[The present state of chemical science, and the geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years, seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and earthquakes result fromsulphur,iron, andwater, as Mr. Lemery’s experiment seems to indicate.The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in producing volcanic action, and earthquakes,volcanic products would give evidence of it, by being, principally,sulphate of iron. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100 parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at all.Volcanic products are generally, “mixtures of the earth in an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed oxidated matter.”Ure.These two simple considerations must set aside the theory mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic action, as well as an examination of its products, we are clearly convinced, theagents are aëriform; chieflysteamand thegases, and they act with anexpansive force from beneath.Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet, and has on its top a cratereight milesin circumference, containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it in 1824. He says, “exhalations escape from all the fissures of the lava crust, producinghere and there a blastlike strong vapor blowing out of a steam boiler.”Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it, and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has given a description of the crater. He says, “its surface had all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high.”Ure’s New Syst. Geol. pp. 381-2.In both these accounts we clearly see aëriform agents acting from beneath. Thehissingnoise of steam escaping from a boiler, convinces of thenatureof the body escaping. Theupheavingof the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent acts frombeneathby expansion, but also, by its resemblance to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava, heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments, observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava, resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion occurred, the lava appearedinflated, andlarge bubbles, some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation followed and the lava sunk. During the rising,a sound issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling violently in a caldron. In this case we have every evidence of anaëriform agent acting from beneath.An aëriform agent is detected also by examining thestructureof volcanic products, which have been ejected in a melted state. They are found to bevesicular,cellular, andporous. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these cavities and cells were filled with an aëriform body, which escaped upon cooling.This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it is unnecessary. It remains only to ask,whether these elastic agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and products of volcanic action and earthquakes?The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers this question promptly in theaffirmative. A very few grains of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier which man can construct, unless it find vent.As we have seen sufficiently clearly that aëriform bodies, as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into theproductionandactionof those agents.As it regards their production, the present state of geological andchemical science suggeststhreetheories, each of which would be adequate to the object.It is necessary to premise thatwateris a common agent in each of the three theories.1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to thebasesof the earths, demonstrating them to bemetallic, and the earths merelyoxidesof those metals, have led to the conjecture,that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth; of course thecrustof the earth is composed of the various metallic oxides.It is well known that many of these metalstake fire on coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c; andall of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air, and thuslarge quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved.This theory is so reasonable, in view of thecombustibilityof metals, and so conformable to science, that we almost decide it is true, without further examination.But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it must first be shown,that the metals do exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth: and then,that they are accessible by water, or air, or both.The first point can only be renderedprobable by analogy. Weknowthat the earths which are found in the crust of our planet aremetallic oxides. It is very natural to suppose these metals existed in a puremetallic state at the creation, as well at the surface as at the centre; as all other bodies most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state when God first produced them. From this supposition it is easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which would be at the earth’s surface, these metals would be rapidly oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would commence at thesurfaceof the earth, andtend towards the centre, it is evident itsprogress would be arrested by its own action.For theaccumulation of the earths, by the oxidation of the metals, would gradually form thesuperincumbent crust, which would act as abarrierto the water and air, preventing their contact with the metals in the interior,which, of course,would not be oxidized.In this state they would remain buried deep under the superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and air should find access to them. When this should take place a rapid, and extensivechemical actionwould commence, generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metalsdecomposingthe air and water, in the process of oxidation, and setting thehydrogenof the water, andnitrogenof the airfree. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action wouldraise the temperatureof these gases, and thusincrease their bulkimmensely, which would produce an irresistibleexpansive force, which wouldincrease the pressureagainst the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated,and theignitionof the hydrogen would be a necessary consequence. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly todecomposeormeltthe substances in its neighborhood, and set atliberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which beingignited, and of courseexpandedimmeasurably, would not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from its seat to the surface of the earth,that opening wouldconstitute a volcano; from which the gases would escape, and throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products which are known to come forth of the craters.It now remains to inquire,whether a sufficient quantity of water can be supposed to have access to these metals?From what we know of the distribution of water generally in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in admitting theaffirmative. But this question may be clearly answered by two circumstances.First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves anexcessof water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those in South America. “Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood.”Ure’s New Sys. Geol. p. 386.Secondly: The position of volcanos,always near the sea, together with theagitations of the sea, previous to, and during an eruption, as well as thesalinematter in the ejected substances, render it very clear,that the sea, by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat of volcanic action. “The sea seems to sympathise with the agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with rapid alternation—caused by the sudden deflux of a great body of water into the vast volcanic caverns.”Ure’s New Sys. Geol. p. 388.This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos, that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or near the sea coast. Indeed many of them aresubmarine, and have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water of the sea for a great distance round becamehot, fishes died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels in the neighborhood.2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ from the first, in regard to thematerialsemployed at the seat of volcanic action, nor in themannerof the process; but in regard to theconditionof those materials when theybeginto operate in the production of the elastic agents. These materials may be in a state ofigneous fusionin the interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted thus:When God created the substances of the earth, they were in anelementaryanduncombinedstate, promiscuously mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By hisSpirit brooding over the great deep, caloric and light, which were in alatentstate, were called into action, which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter, thus quickening the whole mass by producingintense heat. This would cause theaqueousandgaseousparticles to rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which would of courseoxidize, and becomeearths. This action would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which have been gradually cooling ever since. Theprimitiverocks, which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as in the first theory to the metals in their pure state,and we have the same results in all respects.This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light, in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the earth.Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on thetemperatureof the earth at different depths. The following tables are extracted from Mr. Ure’s New System of Geology, pp. 426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the tables.Observations on the temperature of the earth.In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort, M. Gensanne found:At 333feet,54½ Fahr.680”621016”66½1429”73In the mines of Freyberg, M. D’Aubuisson foundExternal air41In the galleries50528 feet, water pool52858 water of a spring57At Junghohebirke,external thermometer321040 feet, water was63Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of Cornwall.At surface,in June,59118feet deep64½480”68840”69½1144”79At surface,December.air50120feet deepair57600”air66——”water64962”air70——”water741200”air78——”water78M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines in South America. The evidence in favor of aperpetually increasing temperature as you descend into the earth, and ahigher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth, is increasing daily.See the conclusion of this paper.3. There is yet a third theory, founded onvoltaic energy, orgalvanismandelectricity.The application of these agents to the production of volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the “Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale College,” by Professor Silliman, from which the following extract is made. I had not regarded their application in the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I shall transcribe from his “Outline,” pp. 118-19, inserted in “Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, first American Edition.”“Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic powers which weknowto exist—whose action we can command, and whose effects having been first observed within the memory of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos?“Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories; and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed, a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It would seem indeed that metals and fluids are notnecessaryto the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power. Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at particular places.“In our laboratories we see emanating from this source, intense light,irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy, and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their combinations.“Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their oxidated products, at the negative—proved that even the firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their immediate principles and elements being separated by its energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of voltaic energy—their metals being set at liberty, and being combustible both in air and water—elastic agents produced by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos.”The reader will perceive that all of the above theories agree in one respect, viz; in the agency ofelastic bodies, as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories. They are all scientific in their principles, and fully competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some instances, and combined in others.Under the agency of either of them the products would be the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51—Alumina, 19—Lime, 9.5—Oxide of iron, 14.5—Soda, 4—Muriatic acid, 1—in 100 parts.As it regards the extent of volcanic action and earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult.This is found to be the fact by observation in different countries.In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not, and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active volcano,there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may be counted from seventy to one hundred craters. They are so close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries.See Ure’s New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell’s Geology.Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and fiveactivevolcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and ninety-eight on continents.It is very evident that theseatof volcanic action is vastly below the surface of the earth. Theextentof country which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and evenacross the Atlantic!Again: If the action were not situated far below the surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve aschimnies, and which have been formed by the action of the volcanos,would sink in. This has been the case in a few instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider theamountof matter ejected. Did it not come from an immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the surface of the earth would break down thesubstratawhich lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. Thedimensionsof those caverns, situated under the volcanic mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first consideration.The internal caverns must be as large as the ejected masses, which came out of them.Ætna is known to have thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in height. He considers thewhole mountainous district of Quito as one immense volcano.Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude that its amount is growing less every year, of course the destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe, which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that theexpansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass of 30,000.See the text under the head, “Salutary Effects of Water.”appendix.On the temperature of the earth anciently.That the temperature of the earth’s surface was much higher in the first ages of its existence, than since the period of authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, in the opinion of the learned, and only requires time to have the weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass of community.Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view of the reasons which induce this opinion.1.It may be inferred from the original constitution of the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it.It has been seen above that thenaturalcondition of matter iscold,frozen,inactive, andsolid: and that the elements of this globe were created in asimple, uncombined state. If this mass of elements received a quickening impulse, the chemical laws ofaffinityandattraction, and also the natural law ofgravitation, would commence exerting their influence. This we know would create a rise in the temperature of the whole mass, in proportion to theamountof matter acted on, and theforceof thedifferent principles and agents which were in operation. Upon consideration of these points in regard to our earth, no one can doubt but that they would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height.Refrigerationwould commence at the surface as soon as the first violent action was abated, and the water and air began to assume their relative places, through which the heat would escape into celestial space. This refrigeration would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the crust of the earth, which would confine the interior heat more effectually, because, the earths are almost completenon-conductorsof caloric. Thus the crust of the earth would continue to cool, and the oxidation would thicken it, and, of course, contribute to the reduction of its temperature.From this natural process it is very evident that the earth was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and volcanos much more common than now, and a general instability in the condition of our globe. The deluge was the climax of its alternations, and settled, in some measure, its constitution by a sudden and great reduction of temperature.2.It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, and their effects on the earth.This argument is merelycalled up here, not to be discussed at length, but to bereferredto, as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has not closely studied the geological phenomena which present themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not be exaggeration to say, there was a remote periodwhen our globe was a single volcano: the whole surface of it being subject to its action.Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even continents, possibly, was volcanic force.“Those ranges of volcanos,” says the celebrated Humboldt, “those eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and slate in the new world, remind us of the present activity of subterranean fire, of the power, which in remote ages,has raised up chains of mountains, broke the surface of the globe, and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most ancient strata.”From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.3.It may be inferred from the origin of primitive, trapean, and basaltic rocks.The primitive rocks, as granite, gneiss, mica slate, &c., give evidence on this consideration; they must have been deposited when their substance was in solution, admitting ofchemical mobility, in order that they might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have.It is not easy to conceivehowthe substances of the primitive rocks could be solved, except byheat, as aprincipal solvent. The acids, and water also, may have contributed to their solution, butwould not be competent of themselves. This consideration would give a high temperature for the earth anciently.It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic rocks are ofigneousorigin. When we consider themagnitudeof the trap and basalt formations, the extent of surface which they cover, the hills, and even elevated and lofty mountains which they form, we shall not hesitate to assign a higher temperature to our earth at the period when fires, so immense as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these, actually burned in the bowels of the earth.4.It may be inferred from the well preserved remains of vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in high northern latitudes where they have not been found since the memory of man.This is a conclusive argument if itsdatabe well established. Because, iftropicalandequatorialanimals and fruits arenowfound buried and fossilized in Siberia, and the islands of thearctic sea, in such a state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were transported thither, it will follow inevitably, that theygrew there, and there flourished, died, and were buried.Moreover, ifherbivorousanimals are found fossilized in those high northern latitudes, under such circumstances as forbid the supposition, that they were transported thither, it will doubtless, follow, that not onlytheylived there, but alsoluxuriant vegetationmust at the same time have covered the plains where their remains are entombed.The inference which we are forced to draw from thesedata, is this:As no such tropical and equatorial animals or plants have been known to exist there, nor even herbage of any kind, on which such animals might subsist, since the memory of man, there was a time anciently when the climate suited their growth, and of course was very much warmer than it is known to be now, its temperature then corresponding to the temperature of the present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot subsist in any other climates.In proof of the above position, it is well known that animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which they areindigenous, and out of which they cannot thrive, or even live, if too far removed. It is also well known, that the warmer, and more moist the climate is, the more luxuriant the vegetation, and the more huge the animals.Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, asarctic, or northern;tropical, or southern. Let us now see if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in high northern latitudes. The best authorities follow.“We proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds:these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals do notnowexist. Some are buried deep in gypsum.—Some present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, and destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, situated to thenorthof Siberia, are, according to a modern traveller,only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and rhinoceros, mixed with those of great cetaceous animals,and even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with the remains of gigantic birds.“There have been found inSiberia, whole carcases of the elephant, covered with theirfleshandskin, preserved by the frosts which prevail in those regions.—Germany has furnished the greatest number (of bones:)—In France a great many bones of the elephant have been met with.“These discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have thrown alreadya new light upon the revolutions which our globe must have undergone, and upon thestates which must have preceded the present course and constitution of nature.“These bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled up and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of our domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the form of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common cemeteries, clearly demonstrate,that the catastrophe which has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must have overtaken them in thesame climates where we meet with these records of their former existence.“The quantity of nourishment which such huge animated masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence of the carnivorous kinds,render it probable that the countries where we find their remainsonceenjoyed a temperature, if not warmer, at least more favorable to vegetation.”Malte Brun,Physical Geography, Book 12.In the above quotations, the data on which our argument rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated by scores of weighty names, and in reference to all thenortherncountries of Asia, Europe, and America.It is impossible to read the above extracts without being convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived, flourished, and diedwheretheir remains arenowfound. And it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion; viz: that there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains, wherenowthe rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but that the temperature of thefrigid zones, was anciently much higher than at present; and of course the general temperature of the earth also.From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from the fact that they are found in their relative position, bone to bone, and, in some instances, with theirhair,skin, andflesh undecayed, it is obvious,the animals must have perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and was, instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming waters. Such was the catastrophe of thescripture deluge, whichphysicallywas competent to perform the phenomena, as shall be shown presently.Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion by examining thefossilvegetables.At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil plantsakin to the cycas family of Malabar, from which he concludes, “it isprobable that the climate of these regions,at the time when the oolites(a series of rocky strata)were deposited, was of the same warm temperature with that(the tropical)which produces a large proportion of the existing cycadeæ.”Ure,New Syst. Geol. p. 433.“The remarkable development of these vegetables (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) period,smallerthan before, but still far greater than our existing equisetums, accord with many other facts, furnished by fossil vegetables of many other families, to lead us to regard theclimate of the earth, at these remote epochs, to have been hotter than the hottest of modern climates.”Ibid, p. 443.“There is no doubt, however, thatpalms with fan-shaped leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this remote period, in regions where no species of these plants couldnowgrow!”Ibid, p. 452.The palm is well known to be atropicalplant, and cannot thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of Europe, when it grew in the north, must have been tropical. Indeed, in all parts of northern Europetropical flowers,leaves, andfruitsare found in such a state of preservation as to convince the most incredulous,that they must have grown on the spot; which would be to convince him of the high temperature, anciently, of those regions.“Professor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments of Novogorod and Twer in thenorthof Russia,where no such trees are now found to grow.“Near Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an entire forest of the trunks ofpalm trees, buried along with the remains of elephants.”Ure, Ibid, p. 455.“The fossil shells found in the strata of England, and France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most part, noantitypes alive except in equatorial regions, harmonize with the preceding details.”Ibid, p. 456.To the above testimony might be added thecavesin Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under such circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and perished in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed with sand and gravel,but not water-worn. Of these bones, the great majority are those of the hyæna; hence these dens, specially in England, are calledhyæna dens. In them are also found the bones of other animalsgnawedby the hyænas.From these facts there can be no doubt but the hyæna inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these countries were oncewarm,when these tropical animals lived in them.5.The same fact may be inferred from the immense amount of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials for the coal measures.This is an irresistible argument in view of theimmense amountof coal in the bowels of the earth, which must be ofvegetable origin. Because at the ratio of vegetable product ofour age, the earth would not produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of millions of years.Thevegetative powerof the earth, therefore, must have been anciently very much greater than at present, which could only be on the supposition of awarmerand more moist climate.Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures in thenorthern latitudes, is proof direct. This is clear from the fact that their roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits are found impressed on the coal, in such a manner that there can be no mistake; and theperfectionof the impression forbids the supposition that they weretransportedthither from tropical climates.“Brown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground. It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen,various vegetable principles, and the branches or trunks of treespartially decomposed,which mark the origin of this kind of coal.”Bakewell’s Geology, p. 111.“Wood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations and appears to have beenformed of heaps of treesburied by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or gravel.—In some specimens of this coal thevegetable fibre, or grain, is perceptible in one part, and the other part is reduced to coal.”Ibid, p. 121.“In wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of making coal, before the process is completed. These formations of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal, though their origin must be referred to a former condition of our globe,when the vegetable productions of tropical climates flourished in northern latitudes. Thevegetable originof common mineral coal appears to be established by its association with strataabounding in vegetable impressions, by its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly avegetable product) and lastly by the decisive fact, that some mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field isentirely composed of the layers of mineralized plants.”Ibid, p. 122.“When we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded with sandstone, having their thin scaly barkconverted into a true coal, it isimpossible to doubt of its vegetable origin.”Ure’s New System Geol. p. 166.Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied to the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains to repeat the question,Could such an amount of vegetable matter have been accumulated, short of millions of years, at the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth?It is impossible. The only remaining conclusion is, the vegetative power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present, which could not have been except its temperature was much higher also.In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say, that the reduction of the earth’s temperature would be gradual, in a natural way, by the heat flying off into celestial spaces, until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then the surface of the earth would depend on the heatingpower of the sun altogether. The thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended with earthquakes, volcanos, and partial deluges, the natural and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals. Hence we would have different strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c., deposited at different times, and over different sections of the country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes or seas; which explains the origin ofcoal-basins. This state of things also well explains the alternations of strata of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh and salt water deposites, &c., as well as the dislocations, fractures, contortions, and confusions observable in the structure of the earth’s crust.There are however various phenomena which indicate clearly that there wasa general and sudden reduction of temperature. The state of preservation, in which those animals in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of thelastgreat revolution in our globe clearly indicate thedelugeto have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction of temperature. This would be the natural consequence ofsubmergingthe earth in water: and the suddenness of the event is well attested both by the scriptures, and the physical history of our earth.The action of the deluge does not come within the contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be noticed here.]
[The present state of chemical science, and the geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years, seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and earthquakes result fromsulphur,iron, andwater, as Mr. Lemery’s experiment seems to indicate.
The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.
Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in producing volcanic action, and earthquakes,volcanic products would give evidence of it, by being, principally,sulphate of iron. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100 parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at all.
Volcanic products are generally, “mixtures of the earth in an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed oxidated matter.”Ure.
These two simple considerations must set aside the theory mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.
As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.
By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic action, as well as an examination of its products, we are clearly convinced, theagents are aëriform; chieflysteamand thegases, and they act with anexpansive force from beneath.
Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet, and has on its top a cratereight milesin circumference, containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it in 1824. He says, “exhalations escape from all the fissures of the lava crust, producinghere and there a blastlike strong vapor blowing out of a steam boiler.”
Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it, and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has given a description of the crater. He says, “its surface had all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high.”Ure’s New Syst. Geol. pp. 381-2.
In both these accounts we clearly see aëriform agents acting from beneath. Thehissingnoise of steam escaping from a boiler, convinces of thenatureof the body escaping. Theupheavingof the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent acts frombeneathby expansion, but also, by its resemblance to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava, heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.
We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments, observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava, resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion occurred, the lava appearedinflated, andlarge bubbles, some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation followed and the lava sunk. During the rising,a sound issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling violently in a caldron. In this case we have every evidence of anaëriform agent acting from beneath.
An aëriform agent is detected also by examining thestructureof volcanic products, which have been ejected in a melted state. They are found to bevesicular,cellular, andporous. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these cavities and cells were filled with an aëriform body, which escaped upon cooling.
This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it is unnecessary. It remains only to ask,whether these elastic agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and products of volcanic action and earthquakes?
The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers this question promptly in theaffirmative. A very few grains of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier which man can construct, unless it find vent.
As we have seen sufficiently clearly that aëriform bodies, as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into theproductionandactionof those agents.
As it regards their production, the present state of geological andchemical science suggeststhreetheories, each of which would be adequate to the object.
It is necessary to premise thatwateris a common agent in each of the three theories.
1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to thebasesof the earths, demonstrating them to bemetallic, and the earths merelyoxidesof those metals, have led to the conjecture,that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth; of course thecrustof the earth is composed of the various metallic oxides.
It is well known that many of these metalstake fire on coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c; andall of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air, and thuslarge quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved.
This theory is so reasonable, in view of thecombustibilityof metals, and so conformable to science, that we almost decide it is true, without further examination.
But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it must first be shown,that the metals do exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth: and then,that they are accessible by water, or air, or both.
The first point can only be renderedprobable by analogy. Weknowthat the earths which are found in the crust of our planet aremetallic oxides. It is very natural to suppose these metals existed in a puremetallic state at the creation, as well at the surface as at the centre; as all other bodies most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state when God first produced them. From this supposition it is easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which would be at the earth’s surface, these metals would be rapidly oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would commence at thesurfaceof the earth, andtend towards the centre, it is evident itsprogress would be arrested by its own action.
For theaccumulation of the earths, by the oxidation of the metals, would gradually form thesuperincumbent crust, which would act as abarrierto the water and air, preventing their contact with the metals in the interior,which, of course,would not be oxidized.
In this state they would remain buried deep under the superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and air should find access to them. When this should take place a rapid, and extensivechemical actionwould commence, generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metalsdecomposingthe air and water, in the process of oxidation, and setting thehydrogenof the water, andnitrogenof the airfree. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action wouldraise the temperatureof these gases, and thusincrease their bulkimmensely, which would produce an irresistibleexpansive force, which wouldincrease the pressureagainst the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated,and theignitionof the hydrogen would be a necessary consequence. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly todecomposeormeltthe substances in its neighborhood, and set atliberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which beingignited, and of courseexpandedimmeasurably, would not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from its seat to the surface of the earth,that opening wouldconstitute a volcano; from which the gases would escape, and throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products which are known to come forth of the craters.
It now remains to inquire,whether a sufficient quantity of water can be supposed to have access to these metals?
From what we know of the distribution of water generally in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in admitting theaffirmative. But this question may be clearly answered by two circumstances.
First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves anexcessof water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those in South America. “Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood.”Ure’s New Sys. Geol. p. 386.
Secondly: The position of volcanos,always near the sea, together with theagitations of the sea, previous to, and during an eruption, as well as thesalinematter in the ejected substances, render it very clear,that the sea, by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat of volcanic action. “The sea seems to sympathise with the agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with rapid alternation—caused by the sudden deflux of a great body of water into the vast volcanic caverns.”Ure’s New Sys. Geol. p. 388.
This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos, that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or near the sea coast. Indeed many of them aresubmarine, and have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water of the sea for a great distance round becamehot, fishes died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels in the neighborhood.
2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ from the first, in regard to thematerialsemployed at the seat of volcanic action, nor in themannerof the process; but in regard to theconditionof those materials when theybeginto operate in the production of the elastic agents. These materials may be in a state ofigneous fusionin the interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted thus:
When God created the substances of the earth, they were in anelementaryanduncombinedstate, promiscuously mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By hisSpirit brooding over the great deep, caloric and light, which were in alatentstate, were called into action, which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter, thus quickening the whole mass by producingintense heat. This would cause theaqueousandgaseousparticles to rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which would of courseoxidize, and becomeearths. This action would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which have been gradually cooling ever since. Theprimitiverocks, which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as in the first theory to the metals in their pure state,and we have the same results in all respects.
This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light, in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the earth.
Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on thetemperatureof the earth at different depths. The following tables are extracted from Mr. Ure’s New System of Geology, pp. 426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the tables.
Observations on the temperature of the earth.
In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort, M. Gensanne found:
In the mines of Freyberg, M. D’Aubuisson found
At Junghohebirke,
Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of Cornwall.
M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines in South America. The evidence in favor of aperpetually increasing temperature as you descend into the earth, and ahigher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth, is increasing daily.See the conclusion of this paper.
3. There is yet a third theory, founded onvoltaic energy, orgalvanismandelectricity.
The application of these agents to the production of volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the “Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale College,” by Professor Silliman, from which the following extract is made. I had not regarded their application in the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I shall transcribe from his “Outline,” pp. 118-19, inserted in “Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, first American Edition.”
“Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic powers which weknowto exist—whose action we can command, and whose effects having been first observed within the memory of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos?
“Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories; and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed, a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It would seem indeed that metals and fluids are notnecessaryto the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power. Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at particular places.
“In our laboratories we see emanating from this source, intense light,irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy, and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their combinations.
“Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their oxidated products, at the negative—proved that even the firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their immediate principles and elements being separated by its energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of voltaic energy—their metals being set at liberty, and being combustible both in air and water—elastic agents produced by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos.”
The reader will perceive that all of the above theories agree in one respect, viz; in the agency ofelastic bodies, as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories. They are all scientific in their principles, and fully competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some instances, and combined in others.
Under the agency of either of them the products would be the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51—Alumina, 19—Lime, 9.5—Oxide of iron, 14.5—Soda, 4—Muriatic acid, 1—in 100 parts.
As it regards the extent of volcanic action and earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult.This is found to be the fact by observation in different countries.
In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not, and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active volcano,there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may be counted from seventy to one hundred craters. They are so close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries.See Ure’s New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell’s Geology.
Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and fiveactivevolcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and ninety-eight on continents.
It is very evident that theseatof volcanic action is vastly below the surface of the earth. Theextentof country which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and evenacross the Atlantic!
Again: If the action were not situated far below the surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve aschimnies, and which have been formed by the action of the volcanos,would sink in. This has been the case in a few instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider theamountof matter ejected. Did it not come from an immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the surface of the earth would break down thesubstratawhich lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. Thedimensionsof those caverns, situated under the volcanic mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first consideration.The internal caverns must be as large as the ejected masses, which came out of them.Ætna is known to have thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in height. He considers thewhole mountainous district of Quito as one immense volcano.
Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude that its amount is growing less every year, of course the destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe, which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.
P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that theexpansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass of 30,000.See the text under the head, “Salutary Effects of Water.”
appendix.
On the temperature of the earth anciently.
That the temperature of the earth’s surface was much higher in the first ages of its existence, than since the period of authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, in the opinion of the learned, and only requires time to have the weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass of community.
Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view of the reasons which induce this opinion.
1.It may be inferred from the original constitution of the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it.It has been seen above that thenaturalcondition of matter iscold,frozen,inactive, andsolid: and that the elements of this globe were created in asimple, uncombined state. If this mass of elements received a quickening impulse, the chemical laws ofaffinityandattraction, and also the natural law ofgravitation, would commence exerting their influence. This we know would create a rise in the temperature of the whole mass, in proportion to theamountof matter acted on, and theforceof thedifferent principles and agents which were in operation. Upon consideration of these points in regard to our earth, no one can doubt but that they would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height.
Refrigerationwould commence at the surface as soon as the first violent action was abated, and the water and air began to assume their relative places, through which the heat would escape into celestial space. This refrigeration would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the crust of the earth, which would confine the interior heat more effectually, because, the earths are almost completenon-conductorsof caloric. Thus the crust of the earth would continue to cool, and the oxidation would thicken it, and, of course, contribute to the reduction of its temperature.
From this natural process it is very evident that the earth was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and volcanos much more common than now, and a general instability in the condition of our globe. The deluge was the climax of its alternations, and settled, in some measure, its constitution by a sudden and great reduction of temperature.
2.It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, and their effects on the earth.This argument is merelycalled up here, not to be discussed at length, but to bereferredto, as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.
It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has not closely studied the geological phenomena which present themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not be exaggeration to say, there was a remote periodwhen our globe was a single volcano: the whole surface of it being subject to its action.
Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even continents, possibly, was volcanic force.
“Those ranges of volcanos,” says the celebrated Humboldt, “those eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and slate in the new world, remind us of the present activity of subterranean fire, of the power, which in remote ages,has raised up chains of mountains, broke the surface of the globe, and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most ancient strata.”
From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.
3.It may be inferred from the origin of primitive, trapean, and basaltic rocks.The primitive rocks, as granite, gneiss, mica slate, &c., give evidence on this consideration; they must have been deposited when their substance was in solution, admitting ofchemical mobility, in order that they might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have.
It is not easy to conceivehowthe substances of the primitive rocks could be solved, except byheat, as aprincipal solvent. The acids, and water also, may have contributed to their solution, butwould not be competent of themselves. This consideration would give a high temperature for the earth anciently.
It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic rocks are ofigneousorigin. When we consider themagnitudeof the trap and basalt formations, the extent of surface which they cover, the hills, and even elevated and lofty mountains which they form, we shall not hesitate to assign a higher temperature to our earth at the period when fires, so immense as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these, actually burned in the bowels of the earth.
4.It may be inferred from the well preserved remains of vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in high northern latitudes where they have not been found since the memory of man.This is a conclusive argument if itsdatabe well established. Because, iftropicalandequatorialanimals and fruits arenowfound buried and fossilized in Siberia, and the islands of thearctic sea, in such a state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were transported thither, it will follow inevitably, that theygrew there, and there flourished, died, and were buried.
Moreover, ifherbivorousanimals are found fossilized in those high northern latitudes, under such circumstances as forbid the supposition, that they were transported thither, it will doubtless, follow, that not onlytheylived there, but alsoluxuriant vegetationmust at the same time have covered the plains where their remains are entombed.
The inference which we are forced to draw from thesedata, is this:As no such tropical and equatorial animals or plants have been known to exist there, nor even herbage of any kind, on which such animals might subsist, since the memory of man, there was a time anciently when the climate suited their growth, and of course was very much warmer than it is known to be now, its temperature then corresponding to the temperature of the present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot subsist in any other climates.
In proof of the above position, it is well known that animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which they areindigenous, and out of which they cannot thrive, or even live, if too far removed. It is also well known, that the warmer, and more moist the climate is, the more luxuriant the vegetation, and the more huge the animals.
Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, asarctic, or northern;tropical, or southern. Let us now see if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in high northern latitudes. The best authorities follow.
“We proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds:these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals do notnowexist. Some are buried deep in gypsum.—Some present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, and destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, situated to thenorthof Siberia, are, according to a modern traveller,only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and rhinoceros, mixed with those of great cetaceous animals,and even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with the remains of gigantic birds.
“There have been found inSiberia, whole carcases of the elephant, covered with theirfleshandskin, preserved by the frosts which prevail in those regions.—Germany has furnished the greatest number (of bones:)—In France a great many bones of the elephant have been met with.
“These discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have thrown alreadya new light upon the revolutions which our globe must have undergone, and upon thestates which must have preceded the present course and constitution of nature.
“These bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled up and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of our domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the form of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common cemeteries, clearly demonstrate,that the catastrophe which has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must have overtaken them in thesame climates where we meet with these records of their former existence.
“The quantity of nourishment which such huge animated masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence of the carnivorous kinds,render it probable that the countries where we find their remainsonceenjoyed a temperature, if not warmer, at least more favorable to vegetation.”Malte Brun,Physical Geography, Book 12.
In the above quotations, the data on which our argument rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated by scores of weighty names, and in reference to all thenortherncountries of Asia, Europe, and America.
It is impossible to read the above extracts without being convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived, flourished, and diedwheretheir remains arenowfound. And it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion; viz: that there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains, wherenowthe rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.
From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but that the temperature of thefrigid zones, was anciently much higher than at present; and of course the general temperature of the earth also.
From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from the fact that they are found in their relative position, bone to bone, and, in some instances, with theirhair,skin, andflesh undecayed, it is obvious,the animals must have perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and was, instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming waters. Such was the catastrophe of thescripture deluge, whichphysicallywas competent to perform the phenomena, as shall be shown presently.
Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion by examining thefossilvegetables.
At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil plantsakin to the cycas family of Malabar, from which he concludes, “it isprobable that the climate of these regions,at the time when the oolites(a series of rocky strata)were deposited, was of the same warm temperature with that(the tropical)which produces a large proportion of the existing cycadeæ.”Ure,New Syst. Geol. p. 433.
“The remarkable development of these vegetables (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) period,smallerthan before, but still far greater than our existing equisetums, accord with many other facts, furnished by fossil vegetables of many other families, to lead us to regard theclimate of the earth, at these remote epochs, to have been hotter than the hottest of modern climates.”Ibid, p. 443.
“There is no doubt, however, thatpalms with fan-shaped leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this remote period, in regions where no species of these plants couldnowgrow!”Ibid, p. 452.
The palm is well known to be atropicalplant, and cannot thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of Europe, when it grew in the north, must have been tropical. Indeed, in all parts of northern Europetropical flowers,leaves, andfruitsare found in such a state of preservation as to convince the most incredulous,that they must have grown on the spot; which would be to convince him of the high temperature, anciently, of those regions.
“Professor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments of Novogorod and Twer in thenorthof Russia,where no such trees are now found to grow.
“Near Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an entire forest of the trunks ofpalm trees, buried along with the remains of elephants.”Ure, Ibid, p. 455.
“The fossil shells found in the strata of England, and France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most part, noantitypes alive except in equatorial regions, harmonize with the preceding details.”Ibid, p. 456.
To the above testimony might be added thecavesin Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under such circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and perished in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed with sand and gravel,but not water-worn. Of these bones, the great majority are those of the hyæna; hence these dens, specially in England, are calledhyæna dens. In them are also found the bones of other animalsgnawedby the hyænas.
From these facts there can be no doubt but the hyæna inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these countries were oncewarm,when these tropical animals lived in them.
5.The same fact may be inferred from the immense amount of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials for the coal measures.This is an irresistible argument in view of theimmense amountof coal in the bowels of the earth, which must be ofvegetable origin. Because at the ratio of vegetable product ofour age, the earth would not produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of millions of years.
Thevegetative powerof the earth, therefore, must have been anciently very much greater than at present, which could only be on the supposition of awarmerand more moist climate.
Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures in thenorthern latitudes, is proof direct. This is clear from the fact that their roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits are found impressed on the coal, in such a manner that there can be no mistake; and theperfectionof the impression forbids the supposition that they weretransportedthither from tropical climates.
“Brown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground. It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen,various vegetable principles, and the branches or trunks of treespartially decomposed,which mark the origin of this kind of coal.”Bakewell’s Geology, p. 111.
“Wood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations and appears to have beenformed of heaps of treesburied by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or gravel.—In some specimens of this coal thevegetable fibre, or grain, is perceptible in one part, and the other part is reduced to coal.”Ibid, p. 121.
“In wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of making coal, before the process is completed. These formations of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal, though their origin must be referred to a former condition of our globe,when the vegetable productions of tropical climates flourished in northern latitudes. Thevegetable originof common mineral coal appears to be established by its association with strataabounding in vegetable impressions, by its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly avegetable product) and lastly by the decisive fact, that some mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field isentirely composed of the layers of mineralized plants.”Ibid, p. 122.
“When we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded with sandstone, having their thin scaly barkconverted into a true coal, it isimpossible to doubt of its vegetable origin.”Ure’s New System Geol. p. 166.
Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied to the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains to repeat the question,Could such an amount of vegetable matter have been accumulated, short of millions of years, at the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth?It is impossible. The only remaining conclusion is, the vegetative power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present, which could not have been except its temperature was much higher also.
In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say, that the reduction of the earth’s temperature would be gradual, in a natural way, by the heat flying off into celestial spaces, until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then the surface of the earth would depend on the heatingpower of the sun altogether. The thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended with earthquakes, volcanos, and partial deluges, the natural and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals. Hence we would have different strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c., deposited at different times, and over different sections of the country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes or seas; which explains the origin ofcoal-basins. This state of things also well explains the alternations of strata of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh and salt water deposites, &c., as well as the dislocations, fractures, contortions, and confusions observable in the structure of the earth’s crust.
There are however various phenomena which indicate clearly that there wasa general and sudden reduction of temperature. The state of preservation, in which those animals in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of thelastgreat revolution in our globe clearly indicate thedelugeto have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction of temperature. This would be the natural consequence ofsubmergingthe earth in water: and the suddenness of the event is well attested both by the scriptures, and the physical history of our earth.
The action of the deluge does not come within the contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be noticed here.]
The air is another storehouse of fire. When lucid igneous particles are strongly attracted to one another in great quantities, their heat becomes intolerable, and is capable of destroying the most solid bodies. It is well known, that when converged in the focus of one of Hartsocker’s burning-glasses, they will produce wonderful effects: tin, lead, or any soft metal, will dissolve at the first touch; and iron, which requires a very strong fire for liquefaction, will melt before one of these glasses almost as soon as applied. They will consume wood, though wet, in a moment; vitrify bricks and pumice stones, and dissolve earthen vessels full of water; and plume-allum, which will resist the fire of the hottest glass-houses, without alteration, is instantly melted. Even gold, that resists the force of common fire, is soon liquefied by their powerful agency. This plainly shows us that, provided there were not a wise and almighty Providence, superintending all his works, those materials which are of the greatest utility to the harmony and order of things, would have a direct tendency to destroy the whole. If lucid igneous particles were to form solid bodies, and depart from their state of fluidity, they would, in an instant, reduce this globe to ashes, or render it liquid fire. Were they all of one kind, it is probable they might unite in solid bodies; but the wisdom of Providence has formed them of various colors, and of different reflections and refrangibility. This prevents them from associating in such a manner as to do harm, which can only be produced by converging them with some instrument which prevents their flyingoff. As all these have not the same degree of reflexibility and refrangibility, but as some are capable of greater reflections and refractions than others, they cannot, without force, be united in one solid body, yet they are all serviceable for important purposes, contributing to the happiness of man, and the welfare of all living creatures.
Considering the extent of fire, and that its property is, when put into motion, to consume all combustible substances within its reach, it is astonishing that the world has not long since been destroyed! This terrible element is at present restrained and directed by its almighty Creator; but divine revelation informs us, that a period will arrive when its utmost energies shall be called into action. The apostle Peter asserts, that “the heavens and earth, which are now, by the same word are kept in store, reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men;—in the which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat; the earth also, and the works that are therein shall be burnt up.” Again he says, “looking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of God, wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat.” Thepassing away of the heavensmeans the same as their beingdissolved by fire. The wordῬοιζηδὸνsignifies with avery loudandterrible noise: with a sound resembling that of a greatstorm. In this place it more particularly denotes the horrid crackling noise of a wide-spreading fire.