to "Bethlehem" (Puer natus Bethlehem)

Page 378, "passe" changed to "passa" (qualcuno passa e parla)

Page 386, "spunta" changed to "spúnta" (Quinci spúnta per l'ária)

Page 394, the symbols used were "U" and "—" in the tables as the figures used were not available. Starting with this table, the original puts an acute accent above the "—".

Page 403, "In" changed to "Ín" (Ín there stépped)

Page 437, "processs" changed to "process" (in the process of distinguishing)

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