Grating
This should be about 4 feet square. It prevents the ground getting hard about the trees, and permits air and water to enter to the roots. It also makes it easy to give anyattention to the trees that they may require when young, such as manuring, digging, &c.
The tree should also be protected with a slight iron grill or railing to prevent mischievous persons from cutting their names on the trunk, climbing up into the tree, or breaking off its branches whilst still young. The following sketch shows the description of grill necessary, which is light, cheap, and at the same time effective.
Grill
The following interesting particulars of the manner in which street planting of trees is conducted in Paris will be useful, and are givenin extenso:[221]
“When the boulevarde is marked out and levelled, if the soil is of bad quality, as is nearly always the case, trenches aredug in the footway from one end of the boulevarde to the other. The width of this trench is usually about 6 feet, and its depth 4 or 5; and before filling it in drain-pipes are laid along the sides made with lapped joints so that the roots shall not enter between them. The trench is then filled with good garden earth, raising it a little higher than the level so as to allow for settling. In this ground the trees are planted about 6 yards apart. They should be carefully chosen with perfect roots, and moderately pruned. Formerly the stem was cut at about 9 feet from the ground, but this had the bad effect of preventing the top of the tree from being straight, and the practice has been given up. The trees are next staked and tied with wire over a neat wad of straw, which prevents all injury to the stem. A protecting cage, neither heavy nor very expensive, is placed round the tree to prevent accidents; and if the weather be at all dry at the time of planting, the trees are copiously watered.”
The cost of planting a tree in the Paris boulevarde is thus given:[222]
The maintenance of each tree costs 1·58 francs.
The total cost, therefore, of each tree capitalised reaches about 8l., and its life is said not to exceed twelve years.
Before closing this chapter it is well to advert to the evident importance that the legislature attach to the planting and preservation of trees along the sides of the public streets in this country and their desire to protect them, as the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875 will show. “. . . Any person who, without the consent of the urban authority, wilfully displaces or takes up, or who injures the pavement, stones, materials, fences, or posts of,or the treesin any such street shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds, and to a further penalty not exceeding five shillings for every square foot of pavement, stones, or other materials so displaced, taken up, or injured; he shall also be liable in the case ofany injury to treesto pay to the local authority such amount of compensation as the court may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).
It is a great source of regret that mischievous persons can be found who by their wilful malice injure the trees planted at the sides of streets out of the public funds and with great expense and trouble.
[215]By the “Commons Act 1876,” powers were given to acquire and lay out commons for purposes of public recreation, etc.[216]Upon this latter pointVide24 & 25 Vic. c. 61, s. 21.[217]As a preservative against the malicious disfigurement of wooden seats, I have seen the following inscription placed upon some seats in an old public park, “Never cut a friend,” and it had apparently the desired effect.[218]As an instance of the size and importance works of this description may assume, the Bois de Boulogne, Paris, is an example. It covers an area of 2000 acres, of which one half is forest, one quarter is grass, one-eighth roads, and about 70 acres is water. One of the most beautifully arranged public parks in this country is Sefton Park, Liverpool, where the most perfect arrangements of lawns, plantations, lakes and drives, have been carried out.[219]‘A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees,’ by A. des Cars, translated from the 7th French edition, with an introduction by Charles S. Sargent, etc. Published by A. Williams and Co., Boston, U.S.A., 1881.[220]In Paris in the year 1880, there were 90,000 trees in the streets, besides 20,000 more in the cemeteries. (VideReport of Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham, 20th December, 1880.) There are also upwards of 8000 seats in public places; the trees and seats costing nearly 100,000l.per annum to maintain.[221]Vide‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson, F.L.S., 1869, p. 128.[222]Vide‘L’Architecte,’ 20th November, 1880, p. 370.
[215]By the “Commons Act 1876,” powers were given to acquire and lay out commons for purposes of public recreation, etc.
[216]Upon this latter pointVide24 & 25 Vic. c. 61, s. 21.
[217]As a preservative against the malicious disfigurement of wooden seats, I have seen the following inscription placed upon some seats in an old public park, “Never cut a friend,” and it had apparently the desired effect.
[218]As an instance of the size and importance works of this description may assume, the Bois de Boulogne, Paris, is an example. It covers an area of 2000 acres, of which one half is forest, one quarter is grass, one-eighth roads, and about 70 acres is water. One of the most beautifully arranged public parks in this country is Sefton Park, Liverpool, where the most perfect arrangements of lawns, plantations, lakes and drives, have been carried out.
[219]‘A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees,’ by A. des Cars, translated from the 7th French edition, with an introduction by Charles S. Sargent, etc. Published by A. Williams and Co., Boston, U.S.A., 1881.
[220]In Paris in the year 1880, there were 90,000 trees in the streets, besides 20,000 more in the cemeteries. (VideReport of Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham, 20th December, 1880.) There are also upwards of 8000 seats in public places; the trees and seats costing nearly 100,000l.per annum to maintain.
[221]Vide‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson, F.L.S., 1869, p. 128.
[222]Vide‘L’Architecte,’ 20th November, 1880, p. 370.
The following is the clause of the Public Health Act 1875 which empowers an urban authority to establish public slaughter-houses (or “abattoirs“[223]as they are sometimes called) for the purposes of the district they govern:
“Any urban authority may, if they think fit, provide slaughter-houses, and they shall make bye-laws with respect to the management and charges for the use of any slaughterhouses so provided.
“For the purpose of enabling any urban authority to regulate slaughter-houses within their district, the provisions of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, with respect to slaughter-houses, shall be incorporated with this Act.[224]
“Nothing in this section shall prejudice or affect any rights, powers, or privileges of any persons incorporated by any local Act passed before the passing of the Public Health Act 1848, for the purpose of making and maintaining slaughter-houses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 169).
The great necessity for the establishment of one or more public slaughter-houses in any town can only fully be realised by persons who will take the trouble to inspect those which are private; they are generally placed near the shops of the butchers for the sake of convenience, the result being that they are situated in the central portions of the town and are thus surrounded by closely packed dwellings. Theprivate slaughter house often consists of a stable or shed which has been converted into an ill-designed slaughter-house, badly paved, with imperfect drainage; they are frequently not sufficiently lighted, ventilated or drained, and are utterly unfitted for the purposes for which they are used.
Their position also is often so badly chosen that the children in the vicinity resort there to see the animals killed, and the poor beasts have in some cases to be driven through a narrow passage into the slaughter-house itself, where, trembling at the sight and smell of the blood and carcasses of its dead companions, it remains tethered until its turn comes to fall a victim to the blow of the slaughter-man: a blow which sometimes has often to be repeated before its object is attained, owing to the bad light and cramped surroundings of the place.
As these slaughter-houses are generally rented by the butcher using them at large rentals (such accommodation being scarce), it is not to be expected that he will spend much money to improve property which is not his own; but notwithstanding the loss of weight incurred by the animal to be slaughtered thus fretting and sweating in its terror, the damage to the meat by its being dressed in the same locality with the live beast, steaming and smelling in the vicinity, and the exorbitant rents demanded, still there are great objections always raised by butchers in towns to the establishment of public slaughter-houses. These objections are based by them on the following grounds:
They contend that the carriage of the meat from the slaughter-house to their shop deprives them of some of their profits; that slaughtering their animals in the presence of other butchers leads to disparaging remarks and trade jealousies, and that they sometimes are robbed of fat, tools, &c.
These arguments are groundless if the public abattoir isproperly designed, is in a suitable locality, and is well managed.
There are no powers by which butchers can be compelled to abandon private slaughter-houses, and use those provided by the urban authority, so long as the bye-laws of the authority are not infringed; but as the law stands at present, private slaughter-houses may be licensed (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, ss. 125, 126) or registered (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 127), and the only manner in which they could be closed (which would then compel the butcher to use the public abattoir) would be by putting the 129th section of the same Act in force, which states that the justices before whom any person is convicted of killing or dressing cattle contrary to the provision of the Act, or of the non-observance of any bye-law or regulation of the local authority, in addition to the penalty may suspendthe licencefor any period not exceeding two months; or in the case of the owner of anyregisteredslaughter-house may forbid for any period not exceeding two months, the slaughtering of cattle therein. For a second or other subsequent like offence, in addition to the penalty the justices may revoke the licence or absolutely forbid the slaughtering of cattle in the particular house or yard. In such an event the local authority may refuse to grant anylicencewhatever to the person whose licence has been revoked, or on account of whose default the slaughtering of cattle in anyregisteredslaughter-house has been forbidden.
With reference to the establishment anew of the business of a slaughterer of cattle in London, the following particulars required to be deposited by the applicant with the Metropolitan Board of Works will be useful.
A plan of the premises and sections of the building drawn to a scale of ¹⁄₄-inch to the foot and showing the proposed or existing arrangements for drainage, lighting, ventilation, and water supply, with a key plan of the locality, have to be deposited, as well as replies to the following questions:
(1.) State what place for the accommodation or poundage of the cattle about to be slaughtered is provided; if such place has an entrance way for the cattle otherwise than through the slaughter-house; if separated from the slaughter-house by a brick partition with a door; and also what provision is made therein for watering animals.
(2.) State if slaughter-house and its poundage is within 20 feet of an inhabited building; and if it has any entrance opening directly on a public highway.
(3.) State if the entrance to the premises is apart from and independent of any shop or dwelling-house; if from a street at the side or rear; and also the height of the entrance gates.
(4.) State the dimensions of the slaughter-house, length, breadth, height to eaves, and construction of the roof; and give similar information about the poundage.
(5.) State if slaughter-house and poundage are drained by glazed pipes communicating with public sewer, or how; how drains are trapped; and if gratings have openings greater than three-eighths of an inch across.
(6.) State if floors are below level of outside road or footway, and if paved with asphalte, or flag-stone set in cement, or how.
(7.) State how walls of slaughter-house are constructed, and if they are covered with hard smooth and impervious material to a height of at least 4 feet; and, if so, state what material is used, and to what height it is carried.
(8.) State how slaughter-house and poundage are lighted, if with lantern, sky, or side-lights, or otherwise.
(9.) State how ventilated, if by openings, windows, louvre boards, or otherwise.
(10.) State what provision is made for water-supply, the capacity of the cistern, and at what height it is placed above floor level.
(11.) State if any watercloset, privy, urinal, cesspool, orstable, is within, or communicates directly with the slaughter-house.
(12.) State if any rooms or lofts are constructed, or proposed to be constructed, over the slaughter-house.
(13.) State if the premises will be provided with all the necessary and most approved apparatus and tackle for the slaughtering of cattle.
Having thus far dealt with private slaughter-houses, I will now turn to the question of the provision of public establishments of the kind by the urban authority, for it is usually the duty of the town surveyor to advise his corporation upon such a matter.
First, as to the site of the proposed public abattoir, this depends greatly upon what sites are at the command of the town; it should if possible be near the cattle market to prevent the passage of animals through the streets, not only on account of the great public inconvenience, but also the loss of weight to the animal[225]and the heated and bad state into which its blood becomes from the exercise, and the violent blows of the drovers’ sticks.
The site would be isolated and yet not too far from the shops of the butchers, or the cost of carriage of the meat will be considerable; it is almost needless to say that it should be easily and effectively drained, and the more air with which it can be surrounded the better. It is imperative that the entrance for the live beasts should be separate from the exit of the dead meat, and the approach roads to the site should not be narrow.
In laying out the site every town surveyor must use his own judgment, but the following plan on which the site of the excellent public abattoir at Manchester is laid out may serve as some guide for this purpose, although of course this establishment is on a very large scale indeed, and is inconnection with a carcass market more than 500 feet in length:
PLAN OF MANCHESTER SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.Large illustration(78 kB)
PLAN OF MANCHESTER SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.
Large illustration(78 kB)
In designing an abattoir on a large scale provision for the following accommodation should be considered.
(1.)Lairs for cattle and pens for sheep.
These should be separated from the slaughter-house by a smaller temporary lair in which the beast whose turn has come can be fastened to the halter by which he is dragged into the slaughter-house, the sides of the door-way being lined with iron for this purpose. The paving of the lairs may be of asphalte, but care must be taken that near the door of slaughter-house, the paving is of pitchers or something that is not at all slippery, as here the frightened beast often struggles and draws back when he sees the “engines of destruction” in the slaughter-house, and smells the blood of those who have gone before.
The lairs must be thoroughly well drained, lighted, and ventilated, and troughs for hay and water placed for each beast, for although the animals are not expected to remain long in the lairs before being killed, still it is very importantthat they should be well and kindly treated, and rest, so that they may obtain their normal condition before being killed.
A door easily closed should shut off the lair from the slaughter-house, as it is open to question, if animals do not see with fear the hapless fate of their comrades; for this and other obvious reasons the animals must on no account be permitted to pass through the slaughter-house to reach the lair.
The lairs should be well lighted artificially, as a great deal of slaughtering is conducted before and after daylight.
(2.)The slaughter-houses.
These may be separate or in one long building used in common by the butchers; both systems have their advantages and disadvantages.
The long building has the advantage of greater economy in erection and of management, as one inspector can see from end to end of it. Where also a large site is not available greater advantage can be taken of a slaughter-house erected on this plan, as several butchers can slaughter in turn; the lairs, however, must be kept separate. The butchers do not like this plan, but prefer privacy, and a great deal of “horse play” is sometimes indulged in by the slaughtermen at work in a large building. The method of payment for the use of a slaughter-house of this description cannot well be by rent, but by head of animal slaughtered, and this is open to the objection of possible fraud. It is necessary also to have separate slaughter-houses for the sheep and the pigs.
Whether the slaughter-houses are constructed separately or in one long building, the detail requirements are much the same.
The pavement of the floor should be placed on concrete and it should be constructed of some material that is easily cleansed, is impervious to moisture, and is not slippery either wet or dry. It must also be of sufficient durability, and bestrong enough to bear the weight of the dead-meat carts which have to back in over it under the beams carrying the carcasses, should there be no dead meat market in connection with the slaughter-house as at Manchester, Dundee, &c.
The requirements of such a floor are met by good natural compressed or mastic asphalte. The necessary holes for the reception of the flaying sticks used in many parts of England can be easily managed by inserting either small brass sockets specially made, or more simply by pieces of gas-pipe cut into lengths of about an inch set tight in the asphalte.
The walls of the slaughter-house must be of sufficient strength to carry the beams or girders of the overhead hoisting gear, as well as some tons of hanging carcasses, as will presently be explained.
The inside of these walls must be lined to a height of about 6 feet above the floor line with some material which is impervious and easily cleansed. Glazed white tiles or bricks are sometimes used for this purpose, but are apt to get chipped or broken, and I have found that asphalte, although dark in colour, answers the purpose admirably, and is much cheaper.
With regard to the drainage of the slaughter-house, this should, if possible, be so arranged that there are no gratings or gully-pits in the house itself. The floor should fall about 1 in 30 from the lairs to the cart doors, so that everything should pass outside into a gutter in which the necessary gratings and gully-pits can be arranged. If this is thought to be objectionable, pits with double gratings, the lower one being only a plate with perforated holes, can be placed in the slaughter-house so as to prevent any solid matter whatever from entering the drains, and these pits can be united by short drains with gully-pits outside. The double grating should in any case be inserted, as by this means allsolid matter is kept out of the drains: a very important consideration.
The cart doors should be made sliding, and not hinged, or great inconvenience will be experienced, and they must be made wide enough for the carts to back in easily.
In some slaughter-houses the killing ring to which the beast is attached whilst the blow from the poleaxe is given[226]consists of a strong horse-shoe shaped piece of iron projecting about 24 inches from the wall at a height of about 18 inches, and having a ring in the top curve,thus—
Killing ring
whilst in others the killing ring is on the floor,thus—
Killing ring
and in others an iron pillar standing up from the floor is used, which is considered the best plan, as the beast should stand in a natural and easy position at about a right angle from the feller.
The lighting of the slaughter-house should be effected from the roof, as a good and steady light is essential to the men engaged in this business. An awkward cut may seriously damage good beef or mutton. Care must, however, be taken to exclude the glare of the sun, and the ventilation should be carefully arranged by louvres easily manipulated.
Water should be plentifully laid on at a good pressure, so as to ensure thorough flushing, &c., and the necessary taps should be recessed in the walls, as everything in a building of this description should be kept as flush as possible, or it will be damaged. In some slaughter-houses hot water is laid on, and this is a great boon to the butchers and much appreciated by them.
Gas must of course be laid on, as much slaughtering takes place during the night.
The machinery for hoisting the beasts and slinging the carcasses requires to be effective, simple, and very strong, as it is subjected to the roughest treatment, and such machinery has been patented and is erected by Messrs. John Meiklejon and Son, of Dalkeith, on very reasonable terms.[227]
This machinery hoists the beast by simply pulling on an endless chain. It remains suspended at any height, and can be equally easily lowered. The divided carcass can be placed upon hooks at any point along the girders above without being touched, and it can be taken off again and lowered on to a man’s shoulders or into the cart direct, and in fact, speaking from my own experience, this machinery is very perfect.
The carcasses of the sheep are hung by hand upon hooks projecting from rails which are placed at a convenient height around the walls of the slaughter-house.
In some abattoirs the sheep slaughter-houses are distinct from those used for killing beasts, and this method has many advantages.
Before proceeding to describe the further requirements of an abattoir or group of slaughter-houses, I think the following plan will be of use to show the arrangement which I have described with regard to lairs andslaughter-houses:—
Slaughter-houseLarge illustration(133 kB)
Large illustration(133 kB)
The following plan shows the arrangements adopted in the Metropolitan Cattle Market slaughter-houses:
METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.
METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.
(3.)The condemned meat department.
This should consist of a lair for suspected cattle, a lair and slaughter-house for the condemned cattle similar to that already described, and a condemned meat store: this being the place where not only all the diseased animals’ carcasses are temporarily stored pending destruction, but also any meat of sound beasts that may have gone bad after killing, &c. The whole of the meat thus placed in the condemned store must be taken to the boiling-down house, where it is destroyed by being boiled down to fat, which is disposed of for various trade purposes.
The following description of the method employed for this purpose at the Deptford Foreign Cattle Market will here be of use:[228]
“There are several killing houses for diseased cattle, and excellent apparatus for boiling down condemned meat. Forthis purpose two boilers are suspended from a strong platform through which they pass, and the bottoms of them are several feet above the floor. They are each 4 feet 6 inches in diameter and 10 feet in length under platform. At the bottom the cylinder tapers to 2 feet 8 inches in diameter. Under this there is a semispherical bottom to the boiler hinged and kept shut by a back-weighted lever and screws. On the top of each there is a semispherical cover and safety valve.
“There is an iron crane and windlass for lifting off and on the covers. After the boilers are charged with diseased meat the covers are made secure and steam let into them near the bottom. There is a cock in the bottom of each for running off the liquid at certain stages into a trap grating in the floor under it, and conducted into a cement cistern outside of the boiling-house, from which it is periodically removed. Whether any use is made of the tallow produced I am not informed. The bones when removed are quite porous, of a very white colour, and nearly as light as cork. I presume that they will be sold for being converted into bone manure. I understand these large boilers are not very often used, and that a small close galvanized iron cylinder, 2 feet 9 inches in diameter, and 2 feet 6 inches high, placed 15 inches above the ground, having cock at bottom, steam pipe at side, and portable lid, does most of the work very efficiently.”
(4.)The pig-killing department.
This should be separate from the ordinary slaughter-house, as the styes for pigs must be differently arranged to the cattle lairs, and a boiler house is necessary, as boiling water must be had for scalding and dressing the carcasses. Special iron troughs with false bottoms have been arranged by Messrs. Meiklejon, which greatly facilitate this part of the butcher’s work, and simple hoisting apparatus over these troughs lifts the carcase in and out, and carries it off to the cooling or hanging room, which must of necessity be separate from the killing and scalding rooms. Drainage, lighting, ventilationand floors should be similar to those described for the slaughter-houses, and plenty of lime wash can be used with advantage here as well as in the main slaughter-house.
(5.)The blood house.
The blood of the slaughtered animals, which formerly was allowed to run away, has been found to contain a most valuable aniline dye, and for this purpose it is now collected and taken to the blood-houses, where in order to obtain this dye it is necessary to place the blood in shallow tins, where it is warmed by steam-pipes, the liquid is then drawn off, which is the albumen from which the dye is extracted, the residuum left in the trays is of the consistency of jelly, and is sold for manure.
(6.)The tripery.
This is provided in large abattoirs for the purpose of preparing the tripe and feet of the slaughtered animals, and in the Glasgow public slaughter-houses this is effected by the corporation free of charge by special machinery adapted for the purpose.
(7.)The tallow market.
Where tallow is melted down, and moulded in shapes for manufacturers’ uses.
(8.)The hide store.
This is where the hides and sheep skins are weighed and temporarily stored, sometimes in connection with thisare—
(9.)Sale rooms; for the hides, skins of sheep, &c., and tallow.
In addition to the above requirements may be mentioned,
(10.)A superintendent’s dwelling-house and office.
(11.)A gate keeper’s dwelling-house and office.
(12.)A weighing machine and office.
(13.)A convenient roomfor the meetings of the committee of the corporation having charge of the slaughter-house.
(14.)Waiting roomsfor dealers, drovers, slaughtermen, and butchers, &c.
(15.)Store-rooms and a joiner’s workshop.
(16.)Stables and sheddingfor the horses and carts of the jobbers and butchers, &c.
(17.)Lofts for straw and hay; the former should be provided free by the corporation, the latter on payment of so much per diem for each beast.
(18.)The necessary urinal and w. c. accommodation.
With regard to the provision to be made for storing the dung and waste refuse from public slaughter-houses, I am strongly of opinion that there should not be any fixed receptacle for such matters, but that covered carts should be provided, which could stand in convenient positions and be removed every day, a fresh and clean cart being substituted at once for the one removed; by this means all nuisance is avoided.
Speaking of public abattoirs, in a recent lecture on Industrial Nuisances, Dr. C. W. Chancellor, of the Maryland State Board of Health U.S.A., gives some advice on the management of slaughter-houses. He says: “During the process of slaughtering as much care as possible should be taken to prevent the discharge of blood or other animal matter upon the floor of the slaughter-house, upon the surrounding earth, or into an open stream. The contents of the viscera should, with the blood, offal and other garbage, be placed in impervious, covered, moveable receptacles, constructed of galvanized iron or other non-absorbent material, and removed from the premises without undue delay. Where hides or skins are necessarily retained for a day or two before they can be removed, they might without injury be advantageously brushed over on the fleshy side with a solution of carbolic acid or some other antiseptic. Fat should be freely exposed to the air in a cool place. As soon as the slaughtering is completed the whole slaughter-house, floor and walls, should be thoroughly washed. All the vessels and implements used in the slaughtering should be kept clean and sweet. Deodorizers may sometimes be used with advantage.”
There can be no doubt that whereas private slaughter-houses are frequently a most injurious nuisance to the neighbourhood in which they are placed, owing to their situation and construction, and a visit to one of them is likely to give a strong impetus to vegetarianism, the public abattoir, on however large a scale, if properly constructed and managed, need be no nuisance whatever, and every town in the kingdom should endeavour to obtain one, not only on account of the nuisance caused by private slaughter-houses, but for the incentive which is given to butchers to abstain from slaughtering diseased or unwholesome animals, the prevention of cruelty, and the material benefits derived in a proper establishment for the best methods of dressing the meat.
[223]The word “abattoir” is a French word from “abattre” to fell, it is used in this country to designate a group of slaughter-houses.[224]The clauses referred to are contained in 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, and are ss. 125, 126, et seq.; they refer to the registration, licensing and management of private slaughter-houses, and need not be commented upon here.[225]An ordinary beast is said to lose 3 cwt. in weight in a journey from Edinburgh to London.[226]The pole-axe should be of the American pattern, which has a head hollow and very sharp round the periphery. The practise is, after the blow is struck and the animal felled, to plunge a thin cane into the wound, which passes down the spine, causing instantaneous death whilst the animal is lying stunned.[227]The following is from the patent specification of this machinery:“Letters patent to John Meiklejon, of Westfield Iron Works, Dalkeith, in the County of Mid-Lothian, Scotland, for the invention of new or improved machinery and appliances to be used in hoisting, removing, dividing, and hanging on hooks, taking off these hooks again, and loading carcasses and other bodies in abattoirs, carcass and meat markets, and other places.”“The machinery and appliances above referred to enable the operations above named to be performed without the necessity of the butchers touching the meat. Also enables carcasses to be conveyed from abattoirs to carcass market on a travelling hoist (hereafter described), same being provided with rows of fixed jointed hooks or loops, attached to rails on which the hoist runs, so that the travelling hoist is enabled to hang the carcasses or bodies on to such hooks or loops. Also enables a butcher to hang a carcass on any of these hooks or loops, and pick them off again, and load on a vehicle, without moving or touching any of the other carcasses hanging on the other hooks. Also enables all operations to be performed, from hoisting when killed to loading when sold or removed from market.”[228]Vide‘Report on the New Cattle Market and Abattoirs proposed to be erected at Carolina Port, Dundee,’ by William Mackison, F.R.I.B. A., &c.
[223]The word “abattoir” is a French word from “abattre” to fell, it is used in this country to designate a group of slaughter-houses.
[224]The clauses referred to are contained in 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, and are ss. 125, 126, et seq.; they refer to the registration, licensing and management of private slaughter-houses, and need not be commented upon here.
[225]An ordinary beast is said to lose 3 cwt. in weight in a journey from Edinburgh to London.
[226]The pole-axe should be of the American pattern, which has a head hollow and very sharp round the periphery. The practise is, after the blow is struck and the animal felled, to plunge a thin cane into the wound, which passes down the spine, causing instantaneous death whilst the animal is lying stunned.
[227]The following is from the patent specification of this machinery:
“Letters patent to John Meiklejon, of Westfield Iron Works, Dalkeith, in the County of Mid-Lothian, Scotland, for the invention of new or improved machinery and appliances to be used in hoisting, removing, dividing, and hanging on hooks, taking off these hooks again, and loading carcasses and other bodies in abattoirs, carcass and meat markets, and other places.”
“The machinery and appliances above referred to enable the operations above named to be performed without the necessity of the butchers touching the meat. Also enables carcasses to be conveyed from abattoirs to carcass market on a travelling hoist (hereafter described), same being provided with rows of fixed jointed hooks or loops, attached to rails on which the hoist runs, so that the travelling hoist is enabled to hang the carcasses or bodies on to such hooks or loops. Also enables a butcher to hang a carcass on any of these hooks or loops, and pick them off again, and load on a vehicle, without moving or touching any of the other carcasses hanging on the other hooks. Also enables all operations to be performed, from hoisting when killed to loading when sold or removed from market.”
[228]Vide‘Report on the New Cattle Market and Abattoirs proposed to be erected at Carolina Port, Dundee,’ by William Mackison, F.R.I.B. A., &c.
Under certain conditions urban authorities are empowered to provide markets in their district by the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875:
“Where an urban authority are a local board or improvement commissioners, they shall have power, with the consent of the owners and ratepayers of their district, expressed by resolution passed in manner provided by Schedule III. to this Act, and where the urban authority are a town council they shall have power, with the consent of two thirds of their number, to do the following things, or any of them, within their district:
“To provide a market place, and construct a market house and other conveniences, for the purpose of holding markets:
“To provide houses and places for weighing carts:
“To make convenient approaches to such market:
“To provide all such matters and things as may be necessary for the convenient use of such market:
“To purchase or take on lease land, and public or private rights in markets and tolls for any of the foregoing purposes:
“To take stallages, rents and tolls in respect of the use by any person of such market:
“But no market shall be established in pursuance of this section so as to interfere with any rights, powers, or privileges enjoyed within the district by any person without his consent” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 166).
In many towns, markets both for cattle and general merchandise have been already established, and the duties of the town surveyor are simply to execute the necessary alterationsand maintenance of the buildings in connection with them, but there may be occasions on which he has to advise his corporation upon the acquisition of land for the purpose of laying it out as a cattle market, and afterwards the erection of the necessary pens and buildings, and a few remarks upon the subject may be of some service.
The site for a cattle market should be selected, if practicable, near to a railway station, so as to avoid as much as possible the dangerous and objectionable practice of driving cattle and sheep through the streets, and for the same reasons it should be near the public slaughter-houses if there are any in the town. Plenty of space should be provided in the market for the cattle to move about in, for it must be remembered that many of them which are sent to market are unused to the bustle of a town, and are wild and untractable, and have never in their lives been subjected to either penning or tethering.
The site must be easily and effectively drained, it should be somewhat isolated with respect to neighbouring buildings, the more air that can be got to sweep through it the better.
The accommodation necessary in a cattle market must vary considerably with the requirements of the district, but the following list may be given for selection:
(1.) Pens or lairs for fat beasts.
(2.) Pens or lairs for store cattle.
(3.) Pens or lairs for cows with calves.
(4.) Pens or lairs for calves.
(5.) Pens for sheep.
(6.) Pens or styes for pigs.
(7.) Covered sheds or stables for horses.
(8.) A space for showing horses off.
(9.) Sheds for agricultural implements.
(10.) Shops for the display of seeds, ropes, tarpaulins, sacks, etc.
(11.) Accommodation for auctioneers.
(12.) Lodges and offices for the superintendent or gate keeper.
(13.) A weighing machine and office.
(14.) A corn exchange (this is sometimes provided in the general market).
The entrance to a cattle market may with advantage be provided with double sets of gates, with a space between in which flocks of sheep or herds of cattle can be temporarily penned; a wicket gate in the second set of gates will enable the toll collecter to count the number of animals easily as they pass through into the market.
The paving of the market should be of granite pitches, as it is essential that it should not be slippery, or the cattle, which usually arrive in a very excited condition, will fall and injure themselves; this description of paving is also fairly impervious, and is easily cleansed.
The paving of the lairs and pens may, however, be of asphalte.
For the cattle there may be enclosures for loose bullocks as well as divisions in which the cattle are tethered; these divisions and enclosures may be constructed of brick walls about 4 feet 6 inches in height, or posts and rails of wood and iron, strongly fastened iron rings about 4 feet apart are necessary to which the beasts must be tethered.
The paving must be kept high towards the head of the beast in order to show him off to the greatest advantage.
Large painted signboards should be fixed over the entrance of each compartment, to designate to which class it belongs, in order to avoid confusion or mistake. There should be drinking troughs for all cattle, and hydrants should be fixed all about the market, so that it can be thoroughly flushed and washed down.
The sheep-pens can be constructed with iron or wood posts and rails with the whole of one side opening as a gate, they should be about 3 feet in height, and the floor shouldslope up from the point at which the purchaser will stand in order that the sheep at the far end of the pen may not appear diminutive.[229]
The gates of the sheep-pens should be strongly stayed, as they make most convenient seats on which the drovers and heavy farmers sit whilst they drive their bargains.
With regard to the dimensions of the pens and lairs, the following sizes are suggested as sufficient spaces for different animals, in the modern bye-laws, emanating from the Local Government Board in 1877, with respect to markets:
The pens for calves and the styes for pigs should be covered, and their floors should be about 3 feet 6 inches above the general level of the market, as animals of this description are generally brought in carts, and they could thus be easily moved out and in.
These pens and styes must of course be thoroughly well drained and ventilated.
With regard to the weighing machine, this should be of the best manufacture, and be of sufficient size to weigh a large wagon. It is better to have what is called a “self contained” iron foundation, and pit for the weighbridge rather than one of masonry. A convenient size for this weighbridge would be 15 feet in length by 12 feet in breadth.
With reference to the rest of the provisions I have enumerated, they require no special comment, but must necessarily be left to the discretion of the town surveyor and the wishes of his corporation.
Markets for general merchandise are usually handsome buildings, which are erected in the most central positions of the town; they contain:
(1.) The corn exchange (this is sometimes erected in the cattle market).
(2.) The fish market.
(3.) The dead meat market (this is sometimes erected in connection with the public slaughter-houses).
(4.) The game and poultry market.
(5.) The fruit, vegetable and flower market.
(6.) The butter, eggs and cheese market.
(7.) The miscellaneous goods market.
(8.) Public conveniences.
(9.) Offices and dwelling for the clerk of the market.
(10.) Committee room for the market committee.
The floor of the market should be on a level as much as is practicable with the adjacent streets; steps up or down are objectionable for the public, and galleries or upper floors should also be avoided unless the available area of the site is limited.
The interior of the building should be lofty, and it must be thoroughly well ventilated; the great fault with nearly all existing markets is the cutting draught to which buyers and sellers are usually subjected.
Plenty of light is essential, but the rays of the sun shouldbe excluded by frosted glass or other contrivance, or the goods exposed for sale will be damaged.
The floor should be of asphalte or other similar material; it is surprising what a “mess” is always made in a market.
The stalls must be so arranged as to show to best advantage the goods offered, and plenty of “gangway” should be left between them for the passage of the public.
Fish stalls should be constructed of iron, slate or similar material, plenty of water being provided in this department; fish-washing troughs filled with running water are very desirable, and a fountain can be introduced with pleasing effect.
Butchers’ stalls should be of thick wood to resist the chopping, and plenty of standards and rails provided with iron hooks must be fixed above them.
A great number of moveable iron “offal boxes” should be placed in different parts of the market, which must be cleared at least once a day, and the market should be frequently flushed and cleansed with water from hydrants fixed in different parts of the building.
Many other points will no doubt suggest themselves to town surveyors, who have the important work of designing either cattle or general markets to undertake, but the few suggestions which have been given may be of some use.