the handkerchiefthe bookthe dressthe tablethe mirrorthe sugarthe colorsthe flowersthe drawingsthe childrenthe shoesthe mena mana pearla prisma carda windowa chaira treean orangean applean unclean eyean insectan Americanan aunt
two childrens working at a tableOne of the first steps in grammar. The children are deeply interested in placing the correct articles and nouns together. (A Montessori School in Italy.)
The child tries to combine article and noun and puts them side by side on his little table. In this exercise he isguided by sound just as he was in building words with the movable alphabet. There the child's first step was to find relationships between real objects and the linguistic sounds corresponding to them. Now he sees suddenly revealed to him hitherto unsuspected relationships between these sounds, these words. To have an empirical way of demonstrating and testing these relationships, to practise very thoroughly on two kinds of words, suddenly brought forth into systematic distinctness from the chaos of words in his mind, offers the child not only a necessary exercise but the sensation of relief which comes from satisfying an inner spiritual need. With the most intense attention he persists to the very end of the exercise and takes great pride in his success. The teacher as she passes may glance about to see if all the cards are properly placed, but the child, doubtless, will call her to admire or verify the work that he has done, before he begins to gather together, first, all the articles, then, all the nouns, to return them to their boxes.
set of cardsGrammar Boxes. The one on the left is for articles and nouns only; the one on the right, for articles, nouns, and adjectives.
This is the first step; but he proceeds with increasing enthusiasm to set the words in his mind "in order," thereby enriching his vocabulary by placing new acquisitions in an already determined place. Thus he continues to construct, with respect to exterior objects, an inner spiritual system, which had already been begun by his sensory exercises.
The exercises on the number and gender of nouns are done without the help of the boxes. The child already knows that those words are articles and nouns, so we give him now small groups of forty cards (nouns and articles) held together by an elastic band. In each one, the group(tied separately) of the ten singular nouns serves as the guide for the exercise. These nouns are arranged in a column on the table, one beneath the other, and the other cards, which are shuffled, must be placed around this first group in the right order. There are two more cards of different colors on which the wordssingularandpluralrespectively are written; and these are placed at the top of the respective columns. We have prepared four series of ten nouns in alphabetical order. In this way four children may do the exercise at the same time and by exchanging material they come in contact with a very considerable number of words.
This is the way the cards should finally be arranged in the four different exercises:
SingolarePluraleSingularPluralil bambinoi bambinithe childthe children, etc.il berrettoi berrettithe capla boccale bocchethe mouthil calamaioi calamaithe inkstandla calzale calzethe stockingla casale casethe houseil cappelloi cappellithe hatSingolarePluraleSingularPluralla maestrale maestrethe teacherthe teachers, etc.la manole manithe handla matitale matitethe pencilil nasoi nasithe noseil nastroi nastrithe ribbonl'occhiogli occhithe eyel'orologiogli orologithe clock (watch)il panchettoi panchettithe benchSingolarePluraleSingularPluralil dentei dentithe tooththe teeth, etc.l'elasticogli elasticithe elasticil fagioloi fagiolithe beanla favale favethe beanla gambale gambethe legil gessoi gessithe plasterla giaccale giacchethe coatil grembialei grembialithe apronSingolarePluraleSingularPluralil piedei piedithe footthe feet, etc.il quadernoi quadernithe copy bookla rapai rapethe turnipla scarpale scarpethe shoela tascale taschethe pocketil tavolinoi tavolinithe tablela testale testethe headl'unghiale unghiethe nail (finger)
Like material has been prepared for the masculine and feminine forms: The masculine group is kept by itself, while the feminines are shuffled.
MaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil contela contessathe countthe countess, etc.l'amicol'amicathe friendl'asinol'asinathe donkeyil babbola mammathe fatheril benefattorela benefattricethe benefactoril bottegaiola bottegaiathe shop-keeperil cuginola cuginathe cousinil cuocola cuocathe cookil cacciatorela cacciatricethe hunteril cavallola cavallathe horseMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil ducala duchessathe dukethe duchess, etc.il canarinola canarinathe canaryil dottorela dottoressathe doctoril dattilografola dattilografathe stenographerl'elefantel'elefantessathe elephantil figliola figliathe sonil fratellola sorellathe brotheril gallola gallinathe cockil gattola gattathe catMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil leonela leonessathe lionthe lioness, etc.l'ispettorel'ispettricethe inspectoril lupola lupathe wolfil lettorela lettricethe readeril maestrola maestrathe schoolmasteril marchesela marchesathe marquisil mulola mulathe muleil nonnola nonnathe grandfatheril nemicola nemicathe enemyl'ostel'ostessathe hostthe hostess, etc.l'orologiaiol'orologiaiathe watch-makeril poetala poetessathe poetil pellicciaiola pellicciaiathe furrieril padrela madrethe fatheril rela reginathe kingil ranocchiola ranocchiathe froglo sposola sposathe husbandil servola servathe man-servantil somarola somarathe ass
Finally there are three series of nouns in four forms: Singular and Plural, Masculine and Feminine. Each group has eighty cards counting both nouns and articles, and the ten singular masculines in the guiding group are kept together, apart from the others. The title cards (twelve in number) aresingularandpluraland for each of them is a card markedmasculineand a card markedfeminine. The following is the order of the material when properly arranged by the child:
SingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininel'amicol'amicathe friendthe friend, etc.il bambinola bambinathe childil burattinaiola burattinaiathe puppet-playeril contadinola contadinathe peasantil cavallola cavallathe horseil compagnola compagnathe companionil disegnatorela disegnatricethe designeril dattilografola dattilografathe stenographerl'ebreol'ebreathe Jewil fanciullola fanciullathe boyPluralePluralMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininegli amicile amichethe friendsthe friends, etc.i bambinile bambinethe childreni burattinaile burattinaiethe puppet-playersi contadinile contadinethe peasantsi cavallile cavallethe horsesi compagnile compagnethe companionsi disegnatorile disegnatricithe designersi dattilografile dattilografethe stenographersgli ebreil'ebreethe Jewsi fanciullile fanciullethe boysSingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil gattola gattathe catthe cat, etc.il giardinierela giardinierathe gardeneril giovinettola giovinettathe youthl'infermierel'infermierathe nursel'italianol'italianathe Italianil lavoratorela lavoratricethe workeril medicola medichessathe physicianil materassaiola materassaiathe mattress-makerl'operaiol'operaiathe workmanil pittorela pittricethe painterPluralePluralMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininei gattile gattethe catsthe cats, etc.i giardinierile giardinierethe gardenersi giovinettile giovinettethe youthsgl'infermierile infermierethe nursesgl'italianile italianethe Italiansi lavoratorile lavoratricithe workersi medicile medichessethe physiciansi materassaile materassaiethe mattress-makersgli operaile operaiethe workmeni pittorile pittricithe paintersSingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil ragazzola ragazzathe boythe girl, etc.il romanola romanathe Romanlo scolarela scolarathe scholaril sartola sartathe tailoril santola santathe saintil tagliatorela tagliatricethe cutterl'uomola donnathe manil vecchiola vecchiathe old manil visitatorela visitatricethe visitorlo ziola ziathe unclePluralePluralMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininei ragazzile ragazzethe boysthe girls, etc.i romanile romanethe Romansgli scolarile scolarethe scholarsi sartile sartethe tailorsi santile santethe saintsi tagliatorile tagliatricithe cuttersgli uominile donnethe meni vecchile vecchiethe old meni visitatorile visitatricithe visitorsgli ziile ziethe uncles
Occasionally class exercises are used in our schools for the four forms of the Italian noun, masculine and feminine, singular and plural. They take the form almost of a game, which the children find amusing. A child for instance distributes around the class all the plural nouns. Then he reads aloud a noun in the singular. The child who holds the corresponding plural answers immediately. The same thing is next done for masculine and feminine, and, finally, for all four forms at once.
When these exercises have become familiar to the child, others somewhat more difficult may be presented. These new ones comprise: nouns which change form completely as they change gender and of which, so far, only the most familiar examples (babbo, "father,"mamma, "mother," etc.) have been given (Series A); nouns in which the form is the same in the singular of both genders (Series B); those in which both genders have a common form in the singular and a common form in the plural (Series C); nouns which have only one form for both singular and plural (Series D); nouns where the same form appears in both genders but with a different meaning (Series E); finally, nouns which change gender as they pass from the singular to the plural (Series F).
SERIES A
SingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil babbola mammathe fatherthe motheril beccola caprathe he-goatthe she-goatil fratela suorathe friarthe nunil fratellola sorellathe brotherthe sisteril generola nuorathe son-in-lawthe daughter-in-lawil montonela pecorathe ramthe eweil maschiola femminathe malethe femaleil maritola mogliethe husbandthe wifeil padrela madrethe fatherthe motheril padrinola madrinathe godfatherthe godmotheril porcola scrofathe hogthe sowil torola vaccathe bullthe cowl'uomola donnathe manthe womanil rela reginathe kingthe queenPluralePluralMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininei babbile mammethe fathersthe mothers, etc.i becchile caprethe he-goatsi fratile suorethe friarsi fratellile sorellethe brothersi generile nuorethe sons-in-lawi montonile pecorethe ramsi maschile femminethe malesi maritile moglithe husbandsi padrile madrithe fathersi padrinile madrinethe godfathersi porcile scrofethe hogsi torile vacchethe bullsgli uominile donnethe meni rele reginethe kings
SERIES B
SingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininel'artistal'artistathe artistthe artist, etc.il collegala collegathe colleagueil dentistala dentistathe dentistil pianistala pianistathe pianistil telefonistala telefonistathe telephone operatoril telegrafistala telegrafistathe telegraph operatoril violinistala violinistathe violinistPluralePluralMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininegli artistile artistethe artiststhe artists, etc.i colleghile colleghethe colleaguesi dentistile dentistethe dentistsi pianistile pianistethe pianistsi telefonistile telefonistethe telephone operatorsi telegrafistile telegrafistethe telegraph operatorsi violinistile violinistethe violinists
SERIES C
SingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil consortela consortethe husbandthe wife, etc.il custodela custodethe keeperil cantantela cantantethe singerl'eredel'eredethe heiril giovanela giovanethe youthl'inglesel'inglesethe Englishmanil nipotela nipotethe nephew(grandson)i consortile consortithe husbandsthe wives, etc.i custodile custodithe guardsi cantantile cantantithe singersgli eredil'eredithe heirsi giovanile giovanithe youthsgl'inglesile inglesithe Englishmeni nipotile nipotithe nephews(grandsons)
SERIES D
SingolareSingularil bazari bazarthe bazaarthe bazaars, etc.il caffèi caffèthe coffeeil gasi gasthe gasla grule gruthe craneil lapisi lapisthe pencilla libertàle libertàthe libertyl'omnibusgli omnibusthe omnibusla virtùle virtùthe virtue
SERIES E
SingolareSingularMaschileFemminileMasculineFeminineil melola melathe apple treethe appleil pescola pescathe peach treethe peachl'ulivol'ulivathe olive treethe oliveil pugnola pugnathe blow (punch)the battleil manicola manicathe handlethe sleeveil suolola suolathe floorthe solePluralePluralMaschileFemminileMasculineFemininei melile melethe apple treethe applesi peschile peschethe peach treethe peachesgli ulivile ulivethe olive treesthe olivesi pugnile pugnethe blows (punches)the battlesi manichile manichethe handlesthe sleevesi suolile suolethe floorsthe soles
SERIES F
SingolarePluraleSingularPluralil centinalole centinalathe hundredthe hundreds, etc.il ditole ditathe fingerla ecogli echithe echoil paiole paiathe pairil risole risathe smile (laugh)l'uovole uovathe egg
Translator's Note:—While the formation of the English plural does not present the complications of gender that appear in Italian, the phonetic adaptations required by the plural ending -s along with certain orthographical caprices and historical survivals of the language, result in a situation somewhat more complex than treated by Signora Montessori. In fact, her analysis of the Italian plural requires eight word-lists, while English requires at least fourteen, not including the question of foreign nouns. The special stress on the article is hardly necessary in English. An analogous treatment for English would be somewhat as follows:
SERIES I(Simple plurals in-s)SingularPluralbookbooksbedbedsdeskdesksstreetstreetstreetreescardcardsprismprismslamplampscowcowscatcatstraintrainsticketticketscarcarsfloorfloorschairschairspinpinsshoeshoeswagonwagonsbeanbeanscountercountersSERIES II(Plurals in-es, including-spronounced like-es)List ASingularPluralhousehouseshorsehorsesprizeprizesjudgejudgescagecagescasecasessausagesausageswedgewedgesedgeedgesledgeledgesList BSingularPluralbushbusheschurchchurchesboxboxesfoxfoxesglassglasseswatchwatchestopaztopazesclassclasseswretchwretchesSERIES III(Plurals of Nouns in-o)List ASingularPluralpotatopotatoesnegronegroesvolcanovolcanoestomatotomatoesSERIES III(Plurals of Nouns in-o)List AheroheroesmosquitomosquitoesmottomottoesdominodominoesList BSingularPluralpianopianossopranosopranoszerozerosbanjobanjoshalohalosdynamodynamoscantocantossolosolosmementomementoschromochromosSERIES IV(Nouns in-for-fe)List ASingularPluralcalfcalveselfelveshalfhalvesloafloaveswolfwolvesshelfshelvesthiefthievesleafloavesselfselvesList BSingularPluralknifekniveswifewiveslifelivesList CSingularPluralstaffstaffswharfwharfspuffpuffscliffcliffsscarfscarfschiefchiefsfifefifesSERIES V(Nouns in-y)List ASingularPluralbodybodiesskyskiesgipsygipsiesberryberriespennypenniessoliloquysoliloquiesstystiesMaryMariesferryferriescountrycountriesList BSingularPluralboyboysvalleyvalleysdaydaysderbyderbysSERIES VI(Plurals in-en)SingularPluralchildchildrenoxoxenbrotherbrethren (brothers)SERIES VII(Plurals with internal change (umlaut))SingularPluralfootfeettoothteethgoosegeeselouselicemousemicemanmenwomanwomenSERIES VIII(Singular and Plural identical)SingularPluralsheepsheepfishfishdeerdeerswineswineSERIES IX(Compound words)List ASingularPluralblack-birdblack-birdssteamboatsteamboatsredcoatredcoatsredbreastredbreastsforget-me-notforget-me-notsspoonfulspoonfulsmouthfulmouthfulsList BSingularPluralbrother-in-lawbrothers-in-lawmother-in-lawmothers-in-lawcourt-martialcourts-martialattorney-generalattorneys-generalsgeneral-in-chiefgenerals-in-chiefKnight-TemplarKnights-Templar
SERIES I
SERIES II
SERIES III
SERIES III
SERIES IV
SERIES V
SERIES VI
SERIES VII
SERIES VIII
SERIES IX
All these groups of words in their order are reproduced in special booklets which the children may take home and read. In actual practise such books have proved both convenient and necessary. The children generally spend much time on them and delight in reading the words over and over in the order in which they themselves have discovered them in the card exercise. This recalls and fixes their own ideas, inducing a sort of inner maturation which is often followed by the spontaneous discovery of grammatical laws on the relations of nouns, or by a lively interest which throws the children into exclamations or laughter as they observe what great differences of meaning are sometimes caused by a very slight change in the word. At the same time these simple exercises, so fruitful in results, may be used for work at home and well meet thedemands for something to do with which children are continually assailing their parents. For homework we have prepared alphabets where the letters are printed in type-writing order. With them the child can compose words, or later, sentences, at the same time becoming familiar with the alphabet arrangement of standard typewriters.