"If one tribe claimed a debt of another, it was always demanded, and the claim discussed. If payment was refused, the claimants departed, telling the others to listen to their birds, as they might expect an attack. Even after this, it was often the case, that a tribe friendly to each mediated between them, and endeavoured to make a settlement of their contending claims. If they failed, the tribes were then at war. Recently, however, Parimban has attacked without due notice, and often by treachery, and the Sow Dyaks, as well as the Singè, practise the same treachery. The old custom likewise was, that no house should be set on fire, no paddy destroyed, and thata naked womancould not be killed, nor a woman with child. These laudable and praiseworthy customs have fallen into disuse, yet they give a pleasing picture of Dyak character, and relieve, by a touch of humanity, the otherwise barbarous nature of their warfare.
"Babukid, bubukkid, or mode of defiance.—I have before mentioned this practice of defiance, and I since find it is appealed to as a final judgment in disputes about property, and usually occurs in families when the right to land and fruit-trees comes to be discussed. Each party then salliesforth in search ofa head; if one only succeed, his claim is acknowledged; if both succeed, the property continues common to both. It is on these occasions that the Dyaks are dangerous; and perhaps an European, whose inheritance depended on the issue, would not be very scrupulous as to the means of success. It must be understood, however, that the individuals do not go alone, but a party accompanies each, or they may send a party without being present. The loss of life is not heavy from this cause, and it is chiefly resorted to by the Singè and Sows, and is about as rational as our trials by combat."
This babukid must be a check of a permanent sort.
Houses.—With certain of the Dyak tribes the houses are not huts, nor yet mere dwelling-houses of ordinary dimensions. They hold from one hundred to two hundred persons each; and are raised above the ground on piles. This form of domestic architecture is important in itself; and it is also important, because it appears again in New Guinea, and has already been found in Java.
The conclusion which we come to from our presentdatain respect to Borneo is, that the whole population is Malay, in the way that the Sumatran population is Malay;i.e.within comparatively narrow limits.
a.There is no tribe so different from the Mahometan Malays as the Samang are from the Malays of Malacca.
b.Still less is there any representative of a lower form of humanity; such as the fabulous Orang Gugu and Orang Cúbu of Sumatra are said to be; although, as in Sumatra, there are reports of the kind.
The tribes described by Mr. Brooke are chiefly the Lundu, Sakarran, the Sarebas, the Suntah, Sow, Sibnow, Meri, Millanow, and Kayan; also the Bajow, or Sea-Gipsies, who live as wanderers (pilots or pirates, as the casemay be) on the ocean, and are found on Borneo, the Sulu islands, Celebes, and elsewhere.
The vocabularies given by Sir J. Brooke are—1. the Suntah; 2. Sow; 3. Sibnow; 4. Sakarran; 5. Meri; 6. Millanow; 7. Malo; 8. Kayan. These last are extended very nearly to the centre of the island.
In the way of intermixture, the nations that are most in contact with the Borneans, especially the Mahometan Malays, are the Arabs and Chinese.
Languages or dialects.—a.The Bugis.[56]b.The Macassar.c.The Mandhar.d.The Harafura of Durville (Qu. the Turaja of Crawfurd and Raffles).Alphabet of the Bugis.—Like, but probably formed independently of the Tagala alphabet of the Philippines; Sanskrit in origin.
Languages or dialects.—a.The Bugis.[56]b.The Macassar.c.The Mandhar.d.The Harafura of Durville (Qu. the Turaja of Crawfurd and Raffles).
Alphabet of the Bugis.—Like, but probably formed independently of the Tagala alphabet of the Philippines; Sanskrit in origin.
Although the Mandhar and Macassar languages, or dialects, are less developed as the instruments of literature than the Bugis, and although the area over which they are spoken is less, whilst their commercial importance is inconsiderable, there is no reason to believe that they represent a civilization different inkindfrom that of the Bugis.
This is not the case with the fourth dialect. I have called it the Harafura of Durville, because the only vocabulary known to me has been collected by that voyager. It is Malay, as truly as the Dyak of Borneo is Malay; whilst those who speak it, although called Harafuras, are Dyaks in frame and complexion. They were seen by Durville; and especially described as being fairer in complexion than the other inhabitants of the island. I have little doubt but that the Harafuras of Durville are the Turajas of Crawfurd and Raffles.
The Bugis, however, represent the learning, and the commercial activity of Celebes.
At present they are Mahometans. InA.D.1504, when they were visited by the Portuguese, they were beginning to be so; their missionaries being the Mahometans of Sumatra and Malacca, and the religion, which was displaced, being Hinduism.
How far this came direct from India, or how far it came by way of Java, is uncertain. The results were the same for the two islands—in kind, but not in degree. An alphabet, and a literature, indicative of Indian influence, are common to both Java and Celebes. In the first island, however, they are the more developed. Inscriptions have hitherto been found in Java alone. The remains of temples have been attributed to Celebes, but they have not been described, and they have not been seen by Europeans.
The safe inference is, that the Hindu civilization extended itself somewhat later to Celebes than it did to Java; and that it took root less generally.
The Bugis are essentially maritime and commercial; and their name in the latter department is a good one; they being active, enterprising, and men who consider themselves bound by what they say.
Bugis approach to a constitutional government.—I am following, implicitly, both the facts and the deductions of Sir J. Brooke, who writes from personal knowledge of the island of Celebes, which he visited from his Rajahship of Sarawak, in giving prominence to what may be considered the nearest approach to aconstitution, that is to be found in any Malay area.
One of the kingdoms into which the southern limb of Celebes is divided is the kingdom of Wajo. Beginning with the lowest ranks, the so-called constitution of Wajo is as follows:—
Servitude.—This is of a mild form, and of the domestic kind. Although so extensive in respect to itsnumericaldimensions, as for one freeman to have, sometimes, upwards of fifty slaves, an export or import trade is unknown. Debt creates the usual supply; since by incurring an amount which he cannot discharge by means of his property, the debtor forfeits his personal freedom. As this forfeiture extends to his family, bondsmanship becomes hereditary.
Freeman not of noble birth.—The lowest sort of political power exercised by afreeman not of noble birth, seems to be the power of holding meetings, where opinions may be stated, but where resolutions can not be passed. The practical bearing of this seems to be, that the higher magistrates have a means of knowing the feelings of the population at large upon any particular measure. Such meetings are convened by the special representatives of the people,i.e.of the notnobleportion of the state—thePangawas.
The Pangawas.—These are rude analogues of thetribunesof the Roman constitution. They are elected by the people. They, alone, can convene certain councils. They have avetoupon the appointment of thearu matoah, or sovereign magistrate. The details as to the state of the towns and villages, and the number of the population is in their hands. No summons to military service is valid without their consent. The number of pangawas is three.
The Council of Forty.—A council of forty arangs, or nobles of inferior rank, is appealed to in cases of importance and difficulty by the—
Six hereditary Rajahs.—Of these, three are civil, and three military. With these rests the election of the—
Aru Matoah, or chief magistrate.
Reversing the view here taken, and looking at the Wajo constitution from its highest elements downwards, the form becomes as follows:—
I must confess, that in the details both of the Wajo and Boni Constitutions, as given by Sir J. Brooke, I find several difficulties and inconsistencies. I presume, however, that each is accurate in the main points, and also that it is (so to say)more of a constitutionthan could easily be found in any Malay parts elsewhere.
The Boni Constitution, just mentioned, is that of another of the Bugis kingdoms. It is the same in principle as that of Wajo, but less attended to in practice.
I agree, too, in the comparison between these constitutions and those forms of European feudalism wherein the right of free citizens first began to be respected. I am also well prepared to believe that, however much thewrittenconstitution may have in it the elements of self-developed political freedom, thedetailsof its working may be unsatisfactory; as we are especially informed is the case. When I find that each rajah is said to possess the power of life and death over his retainers, I find a statement that requires much explanation before it can be made compatible with the asserted freedom of the people at large. So also I observe, that the office aspangawais, practically, hereditary—a great limitation to a true tribunicial authority.
An element of confusion, rather than a restraint upon individual freedom, is to be found in the principle upon which thearu matoahis elected. The six rajahs must beunanimous. Failing this, one of them, thearu beting, with the support of thepangawas, and the council of forty, may nominate. Furthermore, during the vacancy, thearu betingacts as thelocum tenens, but only within certain limits. He is noaru matoahin the eyes of the other Bugis kingdoms, so that he is noaru matoahfor any matters of what may be calledforeign policy.
As unanimity is rare, and as thearu betinghas an interest in keeping the tenure of supreme power in abeyance, disputed elections continually interfere with the peace of the Bugis states; from whence it follows, as a necessary consequence, that the powers of the six hereditary rajahs increase at the expense of the powers of thearu matoah; a process by which the government becomes a close oligarchy, rather than an elective monarchy.
As a foundation for a constitution like the preceding, tenacity of the purity of blood must, necessarily, be a leading element. It exists in Celebes to the fullest extent. Though men may marry in a caste below the one they belong to, women are limited to their own. The practice here is more equalizing than the rule.
In Bugis polygamy, separate wives have separate establishments, and years may elapse without husband or wife having any communication with one another. Still, unless a divorce—procurable on light grounds—be effected, the marriage continues.
To the highest offices of the state, even to that ofaru matoah, women are eligible; so much so that, at the present moment, four out of six of the hereditary rajahs are females.
"The strangest custom I have observed (i.e.among the Bugis) is, that some men dress like women, and somewomen like men; not occasionally, but all their lives, devoting themselves to the occupations and pursuits of their adopted sex. In the case of males, it seems that the parents of a boy, upon perceiving in him certain peculiarities of habit and appearance, are induced thereby to present him to one of the rajahs, by whom he is received. These youths acquire much influence over their masters. It would appear, however, from all I could learn, that the practice leads among the Bugis to none of those vices that constitute the opprobrium of Western Europe."[57]
By allowing ourselves to argue from the sanctity attributed by many ancient nations (e.g.the Greeks and Germans) to the female character, and by comparing the form which this strange custom takes in Borneo, where it is connected with the sacerdotal office, we arrive at a plausible explanation. Among the Sea Dyaks "their doctor, or magician, or both combined, is a man set apart for that office, who is thereafter considered as a woman.She, orhemarries a husband, adopts children, dresses as a female, and lives amongst the women, performing the domestic duties peculiar to the sex. The principal occupation is curing people by divers charms, driving away the devil and evil spirits. It must be allowed that the whole constitution of this office is an example of gross superstition; but the ceremonies attendant on it are in themselves inoffensive. A branch of a tree is fixed on the house; around it white cloth is wrapped; and near this spot the spathe of the betel or areca tree is placed (the spathe being indispensable); then the people assemble, and with unseemly noises rattling shells and beating gongs proclaim their joy and satisfaction.
"The office itself is called 'Manang;' and no particularage is specified, the 'Manang' being young or old, as chance may determine. The present occupier of this important post became so when quite a child, and he is now well stricken in years, and much respected by his tribe."[58]
First Group.—Ternati, Tidor, Mortay (or Morintay), Gilolo.Second Group.—Banda, and other small islands.Third Group.—Amboyna, Ceram, Buru, Saparua, &c.
First Group.—Ternati, Tidor, Mortay (or Morintay), Gilolo.
Second Group.—Banda, and other small islands.
Third Group.—Amboyna, Ceram, Buru, Saparua, &c.
The inhabitants of these groups, or clusters, fall under the three heads which we are now prepared to expect.
1.Mahometan Malays.—The influence of the Mahometan Malays had organized rajahships in the Moluccas anterior to their discovery,A.D.1521. Of these, the most important was that of Ternati; the territory of which extends over Tidor, Gilolo, Mortay, and part of Celebes.
2.A population of the character of the Bugis,i.e.the population of the Archipelago, as developed by the influence of the sea-coast and the commerce that it evolved.
3.A population of the interior of the Dyak(?)type.—Respecting these last I have not the definite information I could wish for. Small as are some of the islands—Amboyna and Tidor—tribes inferior and subordinate to the natives of the coasts and town, have been ascribed to the interior. Forrest states that these are Papua. This they are likely enough to be. Still it would not be surprising if they were light-coloured, and of the Dyak type.
Since the publication of Sir Stamford Raffles' tabulated vocabularies for these parts, I have looked in vain for any vocabulary representing a language other than the Malay. The Guebé vocabulary of Durville is Malay, and the Amboyna and Ceram vocabularies of Roorda van Eysingen are Malay.
The European influences have been Portuguese in the first instance. Afterwards and, at present, Dutch. Chinese settlements also are numerous.
Eastward of the Molucca Islands we come to New Guinea and the islands in its immediate neighbourhood. These belong to another department of the subject. The division at present to be noticed is the Philippine portion of the Malay area. This lies northward to the parts already described, and may have received its population by any one (or more than one) of the following lines of connexion.
1.The Long island of Palawan.—Luçon, Mindoro, Busvagaon, Calamian, Palawan, Balabac,North-western Borneo.
2.The Sulu Archipelago.—Mindanao, Basilian, the Sulus,North-eastern Borneo.
3.Sangir and the islands to the north and south of it—Mindanao, Serangani, Sangir, Siao, the Guning Tellu country in theNorth-east of Celebes.
4.Mindanao, Serangani Salibabo, Gilolo: Gilolo being equidistant between Celebes and Papua.
The first of these lines is the most probable.
Palawan, or Paragoa, is mentioned more from its prominence as a continuity of Borneo than for the sake of description. It is little known: partially under the Spaniards, partially independent.
Palawan, or Paragoa, is mentioned more from its prominence as a continuity of Borneo than for the sake of description. It is little known: partially under the Spaniards, partially independent.
These are also stepping-stones from Borneo. They are Malay; and the headquarters of a Malay power; the most piratical of these seas. The Sultan of Sulu is the terror of the Dyaks of Borneo. He is also the sovereign of part of that island, of part of Palawan, and of the Cayagan group. I only know the short Sulu vocabulary of Rienzi.
These are also stepping-stones from Borneo. They are Malay; and the headquarters of a Malay power; the most piratical of these seas. The Sultan of Sulu is the terror of the Dyaks of Borneo. He is also the sovereign of part of that island, of part of Palawan, and of the Cayagan group. I only know the short Sulu vocabulary of Rienzi.
Divisions.—1. The southern island of Magindano, or Mindanao. 2. The northern island of Luçon, or Luçonia. 3. The Bissayan Archipelago betweenthe two. Of this last, the most important islands are Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panay, and the Isola de Negros.Population.—Malay and Negrito.
Divisions.—1. The southern island of Magindano, or Mindanao. 2. The northern island of Luçon, or Luçonia. 3. The Bissayan Archipelago betweenthe two. Of this last, the most important islands are Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panay, and the Isola de Negros.
Population.—Malay and Negrito.
Although at the present moment the aboriginal population of the Philippines may be studied in detail, such detail will be avoided; and no more than four leading points will be noticed.
1.The Blacks of the Philippine group.—The existence of tribes darker coloured than the generality, is one of the earliest of the observations on these parts; and its confirmation one of the latest facts in modern ethnology.
Beginning at the island of Mindanao, we find, in Mallat,[59]the names of the following tribes—Dumagas, Malanaos, Manabos, and Tagabaloys. These are not described in detail, but are said to belong to the same type with the Negroes of the Bissayan Archipelago and Luçonia. They constitute the still savage tribes of the forests and mountains.
In the Archipelago our knowledge becomes more distinct, though still imperfect. The Blacks of Lasso were visited by Lafond Lurcy. They were nearly naked, with hair like cotton, very slim, and very undersized. Dr. Prichard makes these Negritos members of a group which he calls thepuny Negroes of the Archipelago.
What Lafond Lurcy writes coincides with the statements of Mallat; who speaks of the Blacks of the type in question as being very Negro in feature, with the nosepeu épaté, and with the haircrépu.
TheIsola de Negrostakes its name from the greater proportion of the population being of this character,i.e.black, after the manner of the African.
In Luçonia, however, a second type appears.
Taller than the southern Blacks; more copper-coloured than black; eyes oblique; frontal sinuses much developed; hair harsh, hard, lank, and bright-black. Painted; tattooed on their hands with a figure like the sun.
Taller than the southern Blacks; more copper-coloured than black; eyes oblique; frontal sinuses much developed; hair harsh, hard, lank, and bright-black. Painted; tattooed on their hands with a figure like the sun.
More agricultural than the Igorots. Tattooed.
More agricultural than the Igorots. Tattooed.
Milder in temper than the Igorots; tattooed on the arms only; pierced and enlarged ears.
Milder in temper than the Igorots; tattooed on the arms only; pierced and enlarged ears.
Small, and short; black; flat-nosed; eyes less oblique than those of the Igorots; hair straight.
Small, and short; black; flat-nosed; eyes less oblique than those of the Igorots; hair straight.
All this verifies the statement of the Abbate Bernardo del Fuente,[60]according to which there are two varieties of Philippine Blacks, one with long, fine, and glossy, and one with crisped hair.
2.The Philippine languages.—Of these the most important are the Tagala, the Bissayan, the Pampango, the Iloco, and the Abac. Of the Bissayan there are several dialects: the Mindanao, the Samar, the Iolo, the Bohol. The structure of the Tagala has been particularly studied by Humboldt. It represents the Malay in its most complex form; and is essentially agglutinate in respect to its inflection.
All the numerous Philippine dialects and languages are fundamentally Malay. Those of the Blacks are but little known. Still, as far as our knowledge extends, the philological phenomenon is the same as with the Samang of the Malayan Peninsula. The difference in language is less than the difference of form and colour.
3.The Extent of Hindu influences.—These are less in the Philippines than in Celebes, and much less than in Javaand Bali. Still the Philippines have a native alphabet, and this native alphabet has the same origin with the alphabets of Sumatra, Java, and Celebes;viz.the Hindu Devanagari.
4.The remains of the original mythology.—I give what I know of this in the following note from Marsden's Sumatra,[61]where it is inserted from Thevenot, for the sake of illustrating that of Sumatra.
"The chief deity of theTagalasis calledBathala mei Capal, and alsoDinata; and their principal idolatry consists in adoring those of their ancestors who signalised themselves for courage or abilities; calling themHumalagar, i.e.manes. They make slaves of the people who do not keep silence at the tombs of their ancestors. They have great veneration for the crocodile, which they callnono, signifying grandfather, and make offerings to it. Every old tree they look upon as a superior being, and think it a crime to cut it down. They worship also stones, rocks, and points of land, shooting arrows at these last as they pass them. They have priests, who, at their sacrifices, make many contortions and grimaces, as if possessed with a devil. The first man and woman, they say, were produced from a bamboo, which burst in the island ofSumatra; and they quarrelled about their marriage. The people mark their bodies in various figures, and render them of the colour of ashes; have large holes in their ears; blacken and file their teeth, and make an opening, which they fill up with gold. They used to write from top to bottom, till the Spaniards taught them to write from left to right. Bamboos and palm-leaves serve them for paper. They cover their houses with straw, leaves of trees, or bamboos split in two, which serve fortiles. They hire people to sing and weep at their funerals; burnbenzoin; bury their dead on the third day in strong coffins, and sometimes kill slaves to accompany their deceased masters. They held thecaiman, or alligator, in great reverence, and when they saw him they called himnono, or grandfather, praying with great tenderness that he would do them no harm; and, to this end, offered him of whatever they had in their boats, throwing it into the water. There was not an old tree to which they did not offer divine worship, especially that calledbalete; and even at this time they have some respect for them. Beside these they had certain idols inherited from their ancestors, which the Tagalas calledanito, and the Bissayans,divata. Some of these were for the mountains and plains, and they asked their leave when they would pass them. Others for the corn-fields; and to these they recommend them, that they might be fertile, placing meat and drink in the fields for the use of theanitos. There was one of the sea, who had care of their fishing and navigation; another of the house, whose favour they implored at the birth of a child, and under whose protection they placed it. They madeanitosalso of their deceased ancestors, and to these were their first invocations in all difficulties and dangers. They reckoned amongst these beings all those who were killed by lightning or alligators, or had any disastrous death, and believed that they were carried up to the happy state, by the rainbow, which they callbalan-gao. In general, they endeavoured to attribute this kind of divinity to their fathers, when they died in years; and the old men, vain with this barbarous notion, affected in their sickness a gravity and composure of mind, as they conceived, more than human, because they thought themselves commencinganitos. They were to be interred at places marked outby themselves, that they might be discovered at a distance and worshipped. The missionaries have had great trouble in demolishing their tombs and idols; but the Indians, inland, still continue the custom ofpasing tubi sa nono, or asking permission of their dead ancestors, when they enter any wood, mountain, or corn-field, for hunting or sowing; and if they omit this ceremony, imagine theirnonoswill punish them with bad fortune.
"Their notions of the creation of the world, and formation of mankind, had something ridiculously extravagant. They believed that the world at first consisted only of sky and water, and between these two, a glede; which, weary with flying about, and finding no place to rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that it should not get uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in which the glede might settle and leave them at peace. Mankind, they said, sprang out of a large cane with two joints, that, floating about in the water, was at length thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede, as it stood on shore, which opened it with its bill, and the man came out of one joint, and the woman out of the other. These were soon after married by consent of their god,Bathala Meycapal, which caused the first trembling of the earth; and from thence are descended the different nations of the world."
Locality.—Due north of Luçon.
Locality.—Due north of Luçon.
Locality.—Due north of the Babyanis.
Locality.—Due north of the Babyanis.
I have no details respecting the Babyanis and the Bashis. They have been noticed, however, as forming the tract from Luçon to—
Name.—Chinese Taï-ouan, originally Toung-fan.Political Relations.—Western side, subject to China. Eastern side independent.Languages.—Numerous dialects. The only known vocabulary, Malay.Authority.—Klaproth. Description de Formose, Melanges Asiatiques, p. 195.
Name.—Chinese Taï-ouan, originally Toung-fan.
Political Relations.—Western side, subject to China. Eastern side independent.
Languages.—Numerous dialects. The only known vocabulary, Malay.
Authority.—Klaproth. Description de Formose, Melanges Asiatiques, p. 195.
The knowledge of the island of Formosa on the part of the Chinese begins no earlier than the year 1430A.D.; and its oldest name in Chinese,Toung-fan, meansbarbarians of the East. The later name means theBay of Heights.
This term is explained by the geological structure of the island. It is bisected from north to south by a line of mountains, upon which snow lies during November and December. This range is a line of demarcation in ethnology as well as politics. West of it we have the district that pays tribute to the Chinese, and in which there is a standing Chinese army, and a number of Chinese immigrants—chiefly employed in the rice cultivation. In the mountains themselves, and to the east of them, are the Aborigines. These are said to approach the Negro type, and to differ from one another in language—a fact that we are now prepared to expect rather than to discredit. Their arms are the dart and bow; and their swiftness of foot is described by the Chinese as being equal to that of the swiftest dogs.
They are Malayan in stock, and apparently but little mixed. The Japanese, and the Lúchú on the northern part of the island, and the Dutch on the present Chinese locality seem to have been their chief visitors. Neither held their ground permanently.
That an island so near as Formosa should have been so long unknown to the Chinese, surprises Klaproth; who reasonably thinks that it was known at an earlier period, but known under a different name. The more so, as the Pescadores islands, half-way between, are within sight of the mainland.
It is safe to consider that the population of Formosa is a continuance of the population of Luçon, and the Bashi islands. Of the island Lang-khiao, at the southernmost end of Formosa, I find, in Klaproth, an express statement that it is inhabited, and that its inhabitants are great breeders of sheep.
Of the Pescadores the original population is unknown. From what I collect from Klaproth, the natives were removed in 1387,A.D., by the Chinese, and transplanted elsewhere. How far this was, partial or complete, is uncertain. At present they are inhabited—probably by the Chinese, who replaced the exiles of 1387.
There can be but little doubt that Formosa was peopled from the northern part of Luçonia; in which case its inhabitants represent the stock of the Igorots, Busiks, &c., as modified by a more northern position, and by Chinese rather than Malay elements.
With Formosa we reach the northernmost limits of the Malays in this direction. The Lúchú islands, north of Formosa, have their affinities with Japan, and Japan has its affinities with the North and West, rather than with the South and East.
Area.—From the small islands to the west of the Pelews to Easter Island, west and east. From the Mariannes and the Sandwich Islands north, to New Zealand south.Physical Conformation.—Modified Protonesian. Stature, perhaps, taller; tendency to corpulence more common; colour oftener approaching that of the European; hair often waved or curling; nose frequently aquiline.Nutrition.—But little azotized; saccharine and amylaceous.Aliment.—Preeminently vegetable, the coco-nut, the taro, the banana. Fish.Negative Characters.—Little, or no, use of the bow and arrow; considered to be a differential point between Polynesia and Kelænonesia.Conditions of Social and Physical Development.—Absence of large animals, either as beasts of burden or as food. Nearly general absence of rice and pulse. Intercourse entirely by means of canoes. Between Polynesia and Protonesia little or none. Between the different portions of Polynesia limited or partial. Malay and Hindu influences obscure. Present influences European; of recent date.Religion.—Paganism, apparently indigenous. Uniform in its general character over a great extent.Languages.—Allied to each other, and mutually intelligible over large areas. Grammatical structure akin to the Tagala. Malay words numerous and evident.Divisions.—1. Micronesian Branch. 2. Proper Polynesian Branch.
Area.—From the small islands to the west of the Pelews to Easter Island, west and east. From the Mariannes and the Sandwich Islands north, to New Zealand south.
Physical Conformation.—Modified Protonesian. Stature, perhaps, taller; tendency to corpulence more common; colour oftener approaching that of the European; hair often waved or curling; nose frequently aquiline.
Nutrition.—But little azotized; saccharine and amylaceous.
Aliment.—Preeminently vegetable, the coco-nut, the taro, the banana. Fish.
Negative Characters.—Little, or no, use of the bow and arrow; considered to be a differential point between Polynesia and Kelænonesia.
Conditions of Social and Physical Development.—Absence of large animals, either as beasts of burden or as food. Nearly general absence of rice and pulse. Intercourse entirely by means of canoes. Between Polynesia and Protonesia little or none. Between the different portions of Polynesia limited or partial. Malay and Hindu influences obscure. Present influences European; of recent date.
Religion.—Paganism, apparently indigenous. Uniform in its general character over a great extent.
Languages.—Allied to each other, and mutually intelligible over large areas. Grammatical structure akin to the Tagala. Malay words numerous and evident.
Divisions.—1. Micronesian Branch. 2. Proper Polynesian Branch.
Reasons will now be given for drawing a distinction between the Micronesians and the Proper Polynesians, and also for taking the Micronesians first in order. In the former I follow Prichard. In the latter I believe my arrangement is singular.
1. MM. Dumont Durville and Lesson, to whose observations on this, as in many other portions of oceanic ethnology, much of our information is due, have agreed in disconnecting the natives of the Western Oceanic Islands from those of the Eastern; insisting upon a difference of language, and a difference in physical conformation. Nay more, they would connect them with the Mongols of the Continent. To give prominence to this difference of opinion on the part of judges so well qualified as the two investigators in question, was Pilchard's reason for thus separating the Archipelago of the Pacific into two sections.
For my own part I consider that the grounds of difference set forth by MM. Lesson and Dumont Durville, although insufficient to establish the double position of anaffinitywith the Mongolians, and of ano-affinity with the Polynesians, are sufficient to justify the sub-division of the kind in question. The absence, in Micronesia, of certain Polynesian customs, and the modified form of others are additional reasons.
2. The reason for taking the Micronesian branch before the Proper Polynesian, involves the following question—What was the line of population by which the innumerable islands of the Pacific, from the Pelews to Easter Island, and from the Sandwich Islands to New Zealand became inhabited by tribes, different from, but still allied to, the Protonesian Malays?—That line, whichever it be, where the continuity of successive islands is the greatest, and, whereon the fewest considerable interspaces of ocean are to be found.
This is the general answer,à priori; subject to modification from the counterbalancing phenomena of winds, or currents unfavourable to the supposed migration.
Now this answer, when applied to the geographical details regarding the distribution of land and sea in the great Oceanic area, indicates the following line—New Guinea, New Ireland, the New Hebrides, the Figis, and the Tonga group, &c. From hence the Navigators' Isles, the Isles of the Dangerous Archipelago, the Kingsmill, and other groups, carry the frequently-diverging streams of population over the Caroline Islands, the Ladrones, the Pelews, Easter Island, &c.
This view, however, so natural an inference from a mere land-and-sea survey, is complicated by the ethnological position of the New Guinea, New Ireland, and New Hebrides population. These arenotProtonesian, and they arenotPolynesian. Lastly, they arenotintermediate to the two. Theybreakrather than propagate the continuity of the human stream; a continuity which exists geographically but fails ethnologically.
The recognition of this conflict between the two probabilities, has determined me to consider the Micronesian Archipelago, as that part of Polynesia which is the partmost likely to have been first peopled; and hence comes a reason for taking it first in order.
Area.—The Pelew, Caroline, Marianne Islands. The Tarawan group. As far south as about 7° S. L.Physical Conformation.—More Mongolian, in the limited sense of the term, than the proper Polynesian. Varieties both of hair and complexion.Language.—Dialects, probably, mutually intelligible. Probably unintelligible to the Proper Polynesians.Political relations.—Partly independent; partly subject to Spain.Religion.—Paganism and Romanism.European intermixture.—Chiefly Spanish.Negative characters.—Absence of thetabuunder the form in which it appears in Polynesia. Use of the drink calledkavaeither restricted, or modified. Considered to be differential points between Micronesia and Polynesia.
Area.—The Pelew, Caroline, Marianne Islands. The Tarawan group. As far south as about 7° S. L.
Physical Conformation.—More Mongolian, in the limited sense of the term, than the proper Polynesian. Varieties both of hair and complexion.
Language.—Dialects, probably, mutually intelligible. Probably unintelligible to the Proper Polynesians.
Political relations.—Partly independent; partly subject to Spain.
Religion.—Paganism and Romanism.
European intermixture.—Chiefly Spanish.
Negative characters.—Absence of thetabuunder the form in which it appears in Polynesia. Use of the drink calledkavaeither restricted, or modified. Considered to be differential points between Micronesia and Polynesia.
In these negative characters (of which, however, it is doubtful whether the exact extent has been ascertained), superadded to the fact, of the Micronesian dialects forming a separate language unintelligible to the Polynesian, and to the difference—real or supposed—in their physical appearance, lie good and sufficient reasons for considering the Micronesians to form a separate division. To which may be added, considerable differences in the way of creed and mythology.
Locality.—Latitude 3° 2´ N. Longitude 131° 4´ E.Population.—About three or four hundred.Physical conformation.—Complexion, light copper, lighter than that of the Malays or Pelew islanders. Face broad, cheek-bones high, nose flattened.Pantheon.—Chief deityYaris. ProgenitorPita-kat.
Locality.—Latitude 3° 2´ N. Longitude 131° 4´ E.
Population.—About three or four hundred.
Physical conformation.—Complexion, light copper, lighter than that of the Malays or Pelew islanders. Face broad, cheek-bones high, nose flattened.
Pantheon.—Chief deityYaris. ProgenitorPita-kat.
The account of Horace Holden,[62]an American sailor, who, with eleven others, reached the island of Tobi, in a boat, and who was detained there two years, is our only source of information for this important locality—the nearest point of contact between Polynesia and Protonesia.
No tribes have a harder struggle for existence. During the whole of Holden's residence, only five turtle were taken; fish being also scanty. Hence coco-nuts and the taro formed the chief food. It is reasonable, as well as charitable, to refer the churlishness of their tempers to this state of indigence. Perhaps, also, it is the reason why the men, as compared with the women, take a fair share of the labour of cultivation—a custom rare in other parts of Polynesia.
The effects of hunger in reducing the population are seconded by those of war. And here, the only weapons are the spear and club—no bows and no arrows.
The houses "are built of small trees and rods, and thatched with leaves. They have two stories, a ground-floor, and a loft, which is entered by a hole or scuttle through the horizontal partition or upper floor.
"For ornament they sometimes wear in their ears, which are always bored, a folded leaf; and round their necks a necklace made of the shell of the coco-nut, and a small white sea-shell."
All this merely connects them with the Micronesians. The tradition respectingPita-katis more important. He "came many years ago from the island of Ternati, and gave them their religion, and such simple arts as they possessed."
Locality.—West of the Pelews. Nearest point to the Philippines.
Locality.—West of the Pelews. Nearest point to the Philippines.
Synonym.—Palaos.Chief Islands.—Corror, Babelthouap, Pelelion.Native quadrupeds.—Rats.Vegetable products.—Coco-nut, bread-fruit, yam, batata, taro, ebony, sugarcane, orange, banana, bamboo, paper-mulberry. Rice and pulse wanting.
Synonym.—Palaos.
Chief Islands.—Corror, Babelthouap, Pelelion.
Native quadrupeds.—Rats.
Vegetable products.—Coco-nut, bread-fruit, yam, batata, taro, ebony, sugarcane, orange, banana, bamboo, paper-mulberry. Rice and pulse wanting.
The paucity of quadrupeds, and the abundance of tropical vegetables is common to the Pelew Islands, and the whole of Polynesia. Hence, it is mentioned once for all. The chief exception, however, is an important one. Thehogwill be found to bepartiallydistributed; and the partial character of its distribution has been one of the instruments of ethnological criticism (especially in the hands of the French naturalists), by means of which the order of succession in which the different islands have been peopled has been investigated.
Direction.—North-east from the Pelews.Locality.—Between the Pelews and the—
Direction.—North-east from the Pelews.
Locality.—Between the Pelews and the—
Synonym.—Ladrones.Name of Natives.—Chamorros.Chief islands.—Guam, Rota, Tinian.Physical appearance of Natives.—Stature higher than that of the other islanders, tendency to corpulence greater.Intermixture.—Considerable,i.e.with Polynesians, Philippine islanders, Spaniards.
Synonym.—Ladrones.
Name of Natives.—Chamorros.
Chief islands.—Guam, Rota, Tinian.
Physical appearance of Natives.—Stature higher than that of the other islanders, tendency to corpulence greater.
Intermixture.—Considerable,i.e.with Polynesians, Philippine islanders, Spaniards.
Rota and Tinian are remarkable for containing the remains of massive stone buildings; the original use of which is wholly unknown to the present natives. The same phenomenon will be repeated in Tonga-tabú and Easter Island.
The Mariannes form the most northern portion of Micronesia. The direction will now be due east from the cluster of Goulou; about mid-way between the Pelews and Yap.
Synonym.—Egoy Islands.
Synonym.—Egoy Islands.
Direction.—West to east.Extent.—From 140° to 15° E. L. from Paris. Under 5° N. L.Particular islands.—Lamoursek, Satawal, Faroilep (the most northern), Aurupig (the most southern).
Direction.—West to east.
Extent.—From 140° to 15° E. L. from Paris. Under 5° N. L.
Particular islands.—Lamoursek, Satawal, Faroilep (the most northern), Aurupig (the most southern).
Direction.—From the Lamoursek and Satawal group fifteen degrees westward.Particular islands.—Hogoleu, Lougounor, Pounipet, Ualan.
Direction.—From the Lamoursek and Satawal group fifteen degrees westward.
Particular islands.—Hogoleu, Lougounor, Pounipet, Ualan.
A distinction which will often be applied in Polynesian ethnology may now be made. It is the difference between the geological structure of the different islands. Whether they are what is calledhighorlowis important. In the high islands, where the structure is primitive, metamorphic, or volcanic, the conditions for social development are more favourable than in the low islands, of a coralline structure. In these last the food is less abundant, the sun more scorching, and, generally, the complexion of the inhabitantsdarker.
Again, the inhabitants of the low islands are generally at peace amongst themselves: those of the high islands at war.
In the ethnology of the Paumoto Archipelago, this distinction will be repeated. So it will elsewhere.
Synonym.—Lougoullos. Mortlock island.Physical conformation.—Stature, above the average; colour,chestnut, lips thick, beard long but thin, hair black, long, thick, slightly curling (un peu crépu), sometimes frizzy—Lütke, from Prichard.Language.—Allied to, but different from, the Ualan.
Synonym.—Lougoullos. Mortlock island.
Physical conformation.—Stature, above the average; colour,chestnut, lips thick, beard long but thin, hair black, long, thick, slightly curling (un peu crépu), sometimes frizzy—Lütke, from Prichard.
Language.—Allied to, but different from, the Ualan.