AlcoveAlcove. French; late sixteenth century
Al′cove,a recess in a room, usually separated from the rest of the room by columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often containing a bed or seats.
Alcoy′,a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by west of Alicante, in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman bridge over the river, and the town has a very picturesque appearance; its chief manufactures are paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April an annual feast is celebrated by the inhabitants of the town commemorating a victory over the Moors in 1257. Pop. 33,896.
Alcudia,Duke of. SeeGodoy.
Alcuin(alk′win; in his native tongueEalhwine), a learned Englishman, the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York School, of which he subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to Rome, Charlemagne became acquainted withhim at Parma, invited him in 782 to his Court, and made use of his services in his endeavours to civilize his subjects. To secure the benefit of his instructions, Charlemagne established at his Court a school, calledSchola Palatina, or the Palace School. In the royal academy Alcuin was calledFlaccus Albinus. Most of the schools in France were either founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school in the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school in York. Alcuin left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his death in 804. He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems and letters, all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which were addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As a philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of 'scholasticism' is attributed to him.—Bibliography: C. J. B. Gaskoin,Alcuin, His Life and his Work, J. B. Mullinger,The Schools of Charles the Great.
Alcyona′ria,cœlenterate animals forming a great division of the class Actinozoa (seeSea-anemone). These animals are nearly all composite, and the individual polyps have mostly eight tentacles. They include the organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals, &c., as also the red coral of commerce. The polyps resemble those of the genus Alcyonium in structure, and in the number and arrangement of the tentacles. SeeAlcyonium.
Alcyo′nium,a genus of cœlenterate animals, one familiar species of which, dredged around the British coasts—A. digitātum—is named 'Dead-Men's Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps', from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows attached to stones, shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of little polyps, each polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles disposed around a central mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of theAlcyonaria.
Al′dan,a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the Lena, 1200 miles in length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it on the left for 400 miles.
Aldeb′aran,a star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it to contain antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, &c.
Aldeburgh(a¨ld′bu-ru), a municipal borough of England, on the coast of Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now, having suffered from encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born there in 1754. Pop. 2892.
Al′dehyde,in chemistry, the generic name given to the compounds of alcohol intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Common aldehyde (C2H4O) is derived from spirit of wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid, volatile, and inflammable liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is suffocating when strong; specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen converts it into acetic acid. It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a brilliant film of metallic silver; hence it is used in silvering curved glass surfaces.
AlderCommon Alder (Alnus glutinosa)
Alder(a¨l′dėr; Alnus), a genus of plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceæ (Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceæ). Fourteen species are known as small trees or shrubs indigenous to temperate and colder regions of the globe; eight of these are found in Central and Western Europe. The only species indigenous to Britain is the common alder (Alnus glutinōsa), a tree growing in wet situations in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and soft and of a reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is well adapted for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is still largely used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots furnish a beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used for cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in tanning and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets. This and the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields a black dye.
Alderley Edge,a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles south-west of Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072.
Al′derman(a¨l′dėr-; Anglo-Saxonealdorman, fromealdor, older, andman), among the Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of an earl or count, the governor of a shire or county, and member of thewitena-gemótor great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important rôle already before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest power during the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of an alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor of a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and the United States.
Al′derney(Fr.Aurigny), an island belonging to Britain, off the coast of Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue, and 60 from the nearest point of England, the most northerly of the Channel Islands, between 3 and 4 miles long, and about 1¼ broad. The coast is bold and rocky; the interior is fertile. About a third of the island is occupied by grass lands; and the Alderney cows, a small-sized but handsome breed, are famous for the richness of their milk. The climate is mild and healthy. A judge, with six 'jurats', chosen by the people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers', representatives of the people, form a kind of local legislature. The French language still prevails among the inhabitants, but all understand and many speak English. TheRace of Alderneyis the strait between the coast of France and this island. Pop. 2561.
Aldershot(äl′dėr-), a town and military station in England, the latter having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was originated in 1854 by the purchase by Government of a tract of moorland known as Aldershot Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The object was to accustom both officers and soldiers to act more readily when drawn up in brigades and divisions, their practice having been limited for the most part, since the termination of the French war, to the movements of battalions and companies. It was also deemed advisable to accustom the army to camp life, and to exercise the men in all the evolutions and movements which they might be required to perform when brought into actual contact with the enemy. The accommodation provided for the army, officers as well as men, consisted at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded by brick barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has amounted to over £3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching, skirmishing, and similar field operations, which are carried on during the summer months with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in cooking and other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a number of Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &c. The town is in the neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground, and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools, newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &c. Aldershot gives its name to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.
Ald′helm,an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of Malmesbury and Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a great fosterer of learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin writings on theological subjects.
Al′dine Editions,the name given to the works which proceeded from the press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice (1494-1592), Rome (1562-70), and Bologna. (SeeManutius.) Recommended by their value, as well as by a splendid exterior, they have gained the respect of scholars and the attention of book-collectors. Many of them are the first printed editions (editiones principes) of Greek and Latin classics. Others are texts of the modern Italian authors. These editions are of importance in the history of printing. The editions printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder are, however, much more valuable than those issued by his descendants. Among the former are the first edition of the works of Aristotle in 5 vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace, and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds of Greek type, and no one before him printed so much and so beautifully in this language. Of the Latin character he procured fourteen kinds of type.
Aldobrandi′ni,the name of a Florentine family, subsequently of princely rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope (Clement VIII) and several cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of learning.—Aldobrandini Marriage, one of the most beautiful ancient fresco paintings, belonging probably to the time of Augustus, discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at the very spot where once were the gardens of Mæcenas, and acquired by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It represents a marriage scene in which ten persons are portrayed. There is a beautiful copy of this fresco by Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.
Al′dred,orEaldred,Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved the discipline of the Church and built several monastic churches. On the death of Edward the Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having submitted to the Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made subservient to the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well as Matilda.
Ald′rich,Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in 1647, died in 1710; distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as a musician.HisCompendium of Logicwas a textbook till long past the middle of last century. He adapted many of the works of the older musicians, such as Palestrina and Carissimi, to the liturgy of the Church of England, and composed many services and anthems, some of which are still heard in English cathedrals.
Aldrich,Thomas Bailey, the most conspicuous American poet of his generation. Born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 11th Nov., 1836; died at Boston in March, 1907. He editedEvery Saturdayin Boston from 1865 to 1874, and theAtlantic Monthlyfrom 1881 to 1890. He was a poet of some skill, the chief characteristic of his lyrics being refinement and finish. Some of his short stories have been rarely surpassed by other American writers. Among his volumes of verse are:The Ballad of Babie Bell(1856);Cloth of Gold(1874);Lyrics and Sonnets(1880);Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book(1881);Unguarded Gates and other Poems(1895), &c. His prose works include:Story of a Bad Boy(1870);Marjorie Daw and other People(1873);The Stillwater Tragedy(1880);Two Bites of a Cherry(1893).
Aldrovan′di,Ulysses, a distinguished Italian naturalist; born 1522, died 1607. He was professor at Bologna, and established botanical gardens and a museum of natural history there; wrote a work on natural history in 14 vols. HisAntidotarii Bononiensis epitome(1574) has served as a model for all Pharmacopœias published in later years.
AleandBeer,well-known and extensively-used fermented liquors, the principle of which is extracted from several sorts of grain but most commonly from barley, after it has undergone the process termed malting. Beer is a more general term than ale, being often used for any kind of fermented malt liquor, including porter, though it is also used in a more special signification. SeeBrewing.
Aleardi(a˙-lā-a˙r′dē),Aleardo,a distinguished Italian lyrical and political poet and patriot, born 1812, died 1878; he was a member of the Italian board of higher education and a senator. His best work is his poemIl Monte Circello(1844).
Ale-conner,formerly an officer in England appointed to assay ale and beer, and to take care that they were good and wholesome, and sold at a proper price. The duty of the ale-conners of London was to inspect the measures used in public-houses, to prevent frauds in selling liquors. Four of these were chosen annually by the liverymen, in common hall, on Mid-summer's Day.
Ale-cost.SeeCostmary.
Alec′to,in Greek mythology, one of the Furies (q.v.).
Aleman(a˙-le-ma˙n′), Mateo, a Spanish novelist, born about the middle of the sixteenth century, died in 1610. His fame rests on hisLife and Adventures of the Rogue Guzman de Alfarache(translated into French in 1600 and into English in 1623), one of the best of thepicaresqueor rogue novels, which give such a lively picture of the shady classes of society in Spain during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The hero becomes in succession stable-boy, beggar, porter, thief, man of fashion, soldier, valet, merchant, student, robber, galley-slave, and lastly his own biographer.
Aleman′ni,orAlamanni,a confederacy of several German tribes which, at the commencement of the third century after Christ, lived near the Roman territory, and came then and subsequently into conflict with the imperial troops. Caracalla first fought with them in 213, but did not conquer them; Severus was likewise unsuccessful. About 250 they began to cross the Rhine westwards, and in 255 they overran Gaul along with the Franks. In 259 a body of them was defeated in Italy at Milan, and in the following year they were driven out of Gaul by Postumus. But the Alemanni did not desist from their incursions, notwithstanding the numerous defeats they suffered at the hands of the Roman troops. In the fourth century they crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul, but were severely defeated by the Emperor Julian and driven back. Subsequently they occupied a considerable territory on both sides of the Rhine; but at last Clovis broke their power in 496 and deprived them of a large portion of their possessions. Part of their territory was formed into a duchy called Alemannia or Swabia, this name being derived from Suevi or Swabians, the name which they gave themselves. It is from the Alemanni that the French have derived their names for Germans and Germany in general, namely,AllemandsandAllemagne, though strictly speaking only the modern Swabians and northern Swiss are the proper descendants of that ancient race.
Alembert(a˙-la˙n˙-bār), Jean le Rond d', a French mathematician and philosopher, born in Paris, 16th Nov., 1717, and died there 29th Oct., 1783. He was the illegitimate son of Madame de Tencin and Chevalier Destouches, and was exposed at the Church of St. Jean le Rond (hence his name) soon after birth. He was brought up by the wife of a poor glazier, and with her he lived for more than forty years. His parents never publicly acknowledged him, but his father settled upon him an income of 1200 livres. He showed much quickness in learning, entered the College Mazarin at the age of twelve, and studied mathematics with enthusiasm and success, but received little encouragement from his teachers. Having left college he studied law and became an advocate, but did not practise, and longcontinued to occupy himself with mathematics, in which he made immense advances by his own efforts, often arriving at results that other mathematicians had previously arrived at unknown to him. A pamphlet on the motion of solid bodies in a fluid, and another on the integral calculus, which he laid before the Academy of Sciences in 1739 and 1740, showed him in so favourable a light that the Academy received him in 1741 into the number of its members. He soon after published his famous work on dynamics,Traité de Dynamique(1743) and another work dealing with fluids,Traité des Fluides. HisRéflexion sur la cause générale des ventswas also a work that added to D'Alembert's reputation. He also took a part in the investigations which completed the discoveries of Newton respecting the motion of the heavenly bodies, and published at intervals various important astronomical dissertations—on the perturbations of the planets, for instance, and on the precession of the equinoxes—as well as on other subjects. He also took part, with Diderot and others, in the celebratedEncyclopédiein 33 vols., for which he wrote theDiscours Préliminaire, as well as many philosophical and almost all the mathematical articles. Literature, history, and philosophy also received attention from him, and hisÉléments de Philosophie(1759), in which he agrees with the theories of Condillac and Locke, was a work of much value. His great philosophical aim seems to have been the idea of secularizing morality upon a rational basis. Among his miscellaneous works areMélanges de Philosophie, d'Histoire, et de Littérature;Traduction de quelques Morceaux choisis de Tacite;Sur la Destruction des Jésuites;Histoire des Membres de l'Académie Française;Éléments de Musique théorique et pratique. He received an invitation from the Russian empress Catherine II to go to St. Petersburg (now Petrograd) as tutor to her son, a very large sum being offered; and Frederick the Great invited him to settle in Berlin, but in vain. From Frederick, however, he accepted a pension, and he also paid a visit to Berlin. There was an intimate friendship between him and Voltaire. He never married, but he was on terms of the closest friendship with Madame L'Espinasse, and they occupied the same house for a number of years. He was held in high esteem by David Hume, who left him a legacy of £200.
Alem′bic,a simple apparatus sometimes used by chemists for distillation, and consisting of three main parts, body, head, and receiver. Thecucurbit, or body, contains the substance to be distilled, and is usually somewhat like a bottle, bulging below and narrowing towards the top; thehead, of a globular form, with a flat under-ring, fits on to the neck of the cucurbit, condenses the vapour from the heated liquid, and receives the distilled liquid on the ring enclosing the neck of the lower vessel, and thus causes it to find egress by a discharging-pipe into the third section, called thereceiver. SeeDistillation.
Alemtejo(a˙-lān˙-tā′zhō; 'beyond the Tagus'), the largest province of Portugal, and the most southern except Algarve; area, 9219 sq. miles; pop. 478,584. The capital is Evora. It has about 30 miles of coast, but no good harbour and no navigable river. Large areas are devoted to pasturage, and the cultivated portions are comparatively limited, though in the east there are fertile valleys where grain, fruits, &c., are cultivated. There are valuable cork forests in this portion also. Excellent horses are reared. Copper and iron mines are worked; but on the whole this province is in a backward condition, and is the most thinly inhabited in the country.
Alençon(a˙-la˙n˙-sōn˙), a town of France, capital of department Orne, and formerly of the Duchy of Alençon, on the right bank of the Sarthe, 105 miles west by south of Paris; well built; has a fine Gothic church (fifteenth century) and interesting remains of the old castle of the ducs d'Alençon. Alençon was long famed for its point-lace, called 'point d'Alençon', an industry established at the instigation of Colbert in 1673 but now much fallen off; it has cotton and flax spinning and weaving, &c. Fine rock-crystal, yielding the so-called 'diamants d'Alençon', is found in the neighbouring granite quarries. Alençon is mentioned as a city for the first time in 717. Pop. 16,590.—Alençon, originally a county, later a dukedom, became united with the crown in 1221, and was given by Louis XI as an appanage to his fifth son, with whom the branch of the Alençon-Valois commenced. The first duke of the name lost his life at the battle of Agincourt in 1415; another, called Charles IV, married the celebrated Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. He commanded the left wing of the French army at the battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the king at a critical moment, he fled at the head of his troops, the consequence of which was the loss of the battle and the capture of the king.
Alep′po,a city in North Syria, on the River Koik, in a fine plain 60 miles south-east of Alexandretta, which is its port, and 129 milesN.N.E.of Damascus. It has a circumference of about 7 miles, and consists of the old town and numerous suburbs. Its appearance at a distance is striking, and the houses are well built of stone. On a hill stands the citadel, and at its foot the governor's palace. Previous to 1822 Aleppo contained about 100 mosques, but in that year an earthquake laid the greater part of them in ruins, and destroyed nearly the whole city. The aqueduct built by the Romans is the oldest monument ofthe town. Among the chief attractions of Aleppo are its gardens, in which the pistachio-nut is extensively cultivated. The branch railway to Hamah from the Beyrout-Damascus line has been continued to Aleppo. Formerly the city was a great centre of trade and manufactures, but the earthquake and other causes have combined greatly to lessen its prosperity. It has still a trade, however, in the products of the country, such as wool, cotton, silk, wax, skins, soap, tobacco, &c., and imports a certain quantity of European manufactures.—Aleppo was a place of considerable importance in very remote times. By the Greeks and Romans it was calledBerœa. It was conquered by the Arabs in 638, and its original nameChalybonwas then turned intoHaleb, whence the Italian formAleppo. The town was occupied by British troops on 27th Oct., 1918. Its population, 200,000 at the beginning of last century, is now estimated at over 250,000. The language generally spoken is Arabic. The vilayet of Aleppo has a pop. of 1,500,000.
Alesh′ki,a town of Southern Russia, government Taurida. Pop. 8915.
Ale′sia,a town and fortress of ancient Gaul, at which in 52B.C.Julius Cæsar inflicted a crushing defeat on the Gauls under Vercingetorix. It is now represented by the village of Alise, department Côte d'Or, near which Napoleon III erected a colossal statue of Vercingetorix in 1865.
Alessan′dria,a town and fortress in North Italy, capital of the province of the same name, in a marshy country, near the junction of the Bormida and the Tanaro. It was built in 1168 by the Cremonese and Milanese, and was named in honour of Pope Alexander III, who made it a bishop's see. It has a cathedral, important manufactures of linen, woollen, and silk goods, and an active trade. It ranks as one of the first fortresses of Europe, the fortifications including a surrounding wall and bastions, and a strong citadel on the opposite side of the Tanaro, connected by a bridge with the town. Pop. (with suburbs) 78,159.
Ales′si,Galeazzo, a distinguished Italian architect, born at Perugia, 1512, died there in 1572. Many palaces, villas, and churches were erected after his designs, and at the request of Philip II of Spain he drew a plan for the Escurial.
Aletsch′-glacier,the greatest glacier in Switzerland, canton Valais, a prolongation of the immense mass of glaciers connected with the Jungfrau, the Aletschhorn (14,000 feet), and other peaks; about 15 miles long.
Aleurites,a tree belonging to the nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ, is found in tropical and subtropical parts of the world.Aleurites triloba, the 'candleberry tree', is cultivated in the Moluccan Islands for its fruit. The oil extracted from its seeds is valuable both for food and light.
Aleurom′eter,an instrument for indicating the bread-making qualities of wheaten flour. The indications depend upon the expansion of the gluten contained in a given quantity of flour when freed of its starch by pulverization and repeated washings with water.
Aleu′tian Islands,a chain of about eighty small islands belonging to the United States, separating the Sea of Kamchatka from the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, and extending nearly 1000 miles from east to west between lon. 172°E.and 163°W.; total area, 6391 sq. miles; pop. 1220. They are of volcanic formation, and in a number of them there are volcanoes still in activity. Their general appearance is dismal and barren, yet grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle throughout the year are met with, and potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are successfully cultivated. They afford also an abundance of valuable fur and of fish. The natives belong to the same stock with those of Kamchatka.
Ale′wife(corruption of the Indian name), theAlōsa tyrannus, a fish of the same genus as the shad, growing to the length of 12 inches, and caught in great quantities in the mouths of the rivers of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, being salted and exported.
Coin of Alexander the GreatCoin of Alexander the Great
Alexander,surnamedthe Great,was the son of Philip of Macedon and his queen Olympias, and was born at Pella, 356B.C.In youth he had Aristotle as instructor, and he early displayed uncommon abilities. The victory of Chæronea in 338, which brought Greece entirely under Macedonia, was mainly decided by his efforts. Philip having been assassinated, 336B.C., Alexander, not yet twenty years of age, ascended the throne. His father had been preparing an expedition against the Persians, and Alexander determined to carry it out; but before doing so he had to chastise the barbarian tribes on the frontiers of Macedon as well as quell a rising in Greece, in which he took and destroyed Thebes, put 6000 of the inhabitants to the sword, and carried 30,000 into captivity. Leaving Antipater to govern in his stead in Europe, and being confirmed as commander-in-chief of the Greek forces in the general assembly of the Greeks, he crossed over the Hellespont into Asia, in the spring of 334, with 30,000 foot and 5000 horse. His first encounter with the Persian forces (assisted by Greek mercenaries) was at the small river Granīcus, where he gained a complete victory. Most of the cities of Asia Minor now opened their gates to the victor, and Alexander restored democracy in all the Greek cities. In passing through Gordium he cut the Gordian knot, on which it was believed the fateof Asia depended, and then conquered Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. A sickness, caused by bathing in the Cydnus (333B.C.), checked his progress; but scarcely was he restored to health when he continued his advance, and this same year defeated the Persian emperor Darius and his army of 500,000 or 600,000 men (including 50,000 Greek mercenaries) near Issus (inner angle of the Gulf of Alexandretta). Darius fled towards the interior of his dominions, leaving his family and treasures to fall into the hands of the conqueror. Alexander did not pursue Darius, but proceeded southwards, and secured all the towns along the Mediterranean Sea, though he only got possession of Tyre (taken 332B.C.) after besieging it for seven months. Palestine and Egypt now fell before him, and in the latter he founded Alexandria, which became one of the first cities of ancient times. Hence he went through the desert of Libya, to consult the oracle of Zeus Ammon, and it was said that the god recognized him as his son. On his return Alexander marched against Darius, who had collected an immense army in Assyria, and rejected the proposals of his rival for peace. A battle was fought at Gaugamela, about 50 miles from Arbela, 331B.C., and notwithstanding the immense numerical superiority of his enemy, Alexander (who had but 40,000 men and 7000 horse) gained a complete victory. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to the conqueror, who marched towards Persepolis, the capital of Persia, and entered it in triumph. He now seems for a time to have lost his self-command. He gave himself up to arrogance and dissipation, and is said in a fit of intoxication to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, one of the wonders of the world. Rousing himself up, however, he set out in pursuit of Darius, who, having lost his throne, was kept prisoner by Bessus, satrap of Bactriana. Bessus, on seeing himself closely pursued, caused Darius to be assassinated (330B.C.). Continuing his progress he subdued Bessus, and advanced to the Jaxartes, the extreme eastern limit of the empire, but did not fully subdue the whole of this region till 328, some fortresses holding out with great tenacity. In one of these he took prisoner the beautiful Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a nobleman of Sogdiana, and having fallen in love with her he married her. Meantime disaffection had once or twice manifested itself among his Macedonian followers and had been cruelly punished; and he had also, to his lasting remorse, killed his faithful friend Cleitus in a fit of drunken rage. Alexander now formed the idea of conquering India, then scarcely known even by name. He passed the Indus (326B.C.), marched towards the Hydaspes (Jhelum), at the passage of which he conquered a king named Porus in a fierce battle, and advanced victoriously through the north-west of India, and intended to proceed as far as the Ganges, when the murmurs of his army compelled him to return. On the Hydaspes he built a fleet, in which he sent a part of his army down the river, while the rest proceeded along the banks. By the Hydaspes he reached the Acesines (Chenab), and thus the Indus, down which he sailed to the sea. Nearchus, his admiral, sailed hence to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander directed his march by land to Babylon, losing a great part of his troops in the desert through which he had to pass. In Susa he married Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius, and rewarded those of his Macedonians who had married Persian women, because it was his intention to unite the two nations as closely as possible. At Opis, on the Tigris, a mutiny arose among his Macedonians (in 324), who thought he showed too much favour to the Asiatics; by firmness and policy he succeeded in quelling this rising, and sent home 10,000 veterans with rich rewards. Soon after, his favourite, Hephæstion, died at Ecbatana, and Alexander's grief was unbounded. The favourite was royally buried at Babylon, and here Alexander was engaged in extensive plans for the future, when he became suddenly sick, after a banquet, and died in a few days (323B.C.), in his thirty-third year, after a reign of twelve years and eight months. His body was after a time conveyed to Egypt with great splendour by his general Ptolemy. He left behind him an immense empire, which was divided among his chief generals, and became the scene of continual wars. The reign of Alexander constitutes an important period in the history of humanity. His career was not merely a series of empty conquests, but was attended with the most important results. The language, and much of the civilization of Greece, followed in his track; large additions were made to the sciences of geography, natural history, &c.; a road was opened to India; and the products of the farthest east were introduced into Europe. Greek kingdoms, under his generals and their successors, continued to exist in Asia for centuries.—Bibliography: B. I. Wheeler,Alexander the Great(Heroes of the Nations Series: Putnam); Grote,History of Greece; Holm,History of Greece; Dodge,Alexander(Great Captains Series).
Alexander,the name of eight popes, theearliest of whom,Alexander I,is said to have reigned from 108 to 119.Alexander III,elected 1159, died 1181, exercised his authority with great vigour against Henry II when the latter was accused of the assassination of Thomas Becket. The most famous (or infamous) isAlexander VI(Borgia), who was born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1431, and died in 1503. When he was only twenty-five years of age his uncle, Pope Calixtus III, made him a cardinal, and shortly afterwards appointed him to the dignified and lucrative office of vice-chancellor. By bribery he prepared his way to the papal throne, which he attained in 1492, after the death of Innocent VIII. Both the authority and revenues of the popes being at this time much impaired, he set himself to reduce the power of the Italian princes, and seize upon their possessions for the benefit of his own family. To effect this end he is said not to have scrupled to use the vilest means, including poison and assassination. His policy, foreign as well as domestic, was faithless and base, and his private life was stained by immorality. He understood how to extract immense sums of money from all Christian countries under various pretexts. He sold indulgences, and set aside, in favour of himself, the wills of several cardinals. His excesses roused against him the powerful eloquence of Savonarola, who, by pen and pulpit, urged his deposition, but had to meet his death at the stake in 1498. Not long after his election Alexander had the honour of deciding the dispute between the kings of Portugal and Castile concerning their respective claims to the foreign countries recently discovered. It must, however, be admitted that Pope Alexander, whilst striking the wealthy and powerful, interested himself in the welfare of the people, and that he was a patron of arts and letters. His son, Cesare Borgia, and his daughter, Lucrezia, are equally notorious with himself.
Alexander,the name of three Scottish kings.Alexander I,a son of Malcolm III, Canmore, and Margaret of England, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107, and governed with great ability till his death in 1124. He was a great benefactor of the Church, and a firm vindicator of the national independence.—Alexander IIwas born in 1198, and succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He was a wise and energetic prince, and Scotland prospered greatly under him, though disturbed by the Norsemen, by the restlessness of some of the Celtic chiefs, and by the attempts of Henry III of England to make Alexander do homage to him. He helped Robert FitzWilliam to capture London and compel King John to sign Magna Charta. Alexander married Henry's sister, Joan, in 1221, who lived till 1238. In 1244 war with England almost broke out, but was fortunately averted. Alexander died in 1248 at Kerrera, an island opposite Oban, when on an expedition in which he hoped to wrest the Hebrides from Norway. He was succeeded by his son,Alexander III,a boy of eight, who in 1251 married Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry III of England. Like his father, he was eager to bring the Hebrides under his sway, and this he was enabled to accomplish in a few years after the defeat of the Norse King Haco at Largs, in 1263. The mainland and islands of Scotland were now under one sovereign, though Orkney and Shetland still belonged to Norway. Alexander was strenuous in asserting the independence both of the Scottish kingdom and the Scottish Church against England. He died in 1285 by the falling of his horse while he was riding in the dark between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He left as his heiress Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric of Norway, and of Alexander's daughter, Margaret. Under him Scotland enjoyed greater prosperity than for generations afterwards.
Alexander I,Emperor of Russia, son of Paul I and Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene of Würtemberg, was born in 1777, and died in 1825. On the assassination of his father, in 1801, Alexander ascended the throne, and one of his first acts was to conclude peace with Britain, against which his predecessor had declared war. In 1803 he offered his services as mediator between England and France, and two years later a convention was entered into between Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden for the purpose of resisting the encroachments of France on the territories of independent States. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz (1805), when the combined armies of Russia and Austria were defeated by Napoleon. In the succeeding campaign the Russians were again beaten at Eylau (8th Feb., 1807) and Friedland (14th June), the result of which was an interview between Alexander and Napoleon, and the treaty at Tilsit. The Russian emperor now for a time identified himself with the Napoleonic schemes, and soon obtained possession of Finland and an extended territory on the Danube. The French alliance, however, he found to be too oppressive, and his having separated himself from Napoleon led to the disastrous French invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published a manifesto which served as the basis of the coalition of the other European powers against France, which was followed by the capture of Paris (in 1814), the abdication of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons, and the utter overthrow of Napoleon the following year. After Waterloo, Alexander, accompanied by the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, made his second entrance into Paris, where they concluded the treaty known as theHoly Alliance. The remaining part of his reign was chiefly taken up with measures of internal reform, including the gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promotion of education, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, as well as literature and the fine arts.
Alexander II,Emperor of Russia, was born 29th April, 1818, and succeeded his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean war. After peace was concluded, the new emperor set about effecting reforms in the empire, the greatest of all being the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, a measure which gave freedom, on certain conditions, to 50,000,000 of human beings who were previously in a state little removed from that of slavery. Under him, too, representative assemblies in the provinces were introduced, and he also did much to improve education, and to reorganize the judicial system. During his reign the Russian dominions in Central Asia were extended, a piece of territory south of the Caucasus, formerly belonging to Turkey, was acquired, and a part of Bessarabia restored to Russia. The latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8. He was killed by an explosive missile flung at him by a Nihilist in a street in St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), 13th March, 1881. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III. His only daughter was married to the Duke of Edinburgh.
Alexander III,Emperor of Russia, son of Alexander II, born in 1845, became heir to the throne on the death of his eldest brother, Nicholas (1865). In 1863 he married Princess Dagmar of Denmark; he succeeded to the throne in 1881, on the assassination of his father, being crowned in Moscow in 1883. He gave up the reforms begun by his father, and ruled in the old autocratic fashion, restricting the liberties of Finland and the Baltic Provinces, and encouraging persecution of the Jews. He spent much time in the closely-guarded castle of Gatchina, to be safe from Nihilistic attempts, several of which he narrowly escaped. He endeavoured to put down corruption and underhand dealing among the bureaucracy, and in his own habits gave an example of simplicity and economy. While showing himself suspicious of Germany and Austria-Hungary, he entered on friendly relations with France. He began to suffer from disease of the kidneys in 1893, and died at Livadia on 1st Nov., 1894. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II.
Alexander I,King of Serbia, born in 1876. He was the son of King Milan, and on the abdication of his father in 1889 was proclaimed king under a regency. He married Madame Draga Mashin, a widow, who was much older than himself. Both were assassinated on 11th June, 1903.
Alexander of Hales.SeeHales, Alexander de.
Alexander,Boyd, British explorer and naturalist, born in 1873. He led many expeditions for research and exploration to the Cape Verde Islands, the Zambesi River, and various parts of the world. He also discovered many new birds when he ascended the Mount St. Isabel. In 1908 he received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. He was murdered by natives in May, 1910, while exploring the French Congo. He wroteFrom the Niger to the Nile(1907), &c.Boyd Alexander's Last Journeywas published in 1912.
Alexander Nevskoi,a Russian hero and saint, son of the Grand-Duke Jaroslav, born in 1219, died in 1263. He fought valiantly against assaults of the Mongols, the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the Teutonic Order. He gained the name ofNevskoiin 1240, for a splendid victory, on the Neva, over the Swedes. The gratitude of his countrymen commemorated the hero in popular songs, and raised him to the dignity of a saint. Peter the Great built a splendid monastery at St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in his honour, and in memory of him established the Order of Alexander Nevskoi.
Alexander Seve′rus,a Roman emperor, born in 208, diedA.D.235. He was raised to the imperial dignity inA.D.222 by the prætorian guards, after they had put his cousin the Emperor Heliogabalus to death. He governed ably both in peace and war; and also occupied himself in poetry, philosophy, and literature. He was very tolerant in religious matters, and although not professing Christianity intended to erect a temple to Christ, but was prevented by the pagan priests from carrying out this plan. In 232 he defeated the Persians under Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the Romans from Asia. When on an expedition into Gaul, to repress an incursion of the Germans, he was murdered with his mother in an insurrection of his troops, headed by the brutal Maximin, who succeeded him as emperor.
Alexanders(Smyrnium Olusātrum), an umbelliferous biennial plant, a native of the Mediterranean region, but found in Great Britain and Ireland. It was formerly cultivated for its leaf-stalks, which, having a pleasant aromatic flavour, were blanched and used instead of celery—a vegetable that has taken its place.
Alexandra,the queen mother, widow of Edward VII, daughter of Christian IX, King of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on 1st Dec., 1844, and was married on 10th March, 1863, being Princess of Wales up to the death of Queen Victoria and the accession of King Edward in Jan., 1901. She was highly popular from the first in the country of her husband, as she constantly showed an interest in allbenevolent causes. She has been the mother of six children, one of whom died in infancy, while the eldest, Edward, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, died in 1892 at the age of twenty-eight. Cf. S. A. Tooley,Queen Alexandra.
Alexandret′ta,orIskanderoon(ancientAlexandria ad Issum), a small seaport in Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Iskanderoon, the port of Aleppo and Northern Syria. Named after Alexander the Great, and founded in memory of the battle of Issus. In 1832 Mehemet Ali won a victory over the Turks near Alexandretta. There is a large export and import trade. It was occupied by British and French troops in Nov., 1918. Pop. 10,000.
Alexan′dria,an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, at the north-west angle of the Nile delta, on a ridge of land between the sea and Lake Mareotis. Ancient Alexandria was founded by, and named in honour of, Alexander the Great, in 332B.C., and was long a great and splendid city, the centre of commerce between the east and west, as well as of Greek learning and civilization, with a population at one time of perhaps 1,000,000. It was especially celebrated for its great library, and also for its famous lighthouse, one of the wonders of the world, standing upon the little island of Pharos, which was connected with the city by a mole. Under Roman rule it was the second city of the empire, and when Constantinople became the capital of the East it still remained the chief centre of trade; but it received a blow from which it never recovered when captured by Amru, general of Caliph Omar, in 641, after a siege of fourteen months. Its ruin was finally completed by the building of Cairo (969) and the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope (1498) which opened up a new route for the Asiatic trade. SeeAlexandrian Library,Alexandrian School.—Modern Alexandria stands partly on what was formerly the island of Pharos, partly on the peninsula which now connects it with the mainland and which was formed by the accumulation of soil, and partly on the mainland. The streets in the Turkish quarter are narrow, dirty, and irregular; in the foreign quarter they are regular and wide, and it is here that the finest houses are situated. Here also are the principal shops and hotels, banks, offices of companies, &c.; this part of the city being supplied with gas, and with water brought by the Mahmudieh Canal from the western branch of the Nile. Alexandria is connected by railway with Cairo, Rosetta, and Suez. A little to the south of the city are the catacombs, which now serve as a quarry. Another relic of antiquity is Pompey's Pillar, 98 feet 9 inches high. Alexandria has two ports, on the east and west respectively of the isthmus of the Pharos peninsula, the latter having a breakwater over 3000 yards in length, with fine quays and suitable railway and other accommodation. The trade of Alexandria is large and varied, the exports being cotton, beans, pease, rice, wheat, &c.; the imports chiefly manufactured goods, machinery, timber, and coal. The origin of its more recent career of prosperity it owes to Mohammed Ali. In 1882 the insurrection of Arabi Pasha and the massacre of Europeans led to the intervention of the British, and the bombardment of the forts by the British fleet in July. The administrative district has an area of 19 sq. miles; pop. 444,617 (or 23,401 per square mile).
Alexandria,a town and port of the United States, in Virginia, on the right bank of the Potomac (which is of sufficient depth for large vessels), 7 miles south of Washington, carries on a considerable trade, chiefly in flour. Pop. (1920), 18,060.
Alexandria,a town of Scotland, in Dumbartonshire, on the Leven, 4 miles north of Dumbarton, with extensive cotton-printing and bleaching works. Pop. 9850.
Alexandria,a town of the Ukraine, in the former Russian government of Kherson, on a tributary of the Dnieper. Pop. 10,521.
Alexandrian Library,the largest and most famous of all the ancient collections of books, founded by Ptolemy Soter (died 283B.C.), King of Egypt, and greatly enlarged by succeeding Ptolemies. The first librarian was Zenodotus (234B.C.). At its most flourishing period it is said to have numbered 700,000 volumes, accommodated in two different buildings, one of them being the Serapeion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis. The other collection was burned during Julius Cæsar's siege of the city, but the Serapeion library existed to the time of the Emperor Theodosius the Great, when, at the general destruction of the heathen temples, the splendid temple of Jupiter Serapis was gutted (A.D.391) by a fanatical crowd of Christians, and its literary treasures destroyed or scattered. A library was again accumulated, but was burned by the Arabs when they captured the city under the caliph Omar in 641. Amru, the captain of the caliph's army, would have been willing to spare the library, but Omar is said to have disposed of the matter in the famous words: "If these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed". This story, however, which rests solely on the authority of Abulfaragius, a writer who lived six centuries later, is now generally discredited.
Alexandrian SchoolorAge,the school or period of Greek literature and learning that existed at Alexandria in Egypt during the threehundred years that the rule of the Ptolemies lasted (323-30B.C.), and continued under the Roman supremacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous library of Alexandria (see above) and his son, Philadelphus, established a kind of academy of sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of genius were thus attracted to Alexandria, and a period of literary activity set in, which made Alexandria for long the focus and centre of Greek culture and intellectual effort. It must be admitted, however, that originality was not a characteristic of the Alexandrian age, which was stronger in criticism, grammar, and science than in pure literature. Among the grammarians and critics were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Zoilus, proverbial as a captious critic. Their merit is to have collected, edited, and preserved the existing monuments of Greek literature. To the poets belong Apollonius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetas, &c. Among those who pursued mathematics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid, the father of scientific geometry; Archimedes, great in physics and mechanics; Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections still exists; Nicomachus, the first scientific arithmetician; and (under the Romans) the astronomer and geographer Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distinguished in philosophical speculation, and it was here that the New Platonic school was established by Ammonius of Alexandria (aboutA.D.193), whose disciples were Plotinus and Origen. Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the study of Greek learning, the writings of the New Platonists are strikingly characterized—for example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus, Iamblicus, Porphyrius—by a mixture of Asiatic and European elements. The connection of Neo-Platonism with Alexandria is, however, less than is commonly supposed.—Bibliography: Mahaffy,Greek Life and Thought from the Age of Alexander to the Roman Empire; Kingsley,Alexandria and her Schools; Vacherot,Histoire critique de l'école d'Alexandrie(3 vols.).
Alexandrian Version.SeeCodex Alexandrinus.
Alexandrine,in prosody, the name given, from an old French poem on Alexander the Great, to a species of verse, which consists of six iambic feet, or twelve syllables, the pause being, in correct Alexandrines, always on the sixth syllable; for example, the second of the following verses:—