[2] Nietsche:Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Helen Zimmern, p. 174.
[3] Edmund Burke:A Vindication of Natural Society, Preface, pp. 4, 5. (Boston, 1806.)
[4] The classic discussion of the whole matter is to be found in Aristotle'sNicomachean Ethics, Book I, Chapters I-VI, translated by J. E. C. Welldon.Cf.also Fr. Paulsen:System of Ethics, Book II, Chapters I, II, translated by Frank Thilly; G. H. Palmer:The Nature of Goodness, Chapters I, II; and W. James:The Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life, in hisWill to Believe.
[5] The issue is presented clearly and briefly in Paulsen:Op. cit., Book II, Chapter II, and in James'sPrinciples of Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 549-559.
[6] Nietsche:Op. cit., p. 107.
[7] Huxley:Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays, pp. 81-82. The first two essays contained in this volume, theProlegomena, and theRomanes Lecture, contain a very interesting study of the relation of morality to nature.
[8] Huxley:Op. cit., p. 13.
[9] G. K. Chesterton:Napoleon of Notting Hill, p. 291. The whole book is a brilliant satire, intended to show that all of the heroic sentiments and virtues depend on war and local pride.
[10] Nietsche:Op. cit., pp. 59, 163, 176, 223, 235, 237, 122.
[11] Chesterton:Heretics, andOrthodoxy.
[12] Plato:Protagoras, p. 322 (marginal pagination), andpassim; translated by Jowett.
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[1] Locke:The Conduct of the Understanding, Bohn's Library Edition, Vol. I, p. 72; also,passim.
[2] Locke:Op. cit., p. 56.
[3] Descartes:Discourse on Method, translated by Veitch, pp. 13-14. Also,passim.
[4] Spinoza:The Improvement of the Understanding, translated by Elwes, Vol. II, p. 4.
[5]Cf.Plato'sRepublic, Books V-VII,passim.
[6] For further discussion of the meaning of duty,cf.Kant'sCritical Examination of the Practical Reason, Book I, Chapter III, translated in Abbott'sKant's Theory of Ethics, p. 164; Bradley'sEthical Studies, Essays II and V; and Sidgwick'sMethods of Ethics, Book I, Chapter III.
[7] Chesterton:Napoleon of Notting Hill, p. 162.
[8] G. E. Moore:Principia Ethica, Chapter III, Sect. 58-63.
[9] Locke:Op. cit., p. 29.
[10] There is an excellent account of the questions that lie on the border between ethics and jurisprudence in S. E. Mezes'sEthics, Descriptive and Explanatory, Chapter XIII.
[11] Kant:Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, translated in Abbott'sKant's Theory of Ethics, p. 47.
[12] H. G. Lord:The Abuse of Abstraction in Ethics, inEssays Philosophical and Psychological in Honor of William James, pp. 376-377.
[13] John Davidson:A Rosary, pp. 77, 82.
[14] Maurice Maeterlinck:The Measure of the Hours, translated by A. T. de Mattos, p. 151. The essay in this volume, entitled "Our Anxious Morality," charges rationalism with destroying the romantic and mystical element in life.
[1] A good discussion of the several virtues will be found in Paulsen:Op. cit., Book III.
[2] W. H. S. Jones:Greek Morality, p. 50.
[3] Jeremy Taylor:Rules and Exercises of Holy Living, edited by Ezra Abbot, p. 73.
[4] Jones:Op. cit., p. 124.
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[5] Count Baldesar Castiglione:The Book of the Courtier, translated by Opdycke, p. 250.
[6]Cf.Hobbes:Leviathan, Chapters XIII, XIV, XV. In Hobbes's account, morality is reduced wholly to the prudential economy.
[7] H. G. Wells: First and Last Things, p. 82.
[8] Castiglione:Op. cit., p. 257.
[9] Burke:Op. cit., p. 8.
[10] Epictetus:Discourses, Book III, Chapter XXII, translated by Long, Vol. II, pp. 82, 83.
[11] Taylor:Op. cit., p. 7.
[12] Epictetus:Op. cit., Book II, Chapter XXI, translated by Long, Vol. I, p. 229.
[13]Cf.Hegel:Philosophy of Right, Third Part, Third Section, translated by S. W. Dyde; andPhilosophy of History, Introduction, translated by J. Sibree.
[14]Cf.Plato'sRepublic,passim, but especially Book IV. Plato makes the state analogous to the individual organism, requiring baser classes that shall permanently supply its lower functions, as well as classes that shall supply its higher functions and so participate in its full benefits.
[15] Aristotle:Politics, Book II, Chapter V, translated by Jowett, p. 35.Cf.also Chapter II.
[16] Epictetus:Op. cit., Book II, Chapter XV, translated by Long, Vol. I, p. 189.
[17] Sophocles:Antigone, translated by G. H. Palmer, pp. 61, 62.
[18] Munro and Sellery:Medieval Civilization, pp. 349-350.
[19] Castiglione:Op. cit., p. 261.
[20] Quoted from Diog. Laert. by Jones,Op. cit., p. 69. For a full account,cf.Aristotle'sNicomachean Ethics, Books VIII and IX, translated by Welldon, pp. 245-314.
[21] Walter Bagehot:Physics and Politics, No. V, in the edition of the International Scientific Series, pp. 165-166.Cf.this chapterpassim.
[22] Matthew Arnold:Culture and Anarchy, p. 100.
[23] Quoted by Jones:Op. cit., p. 128.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Arnold:Op. cit., pp. 25-26.Cf. passim.
[26] Euripides:Medea, translated by Gilbert Murray, pp. 67-68.
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[27]Cf., e. g., Aristotle,Nicomachean Ethics, Book X. Also J. A. Farrer'sPaganism and Christianity, passim; and Paulsen,op. cit., Book I, Chapters I-III.
[28] Sir Thomas Browne;Religio Medici, edited by J. M. Dent & Co., p. 97.
[29] W. James:Pragmatism, p. 230.
[30] Browne:Op. cit., pp. 118-119.
[31]Ibid., p. 110.
[32] Castiglione:Op. cit., pp. 304-305.
[1] The nearest approach to such a philosophy of history is George Santayana's Life of Reason. The reader will find it the best book of reference for this and the following chapter.Cf.also, Samuel Alexander's Moral Order and Progress.
[2] Bagehot:Op. cit., No. VI, pp. 208-209.
[3]Ibid., p. 161.
[4] Nietsche:Op. cit., pp. 65-66.
[5] For a general ethical discussion of the function of government,cf.Santayana:Reason in Society, Chapters III-VIII.
[6] Sophocles:Antigone, translated by Palmer, pp. 60, 63-64.
[7] 1 Samuel, Chapter VIII.
[8] Quoted in Taine'sPhilosophy of Art in Greece, translated by J. Durand, p. 130.
[9] Thucydides:Peloponnesian War, Book II, Chapters 37-40, translated by Jowett, pp. 117-119.
[10] Plato:Republic, Book IV, p. 433, translated by Jowett.
[11] Burke: Op. cit., p. 43.
[12] For a brief statement of the elements of political science in their application to modern institutions,cf.E. Jenks:A History of Politics.
[12] Arnold:The Future of Liberalism, in the volume,Mixed Essays, Irish Essays and Others, p. 383.Cf.also the admirable essay on Democracy in the same volume.
[14] Plato:Republic, Book I, p. 335, translated by Jowett.
[15] Wells:Op. cit., pp. 130-131.
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[1] A good account of the meaning of art is to be found in Santayana'sReason in Art, Chapters I-III.
[2] For this whole topic of the aesthetic interest,cf.H. R. Marshall'sPleasure, Pain, and Aesthetics.
[3] For an interpretation of painting in terms of the perceptual process,cf.B. Berenson'sFlorentine Painters of the Renaissance, pp. 1-16; andNorth Italian Painters of the Renaissance, pp. 145-157.
[4] The best account of the emotions and instincts is to be found in James'sPrinciples of Psychology, Vol. II, Chapters XXIV, XXV.
[5] Walter Pater:The Renaissance, p. 140.
[6] Taine:Op. cit., pp. 112, 114-115, andpassim.
[7] Pater:Op. cit., pp. 129-130;cf.the chapter onLeonardo da Vinci, entire.
[8] Plato:Republic, Book III, p. 398, translated by Jowett. The whole of Books III and X are interesting in this connection.
[9] In connection with the general topic of the moral criticism of art,cf.Santayana'sReason in Art, Chapters IX-XI; also Ruskin'sLectures on Art, Lectures II-IV.
[10] Aristotle:Nicomachean Ethics, Book X.
[11]Cf.theRepublic, Book X.
[12] Arthur Benson:Beside Still Waters, pp. 138-139.Cf.also pp. 143-144.
[13] Pater:Op. cit., pp. 249, 250;cf.the Conclusion, passim.
[14] James:Op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 125-126.
[15]Republic; Book X, p. 606, translated by Jowett.
[16]Ibid., Book III, p. 399.
[17] Aristotle:Politics, Book VIII, Chapter V, translated by Jowett, p. 252.
[18] Taine:The Ideal in Art, translated by J. Durand, pp. 42sq.
[19] Tolstóy:What is Art?X, translated by Leo Wiener, p. 227.
[20] Arnold:Culture and Anarchy, pp. 37, 38.Cf.Chapter I,passim.
[21]Republic, Book III, p. 401, translation by Jowett.
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[1] This chapter is reprinted from theHarvard Theological Reviewfor April, 1909.
[2] I have treated this matter more fully in myApproach to Philosophy, Chapters III and IV. At the close of that book the reader will find a selected bibliography of the subject.
[3] John Henry Newman:Apologia pro Vita Sua, p. 239. The whole book is of interest in this connection.
[4] Munro and Sellery:Mediaeval Civilization, p. 69.
[5]Fragments of Xenophanes, in Burnet'sEarly Greek Philosophy, p. 115.
[6] Lucretius:De Rerum Natura, Book I, lines 1021-1028, translated by Munro.
[7]Isaiah1:15-17.
[8] For a brief account of primitive religion,cf.J. B. Pratt'sPsychology of Religious Belief. For a fuller account,cf.F. B. Jevons'sIntroduction to the History of Religion.
[9] Munro and Sellery:Op. cit., pp. 80, 75.
[10] A. H. Sayce:Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 253.
[11] A. Wiedemann:Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 250.
[12]Cf.H. C. Warren'sBuddhism in Translation.
[13] The reader will find a good exposition of mysticism in Royce'sWorld and the Individual, First Series, Lectures II, IV, V.
[14]Cf., e. g.,Epictetus: Discourses, Book II, Chapter VIII.
[15]Cf.Spinoza's Ethics,passim, translated by Elwes.
[16]Cf.Royce's account of Romanticism and Hegel, in hisSpirit of Modern Philosophy, Lectures VI, VII. This motive, together with the motive of mysticism, appears in such writings as J. McT. E. McTaggart'sStudies in Hegelian Cosmology, Chapter IX; and A. E. Taylor'sProblem of Conduct, Chapter VIII.
[17] Thomas Hardy:The Dynasts, Part I, p. 5.
[18] John Davidson:A Rosary, p. 88.
[19] James:Pragmatism, p. 144. The whole chapter is a brilliant representation of the stand-point of moral idealism.
[20] G. K. Chesterton:The Man Who Was Thursday, pp. 278-279.
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Achievement, 79, 81, 97.Adaptation, 22.Aesthetic Interest, definition of, 179; varieties of, 181ff.,189; moral limitation of, 190; sell-sufficiency of, 192;exaggeration of, 192, 195, 198ff.; its pervasiveness,194ff.; vicariousness of, 197; stimulating characterof, 201, 203ff.; liberality of, 209ff.;in religion, 246ff.Aimlessness, 94.Anarchism, 107.Aristotle, quoted, 100, 106, 192, 204.Arnold, M., quoted, 108, 109, 112, 164, 211.Art, moral criticism of, Ch. V;its liability to moral criticism, 173 ff; definition of,177; distinction between industrial and fine, 177ff.;emotion in, 182ff.; representative function of, 185ff.,203ff.; Greek, 185ff.; of Renaissance, 187;censorship of, 190; stimulating character of, 201ff.;truth in, 205ff.; universality and particularity of,207ff.; and liberality, 209ff.; moral function of, 212.Asceticism, 79, 81, 92ff.
Bagehot, quoted, 106, 127, 132.Beauty, and goodness, 172ff.Belief, and religion, 216, 220, 228.Benson, A., quoted, 194.Bigotry, 79, 81, 101ff.Browne, Sir Thomas, quoted, 115, 117, 118.Buddhism, 243.Burke, quoted, 6, 92, 158, 214.Butler, J., quoted, 1.
Castiglione, quoted, 89, 90, 119.Character, 97.Chesterton, G. K., 32; quoted, 28, 55, 250.Christianity, 94, 111, 114ff., 140, 158, 187, 228, 239, 243.Civilization, 3, 6, 10, 23, 32, 124, 137, 167, 170, 215. SeeProgress.Competition, 14, 129, 130; relation to morality, 24ff.Conscience, 34, 36. See Duty.Conservatism, 144ff.Convention, 36, 38 ff.Cosmological, test of religion, 224, 225, 234, 237,240, 241, 252.Courage, 95.Culture, 211, 253. Chap. V,passim.Cynics, the Greek, 92ff., 137.
Davidson, J., quoted, 70, 248.Democracy, 29, 39; modern idea of, 158ff., 163ff.Descartes, quoted, 35.Desire, 11. See Interest.Discussion, 106, 132.Dogmatism, 4.Duty, Ch. II, 40, 72; formalism and, 76.
Egoism, theoretical, 59ff.; practical, 79, 81, 101.Emotion, and art, 182ff., 201ff.Epictetus, quoted, 93, 96, 100.Equality, 65, 66, 158ff., 163ff.Ethics, and history, 124; and religion, 224ff., 233, 240,241, 252; independence of, 228. See Morality.Euripides, quoted, 114.Evil, 11, 15, 84, 86; religious conception of, 243ff.,249ff.See Good, Vice, Formalism, Materialism.
Faith, 33, 71.Fine Art. See Art.Formalism, 74ff., 92; and duty, 76, 77; varieties of,79, 81, 92, 98, 107, 116, 209, 242.Freedom, 36, 107, 164.
God, 216, 224ff., 229, 232, 237, 240, 245, 249.Good, basal definition of, 11ff., 44; definition of moral,15ff.; relativity of, 45ff.; relation to beautiful,172ff., 212.Good-will, logic of, 67ff.; virtue of, 79, 81, 113ff., 158.Government, 14; progress in, 148ff.; Platonic theory of,148; definition of, 150; ancient forms of, 152ff.;summary of modern, 160ff.Greece, morality of, 110, 114; government in, 154ff.; artof, 185ff., 204; religion of, 226.
Happiness, 18, 115, 116ff.Hardy, T., quoted, 247.Health, 79, 81, 88ff.Hebrews, government of, 152; religion of, 227, 239.Hedonism, 16.History, meaning of, 123ff.Hobbes, 89.Honesty, 88.Huxley, theory of morality and nature, 21ff.
Idealism, metaphysical, 242ff.; aesthetic, 246;moral, 248ff.Idleness, 94.Imagination, 28, 69, 111.Imprudence, 79, 81, 85ff.Incapacity, 79, 81, 83.Individualism, 34ff.Injustice, 79, 81, 103. See Justice.Institutions, their necessity, 3, 147. See Government.Intelligence, 79, 81, 82ff.Interest, definition of, 11, 43; organization of, 13, 14, 19,variety of, 16, 17; the higher, 52; conflict of, 53;objective validity of, 54; private, 57ff.; thepotential, 67, 68, 167; present and ulterior, 74ff.;economies of, 78; simple, 78, 81, 82ff.; reciprocityof, 78, 81, 87ff., incorporation of, 78, 81, 95ff.;fraternity of, 78, 81, 105ff.; universal systemof, 79, 81, 112ff.; and progress, 132; and reform, 137;and revolution, 139; and government, 148ff.; theaesthetic, 179; the theoretical, 180, 193; varieties ofthe aesthetic, 181ff.See Aesthetic Interest.
James, W., quoted, 116, 199, 249.Justice, meanings of, 63, 79, 81, 105, 158, 163;logic of, 63ff.
Kant, quoted, 64.
Laissez-faire, 108.Liberality, 156; and art, 209.Life, morality as the organization of, Ch. I; versusmechanism, 10, 22; morality one with, 19, 27; method of, 23.Locke, quoted, 34, 35, 62.Logic, of the moral appeal, Ch. II; and the imagination, 69.Lord, H. G., quoted, 69.Lucretius, quoted, 226.
Maeterlinck, quoted, 71.Manners, 121.Materialism, 74ff., 84; varieties of, 79, 81, 94, 101,110, 243.Mechanical Nature, 12; lack of value in, 9, 84; andprogress, 130.Menander, quoted, 88.Metaphysics and religion, 242ff.Moderation, 87.Moore, G. E., critique of egoism, 59ff.Morality, as the organization of life, Ch. I; the dulnessof, 1; as verified truth, 7; its universal pertinence,7ff.; essential to life, 9, 32; natural genesis of,9ff.; basal definition of, 13; and nature, 20ff.;and competition, 24ff.; the logic of, Ch. II; rationalground of, 38, 40ff.; material and formal aspects of,74ff., 121; and progress, Ch. IV; and art, Ch. V; andaesthetic standards, 172ff.; and religion, Ch. VI;and idealism, 248ff.Mysticism, 116, 244; and art, 208.
Nationalism, 99.Nature, genesis of morality in, 9ff.; and morality,20ff.; theories of, in religion, 224, 225, 234, 237, 240.Newman, J. H., quoted, 220.Nietsche, his conception of morality, 1, 5, 6, 20, 29ff., 165.
Optimism, 230, 242, 247.Other-worldliness, 115, 243.Overindulgence, 79, 81, 84ff.
Panlogism, 244.Pater, quoted, 185, 188; on the aesthetic interest, 196.Patience, 95.Pessimism, 114, 243.Philosophy, of history, 123ff.; and religion, 241ff.Piety, 67, 68, 120, 223, 253, 254.Pity, 111, 163.Plato, quoted, 32; individualism in, 37; nationalism in,100; account of disinterested activity in, 135ff.;theory of government in, 148; on art, 190, 193, 202, 212;on religion, 244.Pleasure, its relation to morality, 16ff.Preference, 50; the quantitative principle of, 55ff., 127.Progress, moral test of, Ch. IV, 127; definition of, 125ff.;principles of, 130ff.; by constructive reform, 134ff.;by revolution, 139ff.Prudence, 79, 81, logical ground of, 43ff.; limits of,49, 88, 90, 91, 94; meaning of, 87ff.; basal character of,91; in religion, 232.Purpose, logic of, 50ff.; virtue of, 95ff.
Radicalism, 145ff.Rationality, 37, 42, 65; and progress, 134, 142; ingovernment, 152.Reform, 134ff.Religion, 79, 81; and good-will, 113; mysticism in, 117; as aninstitution, 148; and progress, 170; moral justificationof, Ch. VI; moral necessity of, 214ff.; definitionof, 215ff.; quantitative tests of, 218ff.;psychological study of, 220; belief in, 216, 220; therapeutictest of, 222ff.; superstitious, 232ff.; primitive,233ff.; and ethics, 224ff., 233, 240, 241, 252;cosmological test of, 224, 225, 234, 237, 240, 241,252; tutelary, 237ff.; Assyrian, 238; Egyptian, 238;Hebrew, 227, 239; philosophical, 241ff.; genericproof of, 252ff.See Piety, Good-will, Worship andChristianity.Revolution, definition of, 139; the Christian, 140; theFrench, 141.Rightness, 18. See Virtue.
Satisfaction, 11, 79, 81, 83.Scepticism, 4ff., 36, 108.Sentimentalism, 98ff., and art, 209.Society, Chap. I,passim, 38; prudential basis of, 89;character of modern, 39, 166; progress in, 126, 132;continuity of, 143; and the aesthetic interest, 195, 211.Sophocles, quoted, 102, 151.Sordidness, 79, 81, 94.Spinoza, quoted, 35.Stoics, religion of, 245. See Epictetus.Struggle for existence, 30; its relation to morality, 21ff.;its relation to progress, 130.Superstition, 232ff.Survival, 24, 131.
Tact, 88.Taine, quoted, 185.Taylor, J., quoted, 86, 94.Temperance, 90.Thrift, 68, 87.Thucydides, quoted, 156.Tolerance, 38, 105, 164.Tolstóy, on art, 207.Truth, of art, 205ff.; of religion, 220ff.Truthfulness, 96. See Veracity.Tyranny, 36, 39, 151ff.
Value, the simpler terms of, 11, 82; definition of moral,15; varieties of moral, 79, 81.Veracity, 88, 96, 105.Vice, varieties of, 79, 81. See Virtue, Formalism, andMaterialism.Virtue, the order of, Ch. III; verification of, 73;varieties of, 73, 79; classification of, 73ff.; tableof, 81. See under particular virtues, Prudence, etc.
War, and morality, 24ff., 30; the passing of, 28, 162; andprogress, 131.Wells, H. G., quoted, 89, 167.Worldliness, 79, 81, 110ff.Worship, 122, 232, 235, 237, 240.
Xenophanes, quoted, 326.