“There soon they choseThe fig tree; not that tree for fruit renown’d,But such as at this day to Indians knownIn Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,Branching so broad and long, that in the groundThe bended twigs take root and daughters growAbout the mother tree, a pillar’d shade,High over arch’d and echoing walks between;There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herdsAt loop-holes cut through thickest shade.”
“There soon they chose
The fig tree; not that tree for fruit renown’d,
But such as at this day to Indians known
In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,
Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
The bended twigs take root and daughters grow
About the mother tree, a pillar’d shade,
High over arch’d and echoing walks between;
There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,
Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds
At loop-holes cut through thickest shade.”
The banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most beautiful of nature’s productions in that genial climate, where her luxuriance is displayed with the greatest profusion and variety. Some of these trees, as they are continually increasing, and, contrary to most other things in animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from decay, grow to an amazing size. Every branch projecting from the main body throws out its own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground; these continually grow thicker till they reach the surface; and there striking in, they increase to large trunks, and become parent trees, shooting out new branches from the top; these at length suspend their roots, which, swelling into trunks, produce other branches: thus continuing in a state of progression as long as the earth, the first parent of them all, contributes her sustenance. The Hindoos are peculiarly fond of this tree; they view it as an emblem of the Deity, from its long duration, outstretching arms, and overshadowing beneficence; they almost pay it divine honors, and
“Find a fane in every sacred grove.”
Near these trees the most esteemed pagodas are generally erected; under their shade the brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude; and the natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreatingin the cool recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy, impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun.
A description of a tree in the island of Java, called theUpas, or Poison Tree, is given to the public by a surgeon belonging to the Dutch East India Company, of the name of Foersch, who was stationed at Batavia, in the year 1774. Surprising its this account may be, it is accompanied by so many public facts, and names of persons and places, that it is somewhat difficult to conceive it fabulous. The Upas grows about seven leagues from Batavia, in a plain surrounded by rocky mountains, the whole of which plain, containing a circle of ten or twelve miles round the tree, is totally barren. Nothing that breathes or vegetates can live within its influence. The bird that flies over it drops down dead. The beast that wanders into it expires. The whole dreadful area is covered with sand, over which lie scattered loose flints and whitened bones, Thus,
“Fierce in dread silence on the blasted heath,Fell Upas sits!”
“Fierce in dread silence on the blasted heath,
Fell Upas sits!”
This tree may be called the emperor’s great military magazine. In a solution of the poisonous gum which exudes from it, his arrows and offensive weapons are dipped; the procuring, therefore, of this poisonous gum, is a matter of as much attention as of difficulty. Criminals are only employed in this dreadful service. Of these, several every year are sent with a promise of pardon and reward if they procure it. Hooded in leather cases, with glass eyelet-holes, and secured as much as possible from the foul effluvia of the air they are to breathe, they undertake this melancholy journey, travelling always with the wind. About one in ten escapes, and brings away a little box of this direful commodity!
Every one skilled in natural history knows, that the mimosæ, or sensitive plants, close their leaves, and bend their joints, on the least touch. This is truly astonishing: but hitherto no end or design of nature has appeared from these motions; they soon recover themselves, and the leaves are expanded as before. Dionæ Muscipula, or Venus’s Fly Trap, is a newly discovered sensitive plant; and shows that nature may have some view towards its nourishment, in forming the upper joint of its leaf like a machine to catch food. Upon the middle of this lies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many minute red glands, that cover its inner surface, and which, perhaps, discharge some sweet liquor, tempt the poor animal to taste them; and the instant these tender plants are irritated by its feet, the two lobes rise up, grasp it fast, lock the two rows of spines together, and squeeze it to death. Further, lest the strong efforts for life, in the creature thus taken, should serve to disengage it, three small erect spines are fixed near the middle of each lobe among the glands, that effectually put an end to all its struggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while thedead animal continues there. But it is nevertheless certain that the plant cannot distinguish between an animal and a mineral substance; for if we introduce a straw, or a pin, between the lobes, it will grasp it full as fast as if it were an insect. This plant grows in America, in wet shady places, and flowers in July and August. The largest leaves are about three inches long, and an inch and a half across the lobes: the glands of those exposed to the sun are of a beautiful red color; but those in the shade are pale, and inclining to green. The roots are squamous, sending forth few fibres, and are perennial. The leaves are numerous, inclining to bend downwards, and are placed in a circular order; they are jointed and succulent; the lower joint, which is a kind of stalk, is flat, longish, two-edged, and inclining to heart-shaped. In some varieties, they are serrated on the edges near the top. The upper joint consists of two lobes, each lobe is of a semi-oval form, with their margins furnished with stiff hairs, like eye-brows, which embrace or lock in each other when they are inwardly irritated. The upper surfaces of these lobes are covered with small red glands, each of which appears, when highly magnified, like a compressed arbutus berry. Among the glands, about the middle of each lobe, are three very small erect spines. When the lobes enclose any substance, they never open again while it continues there. If it can be shoved out, so as not to strain the lobes, they expand again; but if force is used to open them, so strong has nature formed the spring of their fibres, that one of the lobes will generally snap off, rather than yield. The stalk is about six inches high, round, smooth, and without leaves, ending in a spike of flowers. The flowers are milk-white, and stand, on foot stalks, at the bottom of which is a little painted bractea, or flower-leaf.
There is not an article in botany more admirable than a contrivance, visible in many plants, to take advantage of good weather, and to protect themselves against bad. They open and close their flowers and leaves in different circumstances; some close before sun-set, some after; some open to receive rain, some close to avoid it. The petals of many flowers expand in the sun; but contract at night, or on the approach of rain. After the seeds are fecundated, the petals no longer contract. All the trefoils may serve as a barometer to the husbandman; they always contract their leaves on an impending storm. Some plants follow the sun, others turn from it. Many plants, on the sun’s recess, vary the position of their leaves, which is styled, thesleep of plants. A singular plant was lately discovered in Bengal. Its leaves are in continual motion all day long; but when night approaches; they fall down from an erect posture to rest.101
A plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food.The red whortle-berry, a low evergreen plant, grows naturally on the tops of our highest hills, among stones and gravel. This shrub was planted in an edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two or three years it over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk, and seemed to fly from the border, in which not a runner appeared. An effort to come at food, in a bad situation, is extremely remarkable, in the following instance. Among the ruins of New Abbey, formerly a monastery in Galloway, there grows on the top of a wall, a plane tree, about twenty feet high. Straitened for nourishment in that barren situation, it several years ago directed roots down the side of the wall, till they reached the ground ten feet below; and now the nourishment it afforded to those roots during the time of their descending, is amply repaid, having every year, since that time, made vigorous shoots. From the top of the wall to the surface of the earth these roots have not thrown out a single fibre, but are now united in a single root.
Plants, when forced from their natural position, are endowed with the power to restore themselves. A hop-plant, twisting round a stick, directs its course from south to west, as the sun does. Untwist it, and tie it in the opposite direction, it dies. Leave it loose in the wrong direction, it recovers its natural direction in a single night. Twist the branch of a tree, so as to invert its leaves, and fix it in that position, if left in any degree loose, it untwists itself gradually, till the leaves be restored to their natural position. What better can an animal do for its welfare? A root of a tree meeting with a ditch in its progress, is laid open to the air. What follows? It alters its course, like a rational being, dips into the ground, surrounds the ditch, rises on the opposite side to its wonted distance from the surface, and then proceeds in its original direction. Lay a wet sponge near a root laid open to the air; the root will direct its course to the sponge. Change the place of the sponge; the root varies its direction. Thrust a pole into the ground at a moderate distance from a climbing plant; the plant directs its course to the pole, lays hold of it, and rises on it to its natural height. A honeysuckle proceeds in its course till it be too long for supporting its weight; and then strengthens itself by shooting into a spiral. If it meet with another plant of the same kind, they coalesce for mutual support, the one screwing to theright, the other to the left. The claspers of briony shoot into a spiral, and lay hold of whatever comes in their way for support. If, after completing a spiral of three rounds, they meet with nothing, they try again, by altering their course.
By comparing these and other instances of seeming voluntary motion in plants, with that share of life wherewith some of the inferior kind of animals are endowed, we can scarce hesitate at ascribing the superiority to the former: that is, putting sensation out of the question. Muscles, for instance, are fixed to one place as much as plants are; nor have they any power of motion, besides that of opening and shutting their shells; and in this respect, they have no superiority over the motion of the sensitive plant: nor does their action discover more sagacity, or even so much, as the roots of the plane tree, mentioned by Lord Kames.102
Beckmann’s History of Inventions and Discoveries presents us with an interesting account of Kitchen Vegetables and Garden Flowers, collected from numerous authorities; some parts of which I shall now transcribe, and incorporate with information derived from other sources.
Our foreign kitchen vegetables have, for the most part, been procured from the southern countries, but chiefly from Italy; and the number of them has rapidly increased, in the course of the last two centuries. Many of them require laborious attention to make them thrive in our climate. On the other hand, some grow so readily, and increase so much without culture, even in the open fields, that they have become like indigenous weeds, as is the case with hops, which at present abound in our hedges. Some plants, however, both indigenous and foreign, which were formerly raised by art and used at the table, are no longer cultivated, because we have become acquainted with others more beneficial.
Among many which were formerly cultivated, but at present are no longer esteemed, are the following. Winter-cresses,erysimum barbarea; common alexander,smyrnium olosatrum, which in the seventeenth century was used instead of celery; bulbous chærophyllum, the roots of which are still brought to market at Vienna, where they are boiled and eaten as salad. Rampion,phyteuma spicata, was formerly used in like manner. The earth nut, the tuberous roots of thelathyrus tuberosus, which grows wild in many parts of Germany, is still cultivated in Holland and in some districts on the Rhine. Rocket,brassica eruca, in Italian,ruchette, the young leaves of which were eaten by our forefathers as salad, and is still retained in Italy. And there are several others either but imperfectly known or little regarded.
Among the kitchen vegetables of which no certain traces are to be found in the works of the ancients, is spinage,spinacea oleracea. Its native country is unknown; but the name is new, andcertainly derived from the nature of its prickly seeds. As far as I know, it first occurs in the year 1351, among the food used by the monks on fast-days; and at that time it was writtenspinagiumorspinachium.
The ancients were acquainted with curled cabbages, and even with some of those kinds which we callbroccoli. Under this term is understood all those species, the numerous young flower heads of which, particularly in spring and autumn, can be used like cauliflowers. The broccoli used at present was however first brought from Italy to France, together with the name, about the end of the sixteenth century.
Our cauliflower, about the same time, was first brought from the Levant to Italy; and in the end of the seventeenth century was transplanted thence to Germany. For a long time the seeds were procured annually from Cyprus, Candia, and Constantinople, by the Venetians and Genoese, who sent them to every part of Europe, because at that time the art of raising seed was not understood. The seeds of cauliflowers were brought from Italy to Antwerp, where no seed was raised, or such only as produced degenerate plants. Prosper Alpinus, in the year 1588, found abundance of this vegetable in Egypt, and from his account there is reason to conjecture it was then very little known in Europe. Conrad Gesner seems not to have been acquainted with it; at any rate it is not mentioned by him in a list of the cabbage kind of plants. Even in the time of Bauhin, it must have belonged to those vegetables which were scarce; because he has been so particular in naming the garden in which he saw it. Von Hohberg, who wrote about 1682, says that cauliflower, a few years before, had been brought to Germany for the first time.—It would be difficult to define all the species of the cabbage kind, the leaves and flowers of which were used by the ancients as food; but it would be a task still more arduous to determine those that have esculent roots.
Potatoes were first imported into Europe, in the year 1565, by Hawkins, from Santa-Fe, New Mexico, Spanish America. They were planted for the first time in Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who had an estate in that kingdom. The natural history of the potatoe was so little understood, that a total ignorance which part of the plant was the proper food, had nearly ruined any further attention towards its cultivation. For perceiving green apples appear on the stems, these were first supposed to be the fruit; but on being boiled, and finding them unpalatable, or rather nauseous, Raleigh was disgusted with his acquisition, nor thought any more of cultivating this plant. Accident, however, discovered the real fruit, owing to the ground being turned over, through necessity, that very season; and to his surprise, a plentiful crop was found under ground, which being boiled, proved nourishing to thestomach, and grateful to the taste. On its utility being known, its cultivation became general through Ireland. It found its way to this kingdom, and was first planted on the western coast, in consequence of a vessel containing some potatoes, being wrecked at the village of Formby, in Lancashire; a place still famed for this excellent vegetable.
Asparagus was first planted in England in the year 1662, in the reign of Charles II. Artichokes were first introduced about the same time. Cos lettuces were originally brought from the island of Cos, near Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Turnips were brought into this country from Hanover. In the time of Henry VIII, several kinds of fruits and plants were cultivated in England, as apricots, and a fine gooseberry from Flanders; also salads, carrots, and other edible roots. These vegetables were before this period imported from Holland and Flanders. So that Queen Catherine, to procure a salad, had to dispatch a messenger to fetch it from those countries. Fruit seems to have been scarce in the time of Henry VII. In an original manuscript, signed by himself, and kept in the Remembrance office, it appears that apples were not less than one or two shillings each, and that a red one cost two shillings. The great plenty and variety of vegetables displayed upon modern tables, through every month in the year, evidently shows what superior blessings we enjoy, in this respect, compared with those of our forefathers.
Some of the flowers introduced into our gardens, and now cultivated either on account of their beauty, or the pleasantness of their smell, have been procured from plants which grew wild, and which have been changed, or, according to the opinion of florists, improved by the art of the gardener. The greater part of them however came originally from distant countries, where they grow in as great perfection as ours, without the assistance of man. It is probable that the modern taste for flowers came from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time, in the sixteenth century. At any rate, many of the productions of our flower-gardens were conveyed to us by that channel. Clusius and his friends, in particular, contributed very much to excite this taste; and the new plants brought from both the Indies by travellers who frequently visited these countries, tended to increase it. That period also produced some skilful gardeners, who carried on a considerable trade in the roots and seeds of flowers; and these, likewise assisted to render it more general. Among these were John and Vespasian Robin, gardeners to Henry IV, of France, and Emanuel Sweert, gardener to the emperor Rodolphus II, from whom the botanists of that time procured many rarities, as appears from different passages of their works.
Simon de Tovar, a Spanish physician, brought the tuberose to Europe before the year 1594 from the East Indies, where it growswild in Java and Ceylon, and sent some roots of it to Barnard Paludanus, who first made this flower publicly known, in his annotations on Linschoten’s voyage. The full tuberoses were first procured from seed by one Le Cour, at Leyden, who kept them scarce for some years, by destroying the roots. The propagation of them in most countries is attended with difficulties: but in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, it requires no trouble; and at present the Genoese send a great many roots to England, Holland, and Germany. The oldest botanists classed them among the hyacinths, and their modern namepolianthes tuberosewas given them by Linnæus in his Hortus Cliffortianus.
The auricula,primula auricula, grows wild among the long moss covered with snow, on the confines of Switzerland and Steyermark, whence it was brought to our gardens, where, by art and accident, it has produced more varieties than any other species of flower. I do not know who first transplanted it from its native soil. Pluche says only that some roots were pulled up by Walloon merchants, and carried to Brussels. However, this is certain, that it was first cultivated with care by the Flemings, who were very successful in propagating it. In the time of Clusius, most of the varieties of the auricula were scarce.
The common fritillary, or chequered lily,fritillaria meleagris, was first observed in some parts of France, Hungary, Italy, and other warm countries, and introduced into gardens about the middle of the sixteenth century. At first it was calledlilium variegatum; but Noel Capperon, an apothecary at Orleans, who collected a great many scarce plants, gave it the name offritillaria, because the red or reddish-brown spots of the flower form regular squares. It was first calledmeleagrisby Dodonæus, because the feathers of that fowl are variegated almost in the same manner.
The roots of the magnificent crown imperial,fritillaria imperialis, were about the middle of the sixteenth century brought from Persia to Constantinople, and were carried thence to the Emperor’s garden at Vienna, from which they were dispersed all over Europe. This flower was first known by the Persian nametusac, until the Italians gave it that ofcorona imperialis, or crown imperial. It has been imagined that the figure of it is to be found represented on the coins of Herod, and that, on this account, it has been considered as the lily so much celebrated in the Scripture.
The Persian lily,fritillaria Persica, which is nearly related to it, was made known almost about the same time. The bulbs or roots were brought from Susa to Constantinople, and for that reason it was formerly calledlilium Susianum.
African and French marigolds,tagetes erectaandpatula, are indigenous in South America, and were known to botanists under the name ofcaryophillus Indicus, from which is derived theFrench appellationœillet d’ Inde. Cordus calls them, from their native country,tanacetum Peruvianum.
Among the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens, is the bella-donna lily,amaryllis formosissima, the flower of which, composed of six petals, is of a deep red color, and in a strong light, or when the sun shines upon it, has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold. The first roots of it ever seen in Europe were procured in 1593, on board a ship which had returned from South America, by Simon de Tovar, a physician at Seville. In the year following, he sent a description of this flower to Clusius; and as he had at the same time transmitted some roots to Bernard Paludanus, and count d’Aremberg, the former sent a dried flower, and the latter an accurate drawing of it, to Clusius, who published it in 1601. One of the Robins gave, in 1608, a larger and more correct figure, which was afterwards copied by Bry, Parkinson, and Rudbeck; but a complete description, with a good engraving, was published in 1742, by Linnæus, who in 1737 gave to that genus the name by which they are known at present. Tovar received it from South America, where it was found by Plumier and Barrere, and at a later period by Thiery de Menonville. At first it was classed with the narcissus, and it was afterwards calledlilio-narcissus, because its flower resembled that of the lily, and its roots those of the narcissus. It was namedflos-Jacobæus, because some imagined that they discovered in it a likeness to the badge of the knights of the order of St. James in Spain, whose founder, in the fourteenth century, could not indeed have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis.
Another species of this genus is the Guernsey lily,amaryllis Sarniensis, which in the magnificence of its flower is not inferior to the former. This plant was brought from Japan, where it was found by Kæmpfer, and also by Thunberg, during his travels some years ago in that country. It was first cultivated in the beginning of the seventeenth century, in the garden of John Morin, at Paris, where it flowered, for the first time, on the 7th of October, 1634. It was then made known by Jacob Cornutus, under the name ofnarcissus Japonicus flore rutilo. After this it was again noticed by John Ray, an Englishman, in 1665, who called it theGuernsey lily, which name it still very properly bears. A ship returning from Japan was wrecked on the coast of Guernsey, and a number of the bulbs of this plant, which were on board, being cast on shore, took root in that sandy soil. As they soon increased, and produced beautiful flowers, they were observed by the inhabitants, and engaged the attention of Mr. Hatton, the governor’s son, whose botanical knowledge is highly spoken of by Ray, and who sent roots of them to several of his friends who were fond of cultivating curious plants. Of this elegant flower Dr. Douglass gave adescription and figure in a small treatise published in 1725, which is quoted by Linnæus in his Bibliotheca, but not by Haller.
Of the numerous genus of the ranunculus, florists, to speak in a botanical sense, have obtained a thousand different kinds; for, according to the manner in which they are distinguished by gardeners, the varieties increase almost every summer.
The principal part of them, however, and those most esteemed, were brought to us from the Levant. Some were carried from that part of the world so early as in the time of the crusades; but most of them have been introduced into Europe from Constantinople since the end of the sixteenth century, particularly the Persian ranunculus, the varieties of which, if I am not mistaken, hold at present the first rank. Clusius describes both the single and the full flowers as new rarities. This flower was in the highest repute during the time of Mahomet IV. His Grand Vizir, Cara Mustapha, well known by his hatred against the Christians and the siege of Vienna, in 1683, wishing to turn the Sultan’s thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the chase, for which he had a strong passion, diverted his attention to flowers; and, as he remarked that the Emperor preferred the ranunculus to all others, he wrote to the different Pachas throughout the whole kingdom to send him seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds. The Pachas of Candia, Cyprus, Aleppo, and Rhodes, paid most regard to this request; and the elegant flowers which they transmitted to court were shut up in the seraglio as unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the Sultan, till some of them, by the force of money, were at length freed from their imprisonment. The ambassadors from the European courts, in particular, made it their business to procure roots of as many kinds as they could, which they sent to their different sovereigns. Marseilles, which at that period carried on the greatest trade to the Levant, received on this account these flowers very early; and a person there, of the name of Malaval is said to have contributed very much to disperse them all over Europe.
Some of our most common flowering shrubs have been long introduced into the gardens: the bay-tree has been cultivated more than two centuries; it is mentioned by Tusser, in the list of garden plants inserted in his work called, “Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,” printed in 1573. The laurel was introduced by Cole, a merchant at Hampstead, some years before 1629, when Parkinson published his Paradisus Terrestris, and at that time we had in our gardens oranges, myrtles of three sorts, lauristinus, cypress, phyllyrea, alaternus, arbuttus; a cactus, brought from Bermuda, and the passion-flower, which last had flowered here, and showed a remarkable peculiarity, by rising from the ground near a month sooner, if a seedling plant, than if it grew from roots brought from Virginia.
Crust of the Earth.
[In the preceding section the Author has noticed thesuperficiesof the earth principally; as its inequalities because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, vallies, &c. Therocky, andearthymasses and strata, which cover the nucleus of our globe, are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether thecentralparts of the earth be solid, soft, or hollow, and filled with gaseous matter, is not the subject of enquiry here: but thecompositionandarrangementof thesolid crustof the planet come under consideration.As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth considered principally, it consists ofmetallic oxides. The bases of the different earths are well known to bemetals. The metal calledSilicon, is the base of silex or flint—Aluminumis the metallic base of pure clay—Calcium, of lime—Magnesium, of magnesia—Potasium, of potash, &c. Iron, also, enters largely into the composition; and soda, whose metallic base issodium, forms a considerable portion.These bases, at their creation, existed in anuncombinedstate, as did all the elementary substances. When they entered into combination withoxygenthey becameearths, which are simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with theacids, in which combination they are generally seen, though not always, at the earth’s surface; as carbonate of lime, or common limestone; the composition of which iscalcium,oxygen, andcarbonic acid.Rocks of thesiliciousfamily are not consideredearthy salts, though, occasionally, they may contain a small per cent. of acid. They are calledearthy compounds.Graniteis an instance; composed offeldspar,quartz, andmica. Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar composition, though in different proportions, and under different arrangements.It will readily occur to the reader that there are some other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, and gases, which enter into the composition of the earth’s crust, though in small proportions, and, therefore, are not consideredprincipalingredients, and hence not noticed in this general sketch.The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and other principles, are found incrystalline,stratified,amorphous, andaggregate masses. Theposition,structure, andcontentsof these masses will develope thenatural history of the solid crust of our Earth.In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have been divided, according to their age into,1.Primitive Rocks.These were depositedfirst, as is evident from their position, being the lowest of all the rocks. Their name indicates their relative age.2.Transition Rocks.These rocks are deposited immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently to them. They are calledtransitionrocks, because they were deposited as the earth waspassingfrom an uninhabitable to a habitable state, as is evident from the fact thatthey contain the first traces of organized being imbedded in them.3.Secondary Rocks.These are deposited next in succession to the transition rocks, and mark athirdgrand geological epoch, by being almost altogether amechanicaldeposition, and liehorizontallywhenin situ, and contain an increase of organic remains, both in quantity and variety.4.Tertiary Rocks.These derive their name from their succession to the secondary, and of course mark thefourthgeological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the earth’s crust, which completed its redemption from the abyss of waters, and fitted it for the habitation of man.This division of the rocks designates theorder of timein which they were successively deposited, as is evident from their position.Considering these rocksin situ, they may be reckonedgeneral formations, extended all around the globe in concentric circles, as the coats of an onion around its centre, in the order above stated, beginning with the primitive rocks.It is, however, well known thatfracturesanddislocationsprevail to a great extent, the result of violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks, removing large portions of themout of place. But this circumstance need not interrupt the grandnaturalorder of the construction of the earth’s crust.There is also a class of stony substances which follow no general laws, either in regard toposition,form, orage. These are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind; as basalt, lava, &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.In the above remarks we have anoutlineof the structure of the crust of the earth; but in order to have a more satisfactory development, the principal and distinctive features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order.Primitive Rocks.1.This class occupies the lowest position as a class, yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of position among themselves. Granite is lowest; then Gneiss — Mica Slate — Clay Slate — Primitive Limestone — Porphyry — Sienite — and Greenstone.These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each other, and sometimes passing into each other.But these circumstances do not effect the general order. When the formations areundisturbed, in penetrating them we should come to granite last; and it is universally the lowest of all observed rock formations.2.This class is generally, indeed we may say, universally, crystalline in its structure.Each integrant particle is not aperfect crystal; but throughout the mass there is a partial crystallization, such as would be the result of an effort to crystallize perfectly, under a great pressure; in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each other.The very fact of this crystallization impliesfirst; a prevailing state ofunagitated solutionof the crystallizing materials:secondly: that their crystallization was the effect ofchemical action.3.The primitive rocks contain no fragments, either angular, or rounded by attrition, imbedded in them; simply because no rockspreceded them, and of course could not be broken up. It is, however, to be carefully observed, that perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in primitive rocks. When they prevail to a great extent they constituteporphyritic rocks. It is evident that these crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the including rock, and must have been suspended in the solution which formed the rock upon crystallization.4.The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized bodies.This is an universal characteristic, and proves incontestibly that they were formedprevious to the existence of organized beings.5.The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical.This seems to be the result of crystallization, as mechanical deposition would place themhorizontally, having the general bearing of the curve of the earth.6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and mica slate.They are composed of the same materials, in different proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is thebase, and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state, and the mica interspersed generally. They constitute gneiss, when the feldspardecreases, and the micaincreases, and is arranged in layers. They compose mica slate, when the feldspar almostdisappears, and the mica and quartz are intimately united.7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest positionin situ, yet they sometimes form, not only thesummitsof lofty mountains, but sometimes themountain massitself, and appear at the surface. In these cases it is evident that they have beenupheavedby a force acting beneath, and forcing them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, and glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks, leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In this case the rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began to rise, would be found at thefootof the mountain; and the rocks which were next to the uppermost, would be found immediately above them, reclining on the side of the mountain; and thusascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock formations constituting its apex.This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of mountains may be explained differently. The primitive rocks, and other classes in succession,may have been deposited in mountain masses, and the upper rocks beingsofterand moreexposed, have yielded to the ravages of the elements, and to the demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the primitive rocks bare. Thefirstseems to be the most probable supposition.8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic summits of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving force that the blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation, and some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below.This theory of the formations of some of the principal mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if every one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without prejudice. The primitiverocks would be seen shooting up from the centre of the mountain, into lofty pyramidal elevations, resembling, sometimes, lofty spires, or cupolas; and sometimes the summit is rounded off as a dome. The rocks are in averticleposition, which proves they could not have beendeposited therefrom a state of quiet repose.Sometimes two summits project from the same common base, having an intervening valley or depression between them. In this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down the sides, on which they depend in magnificent drapery; but the portion of them which was situatedbetweenthe uprising summits, not being able to escape, is found in the valley which is formed between the peaks.In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it bears up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, which forms the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a stately castle crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built. In this case the crowning mass is entirely different, and perfectly distinct from the subjacent materials.For some further remarks on the structure, and formation of mountains, and mountain masses, and the deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end of Sect. 2, chap. iv.9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action, at a very high temperature, going on during this first great geological period, and the whole globe in almost omnipotent fermentation, there is no difficulty in accounting for the irregularities, contortions, dislocations and fractures which we observe in the earth. This whole process was anterior to the existence of organized being.Transition Rocks.1.This class was deposited subsequently to the primitive rocks, and after they had consolidated.This is evident from the fact that, in their natural order, theyoverlaythe primitive, which could not be the case, unless they were deposited subsequently, any more than the roof of the house could be put on before the foundation was laid.2.Their structure is evidently the result both of chemical action, and mechanical deposition.These principles appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and at other times to have alternated. Hence the crystallization is more imperfect than in the primitive, and occasionally seems to disappear.3.From the complex action under which they were deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor horizontal, but inclined about between these two positions.4.They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth had recently emerged.Hence they are found next to the summits of the primitive mountains,on their flanks.5.The transition rocks contain some fragments of all the primitive class.This would be the natural consequence of the summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury of the elements; which would rend portions of them, and thus deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding below on the flanks of the mountains.6.In these rocks we meet with the first traces of organized being.(Silliman.) This fact is irresistible proof that these rocks were depositedsubsequentlyto the existence of the enclosed remains. The probability is, that the animals and vegetables found in transition rocks, were created at thecommencementof the transition period, and their remains deposited as the rocks were successively deposited.It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, having neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility of those which we now see. They were crude, and gross, corresponding to the condition of the earth at the time of their existence.It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, no marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are well preserved.These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, and constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, sometimes many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains. They are identified with the rock, and frequently impart to it its beauty.7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of rocks marks thecommencementofsensitiveexistence. And it would seem, from an examination of fossil remains generally, that the creation of animals and vegetables wasprogressive, produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition of the globe, at the time of their creation.Secondary Rocks.1.These rocks are so called, because they are the second great deposit, after the grand foundation of the primitive rocks were laid.Of course they point out the third great geological period.2.Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the general curve of the earth.This regards their natural position. They are found, under particular circumstances, inclined to the horizon. They occupy a lower position on the sides of mountains, resting on the transition class, which is immediately subjacentin natural order.3.This class is much less chemical, indeed very little so, in its structure.It is the result of mechanical deposition, after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the great primitive and retiring abyss.4.These rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks, and in the remains of organized beings, than the preceding class.This would be natural, as a greater extent of the earth’s surface would be exposed to the elements, and thus the destruction would be greater: and as the condition of the earth was better for sustaining sensitive beings, these would of course be more abundant both inkindandnumber.It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains found in this class of rocks, that during their deposition, there existed many species of animals and plants which do not now exist: that many of the animals weremonstersof incredible size and voracity; of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in England, have brought to light the skeletons of animals, approaching thelizardgenus, fromsixty to seventy feet long!! They are abundant in England, and occasionally found on the continent. Who can say, but that the other genera of animals then existing, were also as much more vast, and misshapen than their present existing types? A single glance at thegeological reminiscencesof this ancient period must convince any observer, that the vegetable, and specially the animal genera then existing were really astonishing both insize,shape, andnature.It becomes a question of some interest, whether these huge animals ceased to exist, having found their graves in this secondary class of rocks, before the existence of man?There are many reasons which induce a supposition they did cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in the land of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is probable their constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at this period, which we suppose to have been more gross in its air, and water, and more ardent in its climate; as it had not yet settled, and dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently subsided, to render the earth the abode of the more delicate land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable the earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a considerable extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; the air gross and moist; and the temperature still very high. Such a state of the planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as theichthyosaurus, andplesiosaurus, which would perish as the condition of the globe became more pure, and its temperature reduced.Tertiary Rocks.1.These rocks were deposited as the earth was actually, and finally redeemed from water, and became fit for the abode of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds.Hence, it is very rare, if ever, the fossil remains of animals which live wholly on land, are found below this class of rocks. But man’s companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse, sheep, &c.2. This class is not so extensively spread as the preceding classes. It includes thediluvialandalluvialformations, and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its deposition. This class covers the low countries as they slope from primitive districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies are calleddiluvial, because deposited chiefly by the great primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, or any other deposites from causes now in operation, are calledalluvial.3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1. Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. Marl, and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and sandstone, with or without shells, from sea water. 4. Limestone, and silicious millstone grit, from fresh water.Conclusion.From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the following particulars.1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great general classes of rocks: theprimitiveat the foundation; thetransition, layingimmediately over the primitive; thesecondaryimmediately above these; and thetertiaryat the surface. In this arrangement we consider the rocks in their natural position.2. Theposition,structure, andorganic remainsof these classes, clearly point out a grand geological epoch, corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class, and thus indicate their relative ages. They indicate also the successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of man, and his companion animals.3.The natural history of theprimitive world, as deduced fromgeological facts, correspondsexpressly in theorderandnature of the events, with the account given by moses.4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean, would give sufficient time for the production of those immense beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and elevated mountains. During the prevalence of the sea, these beds would form at the bottom, and when it retired they would consolidate, with the mineral deposites, into rocks.In this case the process is supposed to go on in aquietocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the deposition in layers. But we must not suppose the waters were always still, and peacefully retiring. If so, there could not have been such distinct and different deposites, in which different substances sometimes alternate. Moreover, in this case there would have been but one deposition, which would have been regular and continuous, changing its character simply by almost imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, as the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But this is not the case. There is every reason to believe there were violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, tempests, deluges, &c.,occasionally, during the subsidence of the primitive waters. Hence thedislocations,contortions,protrusions of lower rocks through upper ones, and theupheaving of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges, and mountains, producing a tremendousdeflux of watersfrequently, which would wash out channels and vallies, and carry off fragments of rocks, &c., into the waters below.Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth’s surface have beenpartlycaused by subterranean force upheaving them; andpartlyby currents of water wearing away channels, defiles, vallies, &c.The natural result of upheaving,in mass, the bed of the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which were embedded the marine exuviæ throughout the whole depth of the marine deposites. Hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of limestone, in which are found immense quantities of sea shells, throughout the mass, and entering intimately into the composition of the rock. This, without doubt, is the true origin of these marine mountain remains.Some have been disposed to attribute them to thedelugein the days of Noah; but this is impossible for two reasons. 1. The deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to allow these animals to be produced in such quantities, or to bury them so deeply in the earth. 2. Therisingwaters could not have carried them totheir present places; because, in that case they would be found at thesurfaceof the earth, or near itexclusively; whereas they are found buried thousands of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid rocks. They could not have beentransportedby the waters, because they would have suffered violence, and been fractured, and compressed; which is not generally the case. They are found perfectly preserved, though of such delicate structure as would seem to have been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect tranquillity.It is true, there are instances in which thepositionandnatureof the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed by somesuddencatastrophe. For instance: when we see the fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so placed as to indicate they werecaught, we are convinced they perishedsuddenly. But this case is alwayslocal, and may have been produced by an earthquake, or volcanic action.That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a long time,generallyin a state of tranquillity, though occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into overwhelming deluges and gradually retired, is evident also, from the fact, that the most delicateplants,leaves, andflowersare found inhumed, as the marine animals above,in a state of perfect preservation.All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of man.Appendix.There is another class of rocky substances which obey no settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an appendix:They are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin: asbasalt,obsidium,lavas of all textures, andtraprocksfrequently, perhaps generally. These have one common origin: they are also of similar composition generally; and in this approach the composition of primitive rocks. They have been evidentlyejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted state. They are found in almost all countries; and in some cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of large districts to an astonishing depth: as in the north of Ireland, more than 500 feet thick, and over an area of 800 square miles. (Ure.)Beingprotrudedfrom beneath in a melted state they are found injected through the superincumbent rocks inshaftsorveinsof various sizes, from several inches to several feet. Sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are injectedbetween their strata. They are generally somewhat crystalline in structure, because deposited on the same principles as granite, when undisturbed. From theirposition,superficial extent, andquantity, we infer they are the products of all ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have been violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]
[In the preceding section the Author has noticed thesuperficiesof the earth principally; as its inequalities because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, vallies, &c. Therocky, andearthymasses and strata, which cover the nucleus of our globe, are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether thecentralparts of the earth be solid, soft, or hollow, and filled with gaseous matter, is not the subject of enquiry here: but thecompositionandarrangementof thesolid crustof the planet come under consideration.
As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth considered principally, it consists ofmetallic oxides. The bases of the different earths are well known to bemetals. The metal calledSilicon, is the base of silex or flint—Aluminumis the metallic base of pure clay—Calcium, of lime—Magnesium, of magnesia—Potasium, of potash, &c. Iron, also, enters largely into the composition; and soda, whose metallic base issodium, forms a considerable portion.
These bases, at their creation, existed in anuncombinedstate, as did all the elementary substances. When they entered into combination withoxygenthey becameearths, which are simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with theacids, in which combination they are generally seen, though not always, at the earth’s surface; as carbonate of lime, or common limestone; the composition of which iscalcium,oxygen, andcarbonic acid.
Rocks of thesiliciousfamily are not consideredearthy salts, though, occasionally, they may contain a small per cent. of acid. They are calledearthy compounds.Graniteis an instance; composed offeldspar,quartz, andmica. Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar composition, though in different proportions, and under different arrangements.
It will readily occur to the reader that there are some other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, and gases, which enter into the composition of the earth’s crust, though in small proportions, and, therefore, are not consideredprincipalingredients, and hence not noticed in this general sketch.
The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and other principles, are found incrystalline,stratified,amorphous, andaggregate masses. Theposition,structure, andcontentsof these masses will develope thenatural history of the solid crust of our Earth.
In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have been divided, according to their age into,
1.Primitive Rocks.These were depositedfirst, as is evident from their position, being the lowest of all the rocks. Their name indicates their relative age.
2.Transition Rocks.These rocks are deposited immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently to them. They are calledtransitionrocks, because they were deposited as the earth waspassingfrom an uninhabitable to a habitable state, as is evident from the fact thatthey contain the first traces of organized being imbedded in them.
3.Secondary Rocks.These are deposited next in succession to the transition rocks, and mark athirdgrand geological epoch, by being almost altogether amechanicaldeposition, and liehorizontallywhenin situ, and contain an increase of organic remains, both in quantity and variety.
4.Tertiary Rocks.These derive their name from their succession to the secondary, and of course mark thefourthgeological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the earth’s crust, which completed its redemption from the abyss of waters, and fitted it for the habitation of man.
This division of the rocks designates theorder of timein which they were successively deposited, as is evident from their position.
Considering these rocksin situ, they may be reckonedgeneral formations, extended all around the globe in concentric circles, as the coats of an onion around its centre, in the order above stated, beginning with the primitive rocks.
It is, however, well known thatfracturesanddislocationsprevail to a great extent, the result of violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks, removing large portions of themout of place. But this circumstance need not interrupt the grandnaturalorder of the construction of the earth’s crust.
There is also a class of stony substances which follow no general laws, either in regard toposition,form, orage. These are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind; as basalt, lava, &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.
In the above remarks we have anoutlineof the structure of the crust of the earth; but in order to have a more satisfactory development, the principal and distinctive features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order.
Primitive Rocks.
1.This class occupies the lowest position as a class, yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of position among themselves. Granite is lowest; then Gneiss — Mica Slate — Clay Slate — Primitive Limestone — Porphyry — Sienite — and Greenstone.
These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each other, and sometimes passing into each other.But these circumstances do not effect the general order. When the formations areundisturbed, in penetrating them we should come to granite last; and it is universally the lowest of all observed rock formations.
2.This class is generally, indeed we may say, universally, crystalline in its structure.Each integrant particle is not aperfect crystal; but throughout the mass there is a partial crystallization, such as would be the result of an effort to crystallize perfectly, under a great pressure; in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each other.
The very fact of this crystallization impliesfirst; a prevailing state ofunagitated solutionof the crystallizing materials:secondly: that their crystallization was the effect ofchemical action.
3.The primitive rocks contain no fragments, either angular, or rounded by attrition, imbedded in them; simply because no rockspreceded them, and of course could not be broken up. It is, however, to be carefully observed, that perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in primitive rocks. When they prevail to a great extent they constituteporphyritic rocks. It is evident that these crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the including rock, and must have been suspended in the solution which formed the rock upon crystallization.
4.The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized bodies.This is an universal characteristic, and proves incontestibly that they were formedprevious to the existence of organized beings.
5.The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical.This seems to be the result of crystallization, as mechanical deposition would place themhorizontally, having the general bearing of the curve of the earth.
6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and mica slate.
They are composed of the same materials, in different proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is thebase, and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state, and the mica interspersed generally. They constitute gneiss, when the feldspardecreases, and the micaincreases, and is arranged in layers. They compose mica slate, when the feldspar almostdisappears, and the mica and quartz are intimately united.
7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest positionin situ, yet they sometimes form, not only thesummitsof lofty mountains, but sometimes themountain massitself, and appear at the surface. In these cases it is evident that they have beenupheavedby a force acting beneath, and forcing them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, and glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks, leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In this case the rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began to rise, would be found at thefootof the mountain; and the rocks which were next to the uppermost, would be found immediately above them, reclining on the side of the mountain; and thusascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock formations constituting its apex.
This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of mountains may be explained differently. The primitive rocks, and other classes in succession,may have been deposited in mountain masses, and the upper rocks beingsofterand moreexposed, have yielded to the ravages of the elements, and to the demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the primitive rocks bare. Thefirstseems to be the most probable supposition.
8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic summits of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving force that the blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation, and some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below.
This theory of the formations of some of the principal mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if every one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without prejudice. The primitiverocks would be seen shooting up from the centre of the mountain, into lofty pyramidal elevations, resembling, sometimes, lofty spires, or cupolas; and sometimes the summit is rounded off as a dome. The rocks are in averticleposition, which proves they could not have beendeposited therefrom a state of quiet repose.
Sometimes two summits project from the same common base, having an intervening valley or depression between them. In this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down the sides, on which they depend in magnificent drapery; but the portion of them which was situatedbetweenthe uprising summits, not being able to escape, is found in the valley which is formed between the peaks.
In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it bears up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, which forms the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a stately castle crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built. In this case the crowning mass is entirely different, and perfectly distinct from the subjacent materials.For some further remarks on the structure, and formation of mountains, and mountain masses, and the deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end of Sect. 2, chap. iv.
9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action, at a very high temperature, going on during this first great geological period, and the whole globe in almost omnipotent fermentation, there is no difficulty in accounting for the irregularities, contortions, dislocations and fractures which we observe in the earth. This whole process was anterior to the existence of organized being.
Transition Rocks.
1.This class was deposited subsequently to the primitive rocks, and after they had consolidated.This is evident from the fact that, in their natural order, theyoverlaythe primitive, which could not be the case, unless they were deposited subsequently, any more than the roof of the house could be put on before the foundation was laid.
2.Their structure is evidently the result both of chemical action, and mechanical deposition.These principles appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and at other times to have alternated. Hence the crystallization is more imperfect than in the primitive, and occasionally seems to disappear.
3.From the complex action under which they were deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor horizontal, but inclined about between these two positions.
4.They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth had recently emerged.Hence they are found next to the summits of the primitive mountains,on their flanks.
5.The transition rocks contain some fragments of all the primitive class.This would be the natural consequence of the summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury of the elements; which would rend portions of them, and thus deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding below on the flanks of the mountains.
6.In these rocks we meet with the first traces of organized being.(Silliman.) This fact is irresistible proof that these rocks were depositedsubsequentlyto the existence of the enclosed remains. The probability is, that the animals and vegetables found in transition rocks, were created at thecommencementof the transition period, and their remains deposited as the rocks were successively deposited.
It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, having neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility of those which we now see. They were crude, and gross, corresponding to the condition of the earth at the time of their existence.
It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, no marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are well preserved.
These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, and constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, sometimes many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains. They are identified with the rock, and frequently impart to it its beauty.
7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of rocks marks thecommencementofsensitiveexistence. And it would seem, from an examination of fossil remains generally, that the creation of animals and vegetables wasprogressive, produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition of the globe, at the time of their creation.
Secondary Rocks.
1.These rocks are so called, because they are the second great deposit, after the grand foundation of the primitive rocks were laid.Of course they point out the third great geological period.
2.Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the general curve of the earth.This regards their natural position. They are found, under particular circumstances, inclined to the horizon. They occupy a lower position on the sides of mountains, resting on the transition class, which is immediately subjacentin natural order.
3.This class is much less chemical, indeed very little so, in its structure.It is the result of mechanical deposition, after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the great primitive and retiring abyss.
4.These rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks, and in the remains of organized beings, than the preceding class.This would be natural, as a greater extent of the earth’s surface would be exposed to the elements, and thus the destruction would be greater: and as the condition of the earth was better for sustaining sensitive beings, these would of course be more abundant both inkindandnumber.
It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains found in this class of rocks, that during their deposition, there existed many species of animals and plants which do not now exist: that many of the animals weremonstersof incredible size and voracity; of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.
The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in England, have brought to light the skeletons of animals, approaching thelizardgenus, fromsixty to seventy feet long!! They are abundant in England, and occasionally found on the continent. Who can say, but that the other genera of animals then existing, were also as much more vast, and misshapen than their present existing types? A single glance at thegeological reminiscencesof this ancient period must convince any observer, that the vegetable, and specially the animal genera then existing were really astonishing both insize,shape, andnature.
It becomes a question of some interest, whether these huge animals ceased to exist, having found their graves in this secondary class of rocks, before the existence of man?
There are many reasons which induce a supposition they did cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in the land of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is probable their constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at this period, which we suppose to have been more gross in its air, and water, and more ardent in its climate; as it had not yet settled, and dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently subsided, to render the earth the abode of the more delicate land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable the earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a considerable extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; the air gross and moist; and the temperature still very high. Such a state of the planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as theichthyosaurus, andplesiosaurus, which would perish as the condition of the globe became more pure, and its temperature reduced.
Tertiary Rocks.
1.These rocks were deposited as the earth was actually, and finally redeemed from water, and became fit for the abode of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds.Hence, it is very rare, if ever, the fossil remains of animals which live wholly on land, are found below this class of rocks. But man’s companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse, sheep, &c.
2. This class is not so extensively spread as the preceding classes. It includes thediluvialandalluvialformations, and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its deposition. This class covers the low countries as they slope from primitive districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies are calleddiluvial, because deposited chiefly by the great primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, or any other deposites from causes now in operation, are calledalluvial.
3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1. Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. Marl, and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and sandstone, with or without shells, from sea water. 4. Limestone, and silicious millstone grit, from fresh water.
Conclusion.
From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the following particulars.
1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great general classes of rocks: theprimitiveat the foundation; thetransition, layingimmediately over the primitive; thesecondaryimmediately above these; and thetertiaryat the surface. In this arrangement we consider the rocks in their natural position.
2. Theposition,structure, andorganic remainsof these classes, clearly point out a grand geological epoch, corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class, and thus indicate their relative ages. They indicate also the successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of man, and his companion animals.
3.The natural history of theprimitive world, as deduced fromgeological facts, correspondsexpressly in theorderandnature of the events, with the account given by moses.
4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean, would give sufficient time for the production of those immense beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and elevated mountains. During the prevalence of the sea, these beds would form at the bottom, and when it retired they would consolidate, with the mineral deposites, into rocks.
In this case the process is supposed to go on in aquietocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the deposition in layers. But we must not suppose the waters were always still, and peacefully retiring. If so, there could not have been such distinct and different deposites, in which different substances sometimes alternate. Moreover, in this case there would have been but one deposition, which would have been regular and continuous, changing its character simply by almost imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, as the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But this is not the case. There is every reason to believe there were violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, tempests, deluges, &c.,occasionally, during the subsidence of the primitive waters. Hence thedislocations,contortions,protrusions of lower rocks through upper ones, and theupheaving of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges, and mountains, producing a tremendousdeflux of watersfrequently, which would wash out channels and vallies, and carry off fragments of rocks, &c., into the waters below.
Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth’s surface have beenpartlycaused by subterranean force upheaving them; andpartlyby currents of water wearing away channels, defiles, vallies, &c.
The natural result of upheaving,in mass, the bed of the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which were embedded the marine exuviæ throughout the whole depth of the marine deposites. Hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of limestone, in which are found immense quantities of sea shells, throughout the mass, and entering intimately into the composition of the rock. This, without doubt, is the true origin of these marine mountain remains.
Some have been disposed to attribute them to thedelugein the days of Noah; but this is impossible for two reasons. 1. The deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to allow these animals to be produced in such quantities, or to bury them so deeply in the earth. 2. Therisingwaters could not have carried them totheir present places; because, in that case they would be found at thesurfaceof the earth, or near itexclusively; whereas they are found buried thousands of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid rocks. They could not have beentransportedby the waters, because they would have suffered violence, and been fractured, and compressed; which is not generally the case. They are found perfectly preserved, though of such delicate structure as would seem to have been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect tranquillity.
It is true, there are instances in which thepositionandnatureof the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed by somesuddencatastrophe. For instance: when we see the fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so placed as to indicate they werecaught, we are convinced they perishedsuddenly. But this case is alwayslocal, and may have been produced by an earthquake, or volcanic action.
That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a long time,generallyin a state of tranquillity, though occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into overwhelming deluges and gradually retired, is evident also, from the fact, that the most delicateplants,leaves, andflowersare found inhumed, as the marine animals above,in a state of perfect preservation.
All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of man.
Appendix.
There is another class of rocky substances which obey no settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an appendix:They are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin: asbasalt,obsidium,lavas of all textures, andtraprocksfrequently, perhaps generally. These have one common origin: they are also of similar composition generally; and in this approach the composition of primitive rocks. They have been evidentlyejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted state. They are found in almost all countries; and in some cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of large districts to an astonishing depth: as in the north of Ireland, more than 500 feet thick, and over an area of 800 square miles. (Ure.)
Beingprotrudedfrom beneath in a melted state they are found injected through the superincumbent rocks inshaftsorveinsof various sizes, from several inches to several feet. Sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are injectedbetween their strata. They are generally somewhat crystalline in structure, because deposited on the same principles as granite, when undisturbed. From theirposition,superficial extent, andquantity, we infer they are the products of all ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have been violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]
We may well ask, in the language of a German philosopher, Who can enumerate all the blessings which the vegetable kingdom affords? It is at least manifest that all the arrangements of Providence, in this respect, have for their grand object the advantage of the creatures. God has provided for the wants of each individual. He has assigned to each that plant, which is most proper for its nourishment and support. There is not a plant on the earth, but what has its particular destination and use. What sentiments of veneration and gratitude should we feel, at the sight of lawns, gardens, fields, and meadows! Here his beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the comfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth. Here, oh God! thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the desire of every living creature! Here every herb, ear of corn, flower, and tree, proclaims thy goodness! How closely might our modern geologists walk with God, if, like a Boyle, and a Ray, every new discovery led them to an increasing admiration of Divine wisdom and omnipotent power!103for