The Mexican Codex Vaticanus No. 3738 represents after the picture of the deluge a bird perched on the summit of a tree, and at its foot men in the act of marching. This has been interpreted to mean that after the deluge men were dumb until a dove distributed to them the gift of speech. The New Mexican tribes related that all except the leader of those who escaped to the mountains lost the power of utterance byterror,205-3and the Quichés that the antediluvian race were “puppets, men of wood, without intelligence or language.” These stories, so closely resembling that of the confusion of tongues at the tower of Babel or Borsippa, are of doubtful authenticity.The first is an entirely erroneous interpretation, as has been shown by Señor Ramirez, director of the Museum of Antiquities at Mexico. The name of the bird in the Aztec tongue was identical with the worddeparture, and this is its signification in thepainting.206-1
Stories of giants in the days of old, figures of mighty proportions looming up through the mist of ages, are common property to every nation. The Mexicans and Peruvians had them as well as others, but their connection with the legends of the flood and the creation is incidental and secondary. Were the case otherwise, it would offer no additional point of similarity to the Hebrew myth, for the word renderedgiantsin the phrase, “and there were giants in those days,” has no such meaning in the original. It is a blunder which crept into the Septuagint, and has been cherished ever since, along with so many others in the received text.
A few specimens will serve as examples of all these American flood myths. The Abbé Brasseur has translated one from the Codex Chimalpopoca, a work in the Nahuatl language of Ancient Mexico, written about half a century after the conquest. It is as follows:—
“And this year was that of Ce-calli, and on the first day all was lost. The mountain itself was submerged in the water, and the water remained tranquil for fifty-two springs.
“Now towards the close of the year, Titlahuan had forewarned the man named Nata and his wife named Nena, saying, ‘Make no more pulque, but straightway hollow out a large cypress, and enter itwhen in the month Tozoztli the water shall approach the sky.’ They entered it, and when Titlacahuan had closed the door he said, ‘Thou shalt eat but a single ear of maize, and thy wife but one also.’
“As soon as they had finished [eating], they went forth and the water was tranquil; for the log did not move any more; and opening it they saw many fish.
“Then they built a fire, rubbing together pieces of wood, and they roasted the fish. The gods Citlallinicue and Citlallatonac looking below exclaimed, ‘Divine Lord, what means that fire below? Why do they thus smoke the heavens?’
“Straightway descended Titlacahuan Tezcatlipoca, and commenced to scold, saying, ‘What is this fire doing here?’ And seizing the fishes he moulded their hinder parts and changed their heads, and they were at once transformed intodogs.”207-1
That found in the oft quoted legends of the Quichés is to this effect:—
“Then by the will of the Heart of Heaven the waters were swollen and a great flood came upon the mannikins of wood. For they did not think nor speak of the Creator who had created them, and who had caused their birth. They were drowned, and a thick resin fell from heaven.
“The bird Xecotcovach tore out their eyes; the bird Camulatz cut off their heads; the bird Cotzbalam devoured their flesh; the bird Tecumbalam broke their bones and sinews, and ground them intopowder.”207-2
“Because they had not thought of their Mother and Father, the Heart of Heaven, whose name is Hurakan, therefore the face of the earth grew dark and a pouring rain commenced, raining by day, raining by night.
“Then all sorts of beings, little and great, gathered together to abuse the men to their faces; and all spoke, their mill-stones, their plates, their cups, their dogs, their hens.
“Said the dogs and hens, ‘Very badly have you treated us, and you have bitten us. Now we bite you in turn.’
“Said the mill-stones, ‘Very much were we tormented by you, and daily, daily, night and day, it wassqueak, squeak, screech, screech, for your sake. Now yourselves shall feel our strength, and we will grind your flesh, and make meal of your bodies,’ said themill-stones.208-1
“And this is what the dogs said, ‘Why did you not give us our food? No sooner did we come near than you drove us away, and the stick was always within reach when you were eating, because, forsooth, we were not able to talk. Now we will use our teeth and eat you,’ said the dogs, tearing their faces.
“And the cups and dishes said, ‘Pain and misery you gave us, smoking our tops and sides, cooking usover the fire, burning and hurting us as if we had nofeeling.209-1Now it is your turn, and you shall burn,’ said the cups insultingly.
“Then ran the men hither and thither in despair. They climbed to the roofs of the houses, but the houses crumbled under their feet; they tried to mount to the tops of the trees, but the trees hurled them far from them; they sought refuge in the caverns, but the caverns shut before them.
“Thus was accomplished the ruin of this race, destined to be destroyed and overthrown; thus were they given over to destruction and contempt. And it is said that their posterity are those little monkeys who live in thewoods.”209-2
The Algonkin tradition has often been referred to. Many versions of it are extant, the oldest and most authentic of which is that translated from the Montagnais dialect by Father le Jeune, in 1634.
“One day as Messou was hunting, the wolves which he used as dogs entered a great lake and were detained there.
“Messou looking for them everywhere, a bird said to him, ‘I see them in the middle of this lake.’
“He entered the lake to rescue them, but the lake overflowing its banks covered the land and destroyed the world.
“Messou, very much astonished at this, sent out the raven to find a piece of earth wherewith to rebuild the land, but the bird could find none; then he ordered the otter to dive for some, but the animal returned empty; at last he sent down the muskrat, who came back with ever so small a piece, which, however, was enough for Messou to form the land on which we are.
“The trees having lost their branches, he shot arrows at their naked trunks which became their limbs, revenged himself on those who had detained his wolves, and having married the muskrat, by it peopled the world.”
Finally may be given the meagre legend of the Tupis of Brazil, as heard by Hans Staden, a prisoner among them about 1550, and Coreal, a later voyager. Their ancient songs relate that a long time ago a certain very powerful Mair, that is to say, a stranger, who bitterly hated their ancestors, compassed their destruction by a violent inundation. Only a very few succeeded in escaping—some by climbing trees, others in caves. When the waters subsided the remnant came together, and by gradual increase populated theworld.210-1
Or, it is given by an equally ancient authority as follows:—
“Monan, without beginning or end, author of all that is, seeing the ingratitude of men, and their contempt for him who had made them thus joyous, withdrew from them, and sent upon themtata, the divine fire, which burned all that was on the surface of the earth. He swept about the fire in such a way that in places he raised mountains, and in others dug valleys. Of all men one alone, Irin Monge, was saved, whom Monan carried into the heaven. He, seeing all things destroyed, spoke thus to Monan: ‘Wilt thou also destroy the heavens and their garniture? Alas! henceforth where will be our home? Why should I live, since there is none other of my kind?’ Then Monan was so filled with pity that he poured a deluging rain on the earth, which quenched the fire, and, flowing from all sides, formed the ocean, which we callparana, the bitterwaters.”211-1
In these narratives I have not attempted to soften the asperities nor conceal the childishness which run through them. But there is no occasion to be astonished at these peculiarities, nor to found upon them any disadvantageous opinion of the mental powers of their authors and believers. We can go back to thecradle of our own race in Central Asia, and find traditions every whit as infantile. I cannot refrain from adding the earliest Aryan myth of the same great occurrence, as it is handed down to us in ancient Sanscrit literature. It will be seen that it is little, if at all, superior to those just rehearsed.
“Early in the morning they brought to Manu water to wash himself; when he had well washed, a fish came into his hands.
“It said to him these, words: ‘Take care of me; I will save thee.’ ‘What wilt thou save me from?’ ‘A deluge will sweep away all creatures; I wish thee to escape.’ ‘But how shall I take care of thee?’
“The fish said: ‘While we are small there is more than one danger of death, for one fish swallows another. Thou must, in the first place, put me in a vase. Then, when I shall exceed it in size, thou must dig a deep ditch, and place me in it. When I grow too large for it, throw me in the sea, for I shall then be beyond the danger of death.’
“Soon it became a great fish; it grew, in fact, astonishingly. Then it said to Manu, ‘In such a year the Deluge will come. Thou must build a vessel, and then pay me homage. When the waters of the Deluge mount up, enter the vessel. I will save thee.’
“When Manu had thus taken care of the fish, he put it in the sea. The same year that the fish had said, in this very year, having built the vessel, he paid the fish homage. Then the Deluge mounting, he entered the vessel. The fish swam near him. To its horn Manu fastened the ship’s rope, with which the fish passed the Mountain of the North.
“The fish said, ‘See! I have saved thee. Fasten the vessel to a tree, so that the water does not float thee onward when thou art on the mountain top. As the water decreases, thou wilt descend little by little.’ Thus Manu descended gradually. Therefore to the mountain of the north remains the name, Descent of Manu. The Deluge had destroyed all creatures; Manu survivedalone.”213-1
Hitherto I have spoken only of the last convulsion which swept over the face of the globe, and of but one cycle which preceded the present. Most of the more savage tribes contented themselves with this, but it is instructive to observe how, as they advanced in culture, and the mind dwelt more intently on the great problems of Life and Time, they were impelled to remove further and further the dim and mysterious Beginning. The Peruvians imagined thattwodestructions had taken place, the first by a famine, the second by a flood—according to some a few only escaping—but, after the more widely accepted opinion, accompanied by the absolute extirpation of the race. Three eggs, which dropped from heaven, hatched out the present race; one of gold, from which came the priests; one of silver, which produced the warriors; and the last of copper, source of the commonpeople.213-2
The Mayas of Yucatan increased the previous worlds by one, making the present thefourth. Two cycles had terminated by devastating plagues. They were called “the sudden deaths,” for it was said so swift and mortal was the pest, that the buzzards and other foul birds dwelt in the houses of the cities, and ate the bodies of their former owners. The third closed either by a hurricane, which blew from all four of the cardinal points at once, or else, as others said, by an inundation, which swept across the world, swallowing all things in its mountainoussurges.214-1
As might be expected, the vigorous intellects of the Aztecs impressed upon this myth a fixity of outline nowhere else met with on the continent, and wove it intimately into their astrological reveries and religious theories. Unaware of its prevalence under more rudimentary forms throughout the continent, Alexander von Humboldt observed that, “of all the traits of analogy which can be pointed out between the monuments, manners, and traditions of Asia and America, the most striking is that offered by the Mexican mythology in the cosmogonical fiction of the periodical destructions and regenerations of theuniverse.”215-1Yet it is but the same fiction that existed elsewhere, somewhat more definitely outlined. There exists great discrepancy between the different authorities, both as to the number of Aztec ages or Suns, as they were called, their durations, their terminations, and their names. The preponderance of testimony is in favor offourantecedent cycles, the present being thefifth. The interval from the first creation to the commencement of the present epoch, owing to the equivocal meaning of the numeral signs expressing it in the picture writings, may have been either 15228, 2316, or 1404 solar years. Why these numbers should have been chosen, no one has guessed. It has been looked for in combinations of numbers connected with the calendar, but so far in vain.
While most authorities agree as to the character of the destructions which terminated the suns, they vary much as to their sequence. Water, winds, fire, and hunger, are the agencies, and in one Codex (Vaticanus) occur in this order. Gama gives the sequence, hunger, winds, fire, and water; Humboldt hunger, fire, winds, and water; Boturini water, hunger, winds, fire. As the cycle ending by a famine, is called the Age of Earth, Ternaux-Compans, the distinguished FrenchAméricaniste, has imagined that the four Suns correspond mystically to the domination exercised in turn over the world by its four constituent elements. But proof is wanting that Aztec philosophers knew the theory on which this explanation reposes.
Baron Humboldt suggested that the suns were“fictions of mythological astronomy, modified either by obscure reminiscences of some great revolution suffered by our planet, or by physical hypotheses, suggested by the sight of marine petrifactions and fossilremains,”216-1while the Abbé Brasseur, in his late works on ancient Mexico, interprets them as exaggerated references to historical events. As no solution can be accepted not equally applicable to the same myth as it appears in Yucatan, Peru, and the hunting tribes, and to the exactly parallel teachings of theEdda,216-2the Stoics, the Celts, and the Brahmans, both of these must be rejected. And although the Hindoo legend is so close to the Aztec, that it, too, defines four ages, each terminating by a general catastrophe, and each catastrophe exactly the same inboth,216-3yet this is not at all indicative of a derivation from one original, but simply an illustration how the human mind, under the stimulus of the same intellectual cravings, produces like results. What these cravings are has already been shown.
The reason for adopting four ages, thus making thepresent the fifth, probably arose from the sacredness of that number in general; but directly, because this was the number of secular days in the Mexican week. A parallel is offered by the Hebrew narrative. In it six epochs or days precede the seventh or present cycle, in which the creative power rests. This latter corresponded to the Jewish Sabbath, the day of repose; and in the Mexican calendar each fifth day was also a day of repose, employed in marketing and pleasure.
Doubtless the theory of the Ages of the world was long in vogue among the Aztecs before it received the definite form in which we now have it; and as this was acquired long after the calendar was fixed, it is every way probable that the latter was used as a guide to the former. Echevarria, a good authority on such matters, says the number of the Suns was agreed upon at a congress of astrologists, within the memory oftradition.217-1Now in the calendar, these signs occur in the order, earth, air, water, fire, corresponding to the days distinguished by the symbols house, rabbit, reed, and flint. This sequence, commencing with Tochtli (rabbit, air), is that given as that of the Suns in the Codex Chimalpopoca, translated by Brasseur, though it seems a taint of European teaching, when it is added that on theseventhday of the creation man wasformed.217-2
Neither Jews nor Aztecs, nor indeed any American nation, appear to have supposed, with some of the old philosophers, that the present was an exact repetition of previouscycles,218-1but rather that each was an improvement on the preceding, a step in endless progress. Nor did either connect these beliefs with astronomical reveries of a great year, defined by the return of the heavenly bodies to one relative position in the heavens. The latter seems characteristic of the realism of Europe, the former of the idealism of the Orient; both inconsistent with the meagre astronomy and more scanty metaphysics of the red race.
The expectation of the end of the world is a natural complement to the belief in periodical destructions of our globe. As at certain times past the equipoise of nature was lost, and the elements breaking the chain of laws that bound them ran riot over the universe, involving all life in one mad havoc and desolation, so in the future we have to expect that day of doom, when the ocean tides shall obey no shore, but overwhelm the continents with their mountainous billows, or the fire, now chafing in volcanic craters and smoking springs, will leap forth on the forests and grassy meadows, wrapping all things in a winding sheet of flame, and melting the very elements with fervid heat. Then, in the language of the Norse prophetess, “shall the sun grow dark, the land sink in the waters, the bright stars be quenched, and high flames climb heavenitself.”218-2These fearfulforeboding shavecast their dark shadow on every literature. The seeress of the north does but paint in wilder colors the terrible pictures ofSeneca,219-1and the sibyl of the capitol only re-echoes the inspired predictions of Malachi. Well has the Christian poet said:—
Dies iræ, dies illa,Solvet sæclum in favillâ,Testis David cum Sibylâ.
Dies iræ, dies illa,Solvet sæclum in favillâ,Testis David cum Sibylâ.
Savage races, isolated in the impenetrable forests of another continent, could not escape this fearful looking for of destruction to come. It oppressed their souls like a weight of lead. On the last night of each cycle of fifty-two years, the Aztecs extinguished every fire, and proceeded, in solemn procession, to some sacred spot. Then the priests, with awe and trembling, sought to kindle a new fire by friction. Momentous was the endeavor, for did it fail, their fathers had taught them on the morrow no sun would rise, and darkness, death, and the waters would descend forever on this beautiful world.
The same terror inspired the Peruvians at every eclipse, for some day, taught the Amautas, the shadow will veil the sun forever, and land, moon, and stars will be wrapt in the vortex of a devouring conflagration to know no regeneration; or a drought will wither every herb of the field, suck up the waters, and leave the race to perish to the last creature; or the moon will fall from her place in the heavens and involve all things in her own ruin, a figure of speech meaning that the waterswould submerge theland.220-1In that dreadful day, thought the Algonkins, when in anger Michabo will send a mortal pestilence to destroy the nations, or, stamping his foot on the ground, flames will burst forth to consume the habitable land, only a pair, or only, at most, those who have maintained inviolate the institutions he ordained, will he protect and preserve to inhabit the new world he will then fabricate. Therefore they do not speak of this catastrophe as the end of the world, but use one of those nice grammatical distinctions so frequent in American aboriginal languages and which can only be imitated, not interpreted, in ours, signifying “when it will be near its end,” “when it will no longer be available forman.”220-2
An ancient prophecy handed down from their ancestors warns the Winnebagoes that their nation shall be annihilated at the close of the thirteenth generation. Ten have already passed, and that now living has appointed ceremonies to propitiate the powers of heaven, and mitigate its sterndecree.220-3Well may they be about it, for there is a gloomy probability that the warning came from no false prophet. Few tribes were destitute of such presentiments. The Chikasaw, the Mandans of the Missouri, the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, the Muyscas of Bogota, the Botocudos of Brazil, the Araucanians of Chili, have been asserted on testimony that leaves noroom for scepticism, to have entertained such forebodings from immemorial time. Enough for the purpose if the list is closed with the prediction of a Maya priest, cherished by the inhabitants of Yucatan long before the Spaniard desolated their stately cities. It is one of those preserved by Father Lizana, curé of Itzamal, and of which he gives the original. Other witnesses inform us that this nation “had a tradition that the world wouldend,”221-1and probably, like the Greeks and Aztecs, they supposed the gods would perish with it.
“At the close of the ages, it hath been decreed,Shall perish and vanish each weak god of men,And the world shall be purged with a ravening fire.Happy the man in that terrible day,Who bewails with contrition the sins of hislife,221-2And meets without flinching the fiery ordeal.”
“At the close of the ages, it hath been decreed,Shall perish and vanish each weak god of men,And the world shall be purged with a ravening fire.Happy the man in that terrible day,Who bewails with contrition the sins of hislife,221-2And meets without flinching the fiery ordeal.”
193-1So far as this applies to the Eskimos, it might be questioned on the authority of Paul Egede, whose valuableNachrichten von Grönlandcontains several flood-myths, &c. But these Eskimos had had for generations intercourse with European missionaries and sailors, and as the other tribes of their stock were singularly devoid of corresponding traditions, it is likely that in Greenland they were of foreign origin.194-1Pictet,Origines Indo-Européennesin Michelet,La Mer. The latter has many eloquent and striking remarks on the impressions left by the great ocean.195-1“Spiritus Dei incubuit superficei aquarum” is the translation of one writer. The word for spirit in Hebrew, as in Latin, originally meant wind, as I have before remarked.195-2Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, i. p. 266.196-1Mackenzie,Hist. of the Fur Trade, p. 83; Richardson,Arctic Expedition, p. 239.196-2Ximenes,Or. de los Ind. de Guat., pp. 5-7. I translate freely, following Ximenes rather than Brasseur.197-1Garcia,Or. de los Indios, lib. v. cap. 4.197-2Doc. Hist. of New York, iv. p. 130 (circ. 1650).197-3Rel. de la Nouv. France, An 1636, p. 101.198-1Rel. de la Nouv. France, An 1634, p. 13.199-1Conquest of Mexico, i. p. 61.200-1For instance, Epictetus favors the opinion that at the solstices of the great year not only all human beings, but even the gods, are annihilated; and speculates whether at such times Jove feels lonely (Discourses, bk. iii. chap. 13). Macrobius, so far from coinciding with him, explains the great antiquity of Egyptian civilization by the hypothesis that that country is so happily situated between the pole and equator, as to escape both the deluge and conflagration of the great cycle (Somnium Scipionis, lib. ii. cap. 10).201-1Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, iii. p. 263, iv. p. 230.201-2Oviedo,Hist. du Nicaragua, pp. 22, 27.201-3Müller,Amer. Urrelig., p. 254, from Max and Denis.202-1Morse,Rep. on the Ind. Tribes, App. p. 346; D’Orbigny,Frag. d’un Voyage dans l’Amér. Mérid., p. 512.202-2When, as in the case of one of the Mexican Noahs, Coxcox, this does not seem to hold good, it is probably owing to a loss of the real form of the myth. Coxcox is also known by the name of Cipactli, Fish-god, and Huehue tonaca cipactli, Old Fish-god of Our Flesh.202-3My knowledge of the Sanscrit form of the flood-myth is drawn principally from the dissertation of Professor Felix Nève, entitledLa Tradition Indienne du Deluge dans sa Forme la plus ancienne, Paris, 1851. There is in the oldest versions no distinct reference to an antediluvian race, and in India Manu is by common consent the Adam as well as the Noah of their legends.203-1Prescott,Conquest of Peru, i. p. 88;Codex Vaticanus, No. 3776, in Kingsborough.203-2And also various peculiarities of style and language lost in translation. The two accounts of the Deluge are given side by side in Dr. Smith’sDictionary of the Bibleunder the word Pentateuch.203-3See the dissertation of Prof. Nève referred to above.203-4American State Papers, Indian Affairs, i. p. 729. Date of legend, 1801.204-1Molina,Hist. of Chili, ii. p. 82.205-1Richardson,Arctic Expedition, p. 239.205-2Dumont,Mems. Hist. sur la Louisiane, i. p. 163.205-3Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, v. p. 686.206-1Desjardins,Le Pérou avant la Conq. Espagn., p. 27.207-1Cod. Chimalpopoca, in Brasseur,Hist. du Mexique, Pièces Justificatives.207-2These four birds, whose names have lost their signification, represent doubtless the four winds, or the four rivers, which, as in so many legends, are the active agents in overwhelming the world in its great crises.208-1The word rendered mill-stone, in the original means those large hollowed stones on which the women were accustomed to bruise the maize. The imitative sounds for which I have substituted others in English, are in Quiché,holi, holi, huqui, huqui.209-1Brasseur translates “quoique nous ne sentissions rien,” but Ximenes, “nos quemasteis, y sentimos el dolor.” As far as I can make out the original, it is the negative conditional as I have given it in the text.209-2Le Livre Sacré, p. 27; Ximenes,Or. de los Indios, p. 13.210-1The American nations among whom a distinct and well-authenticated myth of the deluge was found are as follows: Athapascas, Algonkins, Iroquois, Cherokees, Chikasaws, Caddos, Natchez, Dakotas, Apaches, Navajos, Mandans, Pueblo Indians, Aztecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Tlascalans, Mechoacans, Toltecs, Nahuas, Mayas, Quiches, Haitians, natives of Darien and Popoyan, Muyscas, Quichuas, Tuppinambas, Achaguas, Araucanians, and doubtless others. The article by M. de Charency in theRevue Américaine, Le Deluge, d’après les Traditions Indiennes de l’Amérique du Nord, contains some valuable extracts, but is marred by a lack of criticism of sources, and makes no attempt at analysis, nor offers for their existence a rational explanation.211-1Une Fête Brésilienne célébré à Rouen en 1550, par M. Ferdinand Denis, p. 82 (quoted in theRevue Américaine, ii. p. 317). The native words in this account guarantee its authenticity. In the Tupi language,tatameans fire;parana, ocean; Monan, perhaps frommonáne, to mingle, to temper, as the potter the clay (Dias, Diccionario da Lingua Tupy: Lipsia, 1858). Irin monge may be an old form frommongat-iron, to set in order, to restore, to improve (Martius, Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s, ii. p. 70).213-1Professor Nève,ubi supra, from the Zatapatha Brahmana.213-2Avendano,Sermones, Lima, 1648, in Rivero and Tschudi,Peruv. Antiqs., p. 114. In the year 1600, Oñate found on the coast of California a tribe whose idol held in one hand a shell containing three eggs, in the other an ear of maize, while before it was placed a cup of water. Vizcaino, who visited the same people a few years afterwards, mentions that they kept in their temples tame ravens, and looked upon them as sacred birds (Torquemada,Mon. Ind., lib. v. cap. 40 in Waitz). Thus, in all parts of the continent do we find the bird, as a symbol of the clouds, associated with the rains and the harvests.214-1The deluge was calledhun yecil, which, according to Cogolludo, meansthe inundation of the trees, for all the forests were swept away (Hist. de Yucathan, lib. iv. cap. 5). Bishop Landa adds, to substantiate the legend, that all the woods of the peninsula appear as if they had been planted at one time, and that to look at them one would say they had been trimmed with scissors (Rel. de las Cosas de Yucatan, 58, 60).215-1Vues des Cordillères, p. 202.216-1Ubi sup., p. 207.216-2The Scandinavians believed the universe had been destroyed nine times:—Ni Verdener yeg husker,Og ni Himle,says the Voluspa (i. 2, in Klee,Le Deluge, p. 220). I observe some English writers have supposed from these lines that the Northmen believed in the existence of nine abodes for the blessed. Such is not the sense of the original.216-3At least this is the doctrine of one of the Shastas. The race, it teaches, has been destroyed four times; first by water, secondly by winds, thirdly the earth swallowed them, and lastly fire consumed them (Sepp.,Heidenthum und Christenthum, i. p. 191).217-1Echevarria y Veitia,Hist. de la Nueva España, lib. i. cap. 4, in Waitz.217-2Brasseur,Hist. du Mexique, iii. p. 495.218-1The contrary has indeed been inferred from such expressions of the writer of the book of Ecclesiastes as, “that which hath been, is now, and that which is to be, hath already been” (chap. iii. 15), and the like, but they are susceptible of an application entirely subjective.218-2Voluspa, xiv. 51, in Klee,Le Deluge.219-1Natur. Quæstiones, iii. cap. 27.220-1Velasco,Hist. du Royaume du Quito, p. 105; Navarrete,Viages, iii. p. 444.220-2Rel. de la Nouv. France, An 1637, p. 54; Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, i. p. 319, iv. p. 420.220-3Schoolcraft, ibid., iv. p. 240.221-1Cogolludo,Hist. de Yucathan, lib. iv. cap. 7.221-2The Spanish of Lizana is—“En la ultima edad, segun esta determinado,Avra fin el culto de dioses vanos;Y el mundo sera purificado con fuego.El que esto viere sera llamado dichosoSi con dolor lloraré sus pecados.”(Hist. de Nuestra Señora de Itzamal, in Brasseur,Hist. du Mexique, ii. p. 603). I have attempted to obtain a more literal rendering from the original Maya, but have not been successful.
193-1So far as this applies to the Eskimos, it might be questioned on the authority of Paul Egede, whose valuableNachrichten von Grönlandcontains several flood-myths, &c. But these Eskimos had had for generations intercourse with European missionaries and sailors, and as the other tribes of their stock were singularly devoid of corresponding traditions, it is likely that in Greenland they were of foreign origin.
194-1Pictet,Origines Indo-Européennesin Michelet,La Mer. The latter has many eloquent and striking remarks on the impressions left by the great ocean.
195-1“Spiritus Dei incubuit superficei aquarum” is the translation of one writer. The word for spirit in Hebrew, as in Latin, originally meant wind, as I have before remarked.
195-2Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, i. p. 266.
196-1Mackenzie,Hist. of the Fur Trade, p. 83; Richardson,Arctic Expedition, p. 239.
196-2Ximenes,Or. de los Ind. de Guat., pp. 5-7. I translate freely, following Ximenes rather than Brasseur.
197-1Garcia,Or. de los Indios, lib. v. cap. 4.
197-2Doc. Hist. of New York, iv. p. 130 (circ. 1650).
197-3Rel. de la Nouv. France, An 1636, p. 101.
198-1Rel. de la Nouv. France, An 1634, p. 13.
199-1Conquest of Mexico, i. p. 61.
200-1For instance, Epictetus favors the opinion that at the solstices of the great year not only all human beings, but even the gods, are annihilated; and speculates whether at such times Jove feels lonely (Discourses, bk. iii. chap. 13). Macrobius, so far from coinciding with him, explains the great antiquity of Egyptian civilization by the hypothesis that that country is so happily situated between the pole and equator, as to escape both the deluge and conflagration of the great cycle (Somnium Scipionis, lib. ii. cap. 10).
201-1Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, iii. p. 263, iv. p. 230.
201-2Oviedo,Hist. du Nicaragua, pp. 22, 27.
201-3Müller,Amer. Urrelig., p. 254, from Max and Denis.
202-1Morse,Rep. on the Ind. Tribes, App. p. 346; D’Orbigny,Frag. d’un Voyage dans l’Amér. Mérid., p. 512.
202-2When, as in the case of one of the Mexican Noahs, Coxcox, this does not seem to hold good, it is probably owing to a loss of the real form of the myth. Coxcox is also known by the name of Cipactli, Fish-god, and Huehue tonaca cipactli, Old Fish-god of Our Flesh.
202-3My knowledge of the Sanscrit form of the flood-myth is drawn principally from the dissertation of Professor Felix Nève, entitledLa Tradition Indienne du Deluge dans sa Forme la plus ancienne, Paris, 1851. There is in the oldest versions no distinct reference to an antediluvian race, and in India Manu is by common consent the Adam as well as the Noah of their legends.
203-1Prescott,Conquest of Peru, i. p. 88;Codex Vaticanus, No. 3776, in Kingsborough.
203-2And also various peculiarities of style and language lost in translation. The two accounts of the Deluge are given side by side in Dr. Smith’sDictionary of the Bibleunder the word Pentateuch.
203-3See the dissertation of Prof. Nève referred to above.
203-4American State Papers, Indian Affairs, i. p. 729. Date of legend, 1801.
204-1Molina,Hist. of Chili, ii. p. 82.
205-1Richardson,Arctic Expedition, p. 239.
205-2Dumont,Mems. Hist. sur la Louisiane, i. p. 163.
205-3Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, v. p. 686.
206-1Desjardins,Le Pérou avant la Conq. Espagn., p. 27.
207-1Cod. Chimalpopoca, in Brasseur,Hist. du Mexique, Pièces Justificatives.
207-2These four birds, whose names have lost their signification, represent doubtless the four winds, or the four rivers, which, as in so many legends, are the active agents in overwhelming the world in its great crises.
208-1The word rendered mill-stone, in the original means those large hollowed stones on which the women were accustomed to bruise the maize. The imitative sounds for which I have substituted others in English, are in Quiché,holi, holi, huqui, huqui.
209-1Brasseur translates “quoique nous ne sentissions rien,” but Ximenes, “nos quemasteis, y sentimos el dolor.” As far as I can make out the original, it is the negative conditional as I have given it in the text.
209-2Le Livre Sacré, p. 27; Ximenes,Or. de los Indios, p. 13.
210-1The American nations among whom a distinct and well-authenticated myth of the deluge was found are as follows: Athapascas, Algonkins, Iroquois, Cherokees, Chikasaws, Caddos, Natchez, Dakotas, Apaches, Navajos, Mandans, Pueblo Indians, Aztecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Tlascalans, Mechoacans, Toltecs, Nahuas, Mayas, Quiches, Haitians, natives of Darien and Popoyan, Muyscas, Quichuas, Tuppinambas, Achaguas, Araucanians, and doubtless others. The article by M. de Charency in theRevue Américaine, Le Deluge, d’après les Traditions Indiennes de l’Amérique du Nord, contains some valuable extracts, but is marred by a lack of criticism of sources, and makes no attempt at analysis, nor offers for their existence a rational explanation.
211-1Une Fête Brésilienne célébré à Rouen en 1550, par M. Ferdinand Denis, p. 82 (quoted in theRevue Américaine, ii. p. 317). The native words in this account guarantee its authenticity. In the Tupi language,tatameans fire;parana, ocean; Monan, perhaps frommonáne, to mingle, to temper, as the potter the clay (Dias, Diccionario da Lingua Tupy: Lipsia, 1858). Irin monge may be an old form frommongat-iron, to set in order, to restore, to improve (Martius, Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s, ii. p. 70).
213-1Professor Nève,ubi supra, from the Zatapatha Brahmana.
213-2Avendano,Sermones, Lima, 1648, in Rivero and Tschudi,Peruv. Antiqs., p. 114. In the year 1600, Oñate found on the coast of California a tribe whose idol held in one hand a shell containing three eggs, in the other an ear of maize, while before it was placed a cup of water. Vizcaino, who visited the same people a few years afterwards, mentions that they kept in their temples tame ravens, and looked upon them as sacred birds (Torquemada,Mon. Ind., lib. v. cap. 40 in Waitz). Thus, in all parts of the continent do we find the bird, as a symbol of the clouds, associated with the rains and the harvests.
214-1The deluge was calledhun yecil, which, according to Cogolludo, meansthe inundation of the trees, for all the forests were swept away (Hist. de Yucathan, lib. iv. cap. 5). Bishop Landa adds, to substantiate the legend, that all the woods of the peninsula appear as if they had been planted at one time, and that to look at them one would say they had been trimmed with scissors (Rel. de las Cosas de Yucatan, 58, 60).
215-1Vues des Cordillères, p. 202.
216-1Ubi sup., p. 207.
216-2The Scandinavians believed the universe had been destroyed nine times:—
Ni Verdener yeg husker,Og ni Himle,
Ni Verdener yeg husker,Og ni Himle,
says the Voluspa (i. 2, in Klee,Le Deluge, p. 220). I observe some English writers have supposed from these lines that the Northmen believed in the existence of nine abodes for the blessed. Such is not the sense of the original.
216-3At least this is the doctrine of one of the Shastas. The race, it teaches, has been destroyed four times; first by water, secondly by winds, thirdly the earth swallowed them, and lastly fire consumed them (Sepp.,Heidenthum und Christenthum, i. p. 191).
217-1Echevarria y Veitia,Hist. de la Nueva España, lib. i. cap. 4, in Waitz.
217-2Brasseur,Hist. du Mexique, iii. p. 495.
218-1The contrary has indeed been inferred from such expressions of the writer of the book of Ecclesiastes as, “that which hath been, is now, and that which is to be, hath already been” (chap. iii. 15), and the like, but they are susceptible of an application entirely subjective.
218-2Voluspa, xiv. 51, in Klee,Le Deluge.
219-1Natur. Quæstiones, iii. cap. 27.
220-1Velasco,Hist. du Royaume du Quito, p. 105; Navarrete,Viages, iii. p. 444.
220-2Rel. de la Nouv. France, An 1637, p. 54; Schoolcraft,Ind. Tribes, i. p. 319, iv. p. 420.
220-3Schoolcraft, ibid., iv. p. 240.
221-1Cogolludo,Hist. de Yucathan, lib. iv. cap. 7.
221-2The Spanish of Lizana is—
“En la ultima edad, segun esta determinado,Avra fin el culto de dioses vanos;Y el mundo sera purificado con fuego.El que esto viere sera llamado dichosoSi con dolor lloraré sus pecados.”
“En la ultima edad, segun esta determinado,Avra fin el culto de dioses vanos;Y el mundo sera purificado con fuego.El que esto viere sera llamado dichosoSi con dolor lloraré sus pecados.”
(Hist. de Nuestra Señora de Itzamal, in Brasseur,Hist. du Mexique, ii. p. 603). I have attempted to obtain a more literal rendering from the original Maya, but have not been successful.
THE ORIGIN OF MAN.
Usually man is theEarth-born, both in language and myths.—Illustrations from the legends of the Caribs, Apalachians, Iroquois, Quichuas, Aztecs, and others.—The underworld.—Man the product of one of the primal creative powers, the Spirit, or the Water, in the myths of the Athapascas, Eskimos, Moxos, and others.—Never literally derived from an inferior species.
Noman can escape the importunate question, whence am I? The first replies framed to meet it possess an interest to the thoughtful mind, beyond that of mere fables. They illustrate the position in creation claimed by our race, and the early workings of self-consciousness. Often the oldest terms for man are synopses of these replies, and merit a more than passing contemplation.
The seed is hidden in the earth. Warmed by the sun, watered by the rain, presently it bursts its dark prison-house, unfolds its delicate leaves, blossoms, and matures its fruit. Its work done, the earth draws it to itself again, resolves the various structures into their original mould, and the unending round recommences.
This is the marvellous process that struck the primitive mind. Out of the Earth rises life, to it it returns. She it is who guards all germs, nourishes all beings. The Aztecs painted her as a woman with countless breasts, the Peruvians called her MamaAllpa,motherEarth.Homo,Adam,chamaigenēs, what do all these words mean but the earth-born, the son of the soil, repeated in the poetic language of Attica inanthropos, he who springs up as a flower?
The word that corresponds to the Latinhomoin American languages has such singular uniformity in so many of them, that we might be tempted to regard it as a fragment of some ancient and common tongue, their parent stem. In the Eskimo it isinuk,innuk, pluralinnuit; in Athapasca it isdinni,tenné; in Algonkin,inini,lenni,inwi; in Iroquois,onwi,eniha; in the Otomi of Mexicon-aniehe; in the Maya,inic,winic,winak; all in North America, and the number might be extended. Of these only the last mentioned can plausibly be traced to a radical (unless the Iroquoisonwiis fromonnhalife,onnheto live). This Father Ximenes derives fromwin, meaning to grow, to gain, toincrease,223-1in which the analogy to vegetable life is not far off, an analogy strengthened by the myth of that stock, which relates that the first of men were formed of the flour ofmaize.223-2
In many other instances religious legend carries out this idea. The mythical ancestor of the Caribs created his offspring by sowing the soil with stones or with the fruit of the Mauritius palm, whichsprouted forth into men andwomen,224-1while the Yurucares, much of whose mythology was perhaps borrowed from the Peruvians, clothed this crude tenet in a somewhat more poetic form, fabling that at the beginning the first of men were pegged, Ariel-like, in the knotty entrails of an enormous hole, until the god Tiri—a second Prospero—released them by cleaving it intwain.224-2
As in oriental legends the origin of man from the earth was veiled under the story that he was the progeny of some mountain fecundated by the embrace of Mithras or Jupiter, so the Indians often pointed to some height or some cavern, as the spot whence the first of men issued, adult and armed, from the womb of the All-mother Earth. The oldest name of the Alleghany Mountains is Paemotinck or Pemolnick, an Algonkin word, the meaning of which is said to be “the origin of theIndians.”224-3
The Witchitas, who dwelt on the Red River among the mountains named after them, have a tradition that their progenitors issued from the rocks abouttheirhomes,225-1and many other tribes the Tahkalis, Navajos, Coyoteras, and the Haitians, for instance, set up this claim to be autochthones. Most writers have interpreted this simply to mean that they knew nothing at all about their origin, or that they coined these fables merely to strengthen the title to the territory they inhabited when they saw the whites eagerly snatching it away on every pretext. No doubt there is some truth in this, but if they be carefully sifted, there is sometimes a deep historical significance in these myths, which has hitherto escaped the observation of students. An instance presents itself in our own country.
All those tribes, the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chicasaws, and Natchez, who, according to tradition, were in remote times banded into one common confederacy under the headship of the last mentioned, unanimously located their earliest ancestry near an artificial eminence in the valley of the Big Black River, in the Natchez country, whence they pretended to have emerged. Fortunately we have a description, though a brief one, of this interesting monument from the pen of an intelligent traveller. It is described as “an elevation of earth about half a mile square and fifteen or twenty feet high. From its northeast corner a wall of equal height extends for near half a mile to the high land.” This was the Nunne Chaha or Nunne Hamgeh, the High Hill, or the Bending Hill, famous in Choctaw stories, and which Captain Gregg found they have not yet forgotten in their western home. The legend was that in its centre wasa cave, the house of the Master of Breath. Here he made the first men from the clay around him, and as at that time the waters covered the earth, he raised the wall to dry them on. When the soft mud had hardened into elastic flesh and firm bone, he banished the waters to their channels and beds, and gave the dry land to hiscreatures.226-1When in 1826 Albert Gallatin obtained from some Natchez chiefs a vocabulary of their language, they gave to him as their word forhillprecisely the same word that a century and a quarter before the French had found among them as their highest term forGod;226-2reversing the example of the ancient Greeks who came in time to speak of Olympus, at first the proper name of a peak in Thessaly, as synonymous with heaven and Jove.
A parallel to this southern legend occurs amongthe Six Nations of the north. They with one consent, if we may credit the account of Cusic, looked to a mountain near the falls of the Oswego River in the State of New York, as the locality where their forefathers first saw the light of day, and that they had some such legend the name Oneida, people of the Stone, would seem to testify.
The cave of Pacari Tampu, the Lodgings of the Dawn, was five leagues distant from Cuzco, surrounded by a sacred grove and inclosed with temples of great antiquity. From its hallowed recesses the mythical civilizers of Peru, the first of men, emerged, and in it during the time of the flood, the remnants of the race escaped the fury of thewaves.227-1Viracocha himself is said to have dwelt there, though it hardly needed this evidence to render it certain that this consecrated cavern is but a localization of the general myth of the dawn rising from the deep. It refers us for its prototype to the Aymara allegory of the morning light flinging its beams like snow-white foam athwart the waves of Lake Titicaca.
An ancient legend of the Aztecs derived their nation from a place called Chicomoztoc, the Seven Caverns, located north of Mexico. Antiquaries have indulged in all sorts of speculations as to what this means. Sahagun explains it as a valley so named; Clavigero supposes it to have been a city; Hamilton Smith, and after him Schoolcraft, construed caverns to be a figure of speech for theboatsin which the early Americans paddled across from Asia(!); the Abbé Brasseur confounds it with Aztlan, and verymany have discovered in it a distinct reference to the fabulous “seven cities of Cibola” and the Casas Grandes, ruins of large buildings of unburnt brick in the valley of the River Gila. From this story arose the supposed sevenfold division of the Nahuas, a division which never existed except in the imagination of Europeans. When Torquemada adds thatsevenhero gods ruled in Chicomoztoc and were the progenitors of all its inhabitants, when one of them turns out to be Xelhua, the giant who with six others escaped the flood by ascending the mountain of Tlaloc in the terrestrial paradise and afterwards built the pyramid of Cholula, and when we remember that in one of the flood-mythssevenpersons were said to have escaped the waters, the whole narrative acquires a fabulous aspect that shuts it out from history, and brands it as one of those fictions of the origin of man from the earth so common to the race. Fictions yet truths; for caverns and hollow trees were in fact the houses and temples of our first parents, and from them they went forth to conquer and adorn the world; and from the inorganic constituents of the soil acted on by Light, touched by Divine Force, vivified by the Spirit, did in reality the first of men proceed.
This cavern, which thus dimly lingered in the memories of nations, occasionally expanded to a nether world, imagined to underlie this of ours, and still inhabited by beings of our kind, who have never been lucky enough to discover its exit. The Mandans and Minnetarees on the Missouri River supposed this exit was near a certain hill in their territory, and as it had been, as it were, the womb of the earth, the same power was attributed to it that inancient times endowed certain shrines with such charms; and thither the barren wives of their nation made frequent pilgrimages when they would becomemothers.229-1The Mandans added the somewhat puerile fable that the means of ascent had been a grapevine, by which many ascended and descended, until one day an immoderately fat old lady, anxious to get a look at the upper earth, broke it with her weight, and prevented any further communication.
Such tales of an under-world are very frequent among the Indians, and are a very natural outgrowth of the literal belief that the race is earth-born.
Man is indeed like the grass that springs up and soon withers away; but he is also more than this. The quintessence of dust, he is a son of the gods as well as a son of the soil. He is the direct product of the great creative power; therefore all the Athapascan tribes west of the Rocky Mountains—the Kenai, the Kolushes, and the Atnai—claim descent from a raven—from that same mighty cloud-bird, who in the beginning of things seized the elements and brought the world from the abyss of the primitive ocean. Those of the same stock situate more eastwardly, the Dogribs, the Chepewyans, the Hare Indians, and also the west coast Eskimos, and the natives of the Aleutian Isles, all believe that they have sprung from adog.229-2The latter animal, we have already seen, both in the old and new world was the fixed symbol of the water goddess. Therefore inthese myths, which are found over so many thousand square leagues, we cannot be in error in perceiving a reflex of their cosmogonical traditions already discussed, in which from the winds and the waters, represented here under their emblems of the bird and the dog, all animate life proceeded.
Without this symbolic coloring, a tribe to the south of them, a band of the Minnetarees, had the crude tradition that their first progenitor emerged from the waters, bearing in his hand an ear ofmaize,230-1very much as Viracocha and his companions rose from the sacred waves of Lake Titicaca, or as the Moxos imagined that they were descended from the lakes and rivers on whose banks their villages were situated.
These myths, and many others, hint of general conceptions of life and the world, wide-spread theories of ancient date, such as we are not accustomed to expect among savage nations, such as may very excusably excite a doubt as to their native origin, but a doubt infallibly dispelled by a careful comparison of the best authorities. Is it that hitherto, in the pride of intellectual culture, we have never done justice to the thinking faculty of those whom we call barbarians? Or shall we accept the only other alternative, that these are the unappreciated heirlooms bequeathed a rude race by a period of higher civilization, long since extinguished by constant wars and ceaseless fear? We are not yet ready to answer these questions. With almost unanimous consent the latter has been accepted as the true solution, but rather from the preconceived theory of a state ofprimitive civilization from which man fell, than from ascertained facts.
It would, perhaps, be pushing symbolism too far to explain as an emblem of the primitive waters the coyote, which, according to the Root-Diggers of California, brought their ancestors into the world; or the wolf, which the Lenni Lenape pretended released mankind from the dark bowels of the earth by scratching away the soil. They should rather be interpreted by the curious custom of the Toukaways, a wild people in Texas, of predatory and unruly disposition. They celebrate their origin by a grand annual dance. One of them, naked as he was born, is buried in the earth. The others, clothed in wolf-skins, walk over him, snuff around him, howl in lupine style, and finally dig him up with their nails. The leading wolf then solemnly places a bow and arrow in his hands, and to his inquiry as to what he must do for a living, paternally advises him “to do as the wolves do—rob, kill, and murder, rove from place to place, and never cultivate thesoil.”231-1Most wise and fatherly counsel! But what is there new under the sun? Three thousand years ago the Hirpini, or Wolves, an ancient Sabine tribe, were wont to collect on Mount Soracte, and there go through certain rites in memory of an oracle which predicted their extinction when they ceased to gain their living as wolves by violence and plunder. Therefore they dressed in wolf-skins, ran with barks and howls over burning coals, and gnawed wolfishly whatever they couldseize.231-2
Though hasty writers have often said that the Indian tribes claim literal descent from different wild beasts, probably in all other instances, as in these, this will prove, on examination, to be an error resting on a misapprehension arising from the habit of the natives of adopting as their totem or clan-mark the figure and name of some animal, or else, in an ignorance of the animate symbols employed with such marked preference by the red race to express abstract ideas. In some cases, doubtless, the natives themselves came, in time, to confound the symbol with the idea, by that familiar process of personification and consequent debasement exemplified in the history of every religion; but I do not believe that a single example could be found where an Indian tribe had a tradition whose real purport was that man came by natural process of descent from an ancestor, a brute.
The reflecting mind will not be offended at the contradictions in these different myths, for a myth is, in one sense, a theory of natural phenomena expressed in the form of a narrative. Often several explanations seem equally satisfactory for the same fact, and the mind hesitates to choose, and rather accepts them all than rejects any. Then, again, an expression current as a metaphor by-and-by crystallizes into a dogma, and becomes the nucleus of a new mythological growth. These are familiar processes to one versed in such studies, and involve no logical contradiction, because they are never required to be reconciled.