AmanitaAmanita.—Two forms of fly-agaric
Amani′ta,a genus of fungi, one species of which,A. muscāria, or fly-agaric, is extremely poisonous.
Ama′nus,a branch of the Taurus Mountains in Asia Minor.
Amapala(a˙-ma˙-pä′la˙), a seaport of Central America, State of Honduras, on a small island.
Amarantha′ceæ,the amaranths, a nat. ord. of apetalous plants, chiefly found in tropical countries, where they are often troublesome weeds. They are remarkable for the white or sometimes reddish scales of which their flowers are composed. Amaranthus, the typical genus, comprisesA. caudātus, or love-lies-bleeding, a common plant in gardens, with pendulous racemes of crimson flowers; andA. hypochondriăcus, or prince's feather. The blossoms keep their bloom after being plucked and dried (hence the name: Gr.a, not, andmarainō, to wither).
Amarapura(a-ma-ra-pö′ra), a deserted city, once the capital of the Burmese Empire, on the left bank of the Irawadi, quite close to Mandalay. In 1810, when the city had about 175,000 inhabitants, it was completely destroyed by fire; in 1839 it was visited by a destructive earthquake. In 1857 the seat of government was removed to Mandalay. Pop. 6500.
Amaryllida′ceæ,an order of monocotyledonous plants, generally bulbous, occasionally with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem (as in Agave); with a highly-coloured flower, six stamens, and an inferior three-celled ovary; natives of Europe and most of the warmer parts of the world. The order includes the snowdrop, the snow-flake, the daffodil, the belladonna-lily (belonging to the typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called Guernsey-lily (probably a native of Japan), the Brunsvigias, the blood-flowers (Hæmanthus) of the Cape of Good Hope, different species of Narcissus, Agave (American aloe), &c. Many are highly prized in gardens and hot-houses; the bulbs of some are extremely poisonous.
Amasia(a˙-ma˙-sē′a˙), a town in the north of Asia Minor, on the Irmak, 60 miles from the Black Sea, surmounted by a rocky height in which is a ruined fortress; has numerous mosques, richly-endowed Mahommedan schools, and a trade in wine, silk, &c. Amasia was a residence of the ancient kings of Pontus. A few miles from Amasia, on the road leading to Zilleh, is the famous battle-field where Cæsar defeated Pharnaces, King of Pontus, and whence he sent his famous message to Rome:Veni, vidi, vici. Pop. 30,000.
Ama′sis,King of Egypt from 569 to 526B.C., obtained the throne by rebelling against his predecessor and benefactor Apries, and is chiefly known from his friendship for the Greeks, and his wise government of the kingdom, which, under him, was in the most prosperous condition. He was succeeded by his son Psammetik.
Amati(a˙-mä′tē), a family, almost a dynasty, of Cremona who manufactured violins in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Andrea (about 1540-1600) was the founder of the business, which was carried on by his sons Geronimo and Antonio, and by Niccolo the son of Geronimo. The first instrument signed Amati bears the date 1546. Most of the violins made by them are of comparatively small size and flat model, and the tone produced by the fourth or G string is somewhat thin and sharp. Many of Niccolo Amati's violins are, however, of a larger size and have all the fulness and intensity of tone characteristic of those manufactured by Stradivario and Guarnerio.
Amatit′lan,a town in Central America, State of Guatemala, about 15 miles south of the city of Guatemala, a busy modern town, the inhabitants of which are actively engaged in the cochineal trade. There is a small lake of the same name close to the town. Pop. 12,000.
Amauro′sis(Gr.amauros, dark), a species of blindness, formerly calledgutta serena(the 'drop serene', as Milton, whose blindness was of this sort, called it), caused by disease of the nerves of vision. The most frequent causes are a long-continued direction of the eye on minute objects, long exposure to a bright light, to the fire of a forge, to snow, or irritating gases, overfulness of blood, disease of the brain, &c. If taken in time it may be cured or mitigated; but, unless caused by loss of blood, by lead-poisoning, or debility, it is usually incurable.
Amaxichi(a˙-ma˙ks′ē-hē), the chief town and seaport of Santa Maura (Leukadia), one of the Ionian Isles, the seat of a Greek bishop; manufactures cotton and leather. Pop. 5500.
Am′azon,orAm′azons,a river of SouthAmerica, the largest in the world, formed by a great number of sources which rise in the Andes, the two head branches being the Tunguragua or Marañon and the Ucayali, both rising in Peru, the former from Lake Lauricocha, in lat. 10° 29′S., the latter formed by the Apurimac and Urubamba, the headwaters of which are between lat. 14° and 16°S.; general course north of east; length, including windings, between 3000 and 4000 miles; area of drainage basin, 2,500,000 sq. miles. It enters the Atlantic under the equator by a mouth 200 miles wide, divided into two principal and several smaller arms by the large island Marajo and a number of smaller islands. In its upper course navigation is interrupted by rapids, but from its mouth upwards for a distance of 3300 miles (mostly in Brazil) there is no obstruction. It receives the waters of about 200 tributaries, 100 of which are navigable and seventeen of these 1000 to 2300 miles in length; northern tributaries: Santiago, Morona, Pastaça, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, Japura, Rio Negro (the Cassiquiare connects this stream with the Orinoco), &c.; southern: Huallaga, Ucayali, Javari, Jutay, Jurua, Coary, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, &c. At Tabatinga, where it enters Brazilian territory, the breadth is 1½ miles; below the mouth of the Madeira it is 3 miles wide, and where there are islands often as much as 7; from the sea to the Rio Negro, 750 miles in a straight line, the depth is nowhere less than 30 fathoms; up to the junction of the Ucayale there is depth sufficient for the largest vessels. The Amazonian water system affords some 50,000 miles of river suitable for navigation. The rapidity of the river is considerable, especially during the rainy season (Jan. to June), when it is subject to floods; but there is no great fall in its course. The tides reach up as far as 400 miles from its mouth. The singular phenomenon of thebore, or as it is called on the Amazon thepororoca, occurs at the mouth of the river at spring-tides on a grand scale. The river swarms with alligators, turtles, and a great variety of fish. The country through which it flows is extremely fertile, and is mostly covered with immense forests; it must at some future time support a numerous population, and be the theatre of a busy commerce. Steamers and other craft ply on the river, the chief centre of trade being Para, at its mouth. The Amazon was discovered by Vicente Yañez Pinzon in 1500, but the stream was not navigated by any European till 1541, when Francis Orellana descended it. Orellana stated that he found on its banks a nation of armed women, and this circumstance gave the name to the river.
Amaz′onas,the largest state of Brazil, traversed by the Amazon and its tributaries; area, 731,000 sq. miles. Pop. 459,309.
Am′azons,according to an ancient Greek tradition, the name of a community of women, who permitted no men to reside among them, fought under the conduct of a queen, and long constituted a formidable State. They were said to burn off the right breast that it might not impede them in the use of the bow—a legend that arose from the Greeks supposing the name was froma, not,mazos, breast. It is probably froma, together, andmazos, breast, the name meaning therefore sisters. Several nations of Amazons are mentioned, the most famous being those who dwelt in Pontus, who built Ephesus and other cities. Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by Hercules, who took from her the girdle of Mars. They attacked Attica in the time of Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy under their queen, Penthesilēa, who was slain by Achilles.
Amazu′lu,a branch of the Zulu Kaffir race. SeeZulus.
Amba′la,orUmball′a,a town of India, in the Punjab, in an open plain 3 miles from the Ghaggar, consisting of an old and a new portion, with a flourishing trade in grain and other commodities. The military cantonment is several miles distant. Total pop. 80,131.
Ambale′ma,a town of S. America, Colombia, on the Magdalena; the centre of an important tobacco district. Pop. 6285.
Am′baree,a fibre similar to jute largely used in India, obtained fromHibiscus cannabīnus.
Ambarvalia,an ancient Roman festival held annually in May, and celebrated by the Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvales). Its object was to preserve the growing crops from harm of any kind.
Ambas′sador,a minister of the highest rank, employed by one prince or State at the Court of another to manage the public concerns, or support the interests of his own prince or State, and representing the power and dignity of his sovereign or State. Ambassadors areordinarywhen they reside permanently at a foreign Court, orextraordinarywhen they are sent on a special occasion. Whenambassadors extraordinaryhave full powers, as of concluding peace, making treaties, and the like, they are calledplenipotentiaries. Ambassadors are often called simplyministers.Envoysare ministers employed on special occasions, and are of less dignity than ambassadors. The termambassador, however, is also used in a more general sense for any diplomatic agent or minister. An ambassador and his suite are not amenable to the laws of the country in which they are residing. SeeDiplomacy.
Am′batch(Herminiēra elaphroxўlon), a thorny leguminous shrub with yellow flowers growing in the shallows of the Upper Nile and other rivers of tropical Africa, 15 to 20 feet high. Its wood is extremely light and spongy, and hence is madeinto floats or rafts. A raft capable of bearing eight persons can easily be carried by one.
Amba′to,a town of Ecuador, on the side of Chimborazo, 70 miles south of Quito. Pop. 12,000.
Am′ber,a semi-mineral substance of resinous composition, a sort of fossil resin, the produce of extinct Coniferæ, used for the manufacture of ornamental objects. It is usually of yellow or reddish-brown colour; brittle; yields easily to the knife; is translucent, and possessed of a resinous lustre. Specific gravity, 1.065. It burns with a yellow flame, emitting a pungent aromatic smoke, and leaving a light carbonaceous residue, which is employed as the basis of the finest black varnishes. By friction it becomes strongly electric. It is found in masses from the size of coarse sand to that of a man's head, and occurs in beds of bituminous wood situated upon the shores of the Baltic and Adriatic Seas; also in Poland, France, Italy, and Denmark. It is often washed up on the Prussian shores of the Baltic, and is also obtained by fishing for it with nets. Sometimes it is found on the east coast of Britain, in gravel pits round London, also in the United States.
Am′berg,a town of South Germany, in Bavaria, on the Vils, well built, with a Gothic church of the fifteenth century, royal palace, town house, &c.; it manufactures iron-wares, stone-ware, tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms. Pop. 25,242.
Am′bergris,a substance derived from the intestines of the sperm-whale, and found floating or on the shore; yellowish or blackish white; very light; melts at 140°, and is entirely dissipated on red-hot coals; is soluble in ether, volatile oils, and partially in alcohol, and is chiefly composed of a peculiar fatty, substance. Its odour is very agreeable, and hence it is used as a perfume.
Amble,a town (urban district) of England, Northumberland, near the mouth of the River Coquet, with a harbour at which coal is exported, fishing also being carried on. Pop. 4851.
Ambleside,an old market-town of England, Westmorland, near the head of Windermere, a great tourist centre. Pop. (1921), 2878.
Ambleteuse(a˙n˙-bl-teuz), a small seaport of France, 6 miles from Boulogne. After the capture of Boulogne in 1544 the English began to construct a military harbour here under the name of New Haven, but had to abandon the enterprise in 1554. Here James II landed on Christmas Day, 1688, after his flight from England; and from its harbour Napoleon I prepared to dispatch a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats for the invasion of Britain.
Amblyop′sis,a genus of blind fishes, containing only one species,A. spelæus, found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
Am′blyopy,dullness or obscurity of eyesight without any apparent defect in the organs; the first stage of amaurosis.
Am′bo,orAm′bon,in early Christian churches a kind of raised desk or pulpit, sometimes richly ornamented, from which certain parts of the service were read, or discourses delivered, there being sometimes two in one church. Some of the most ancient of these pulpits (fourth century) are at Salonica and at Ravenna (fifth and sixth centuries). The ambo constructed by Justinian in the Church of St. Sophia was destroyed by an earthquake.
Amboina.SeeAmboyna.
Amboise(a˙n˙-bwäz), a town of France, department Indre-et-Loire, 12 miles east of Tours, on the Loire, with an antique castle, the residence of several French kings, and manufactures of files and rasps. Near the Château d'Amboise is that of Cloux, which was given by Francis I to Leonardo da Vinci, and where the artist died in 1519. Pop. 4660.
Amboy′na,Amboina,orApon,one of the Molucca Islands in the Indian Archipelago, close to the large island of Ceram; area, about 360 sq. miles. Here is the seat of government of the Dutch residency or province of Amboyna, which includes also Ceram, Buru, &c. Its surface is generally hilly or mountainous, its general aspect beautiful, and its climate on the whole salubrious, but frequently visited by earthquakes. It affords a variety of useful trees, including the coco-nut and sago palms. Cloves and nutmegs are the staple productions. The soil in the valleys and along the shores is very fertile, but a large portion remains uncultivated. The natives are mostly of Malayan race. The capital, also calledAmboyna, is situated on the Bay of Amboyna, and is well built and defended by a citadel. The streets are planted on each side with rows of fruit-trees. It is a free port. Pop. 10,000. In 1607 Amboyna and the other Moluccas were taken by the Dutch from the Portuguese, and it was for some years the seat of government of the Dutch East Indies. Trade with the Moluccas was secured to the British by treaty in 1619, but the British establishment was destroyed and several persons massacred in 1623, an outrage for which no satisfaction was obtained till Cromwell obtained it in 1654. Amboyna was taken by the British in 1796 and 1810, but each time restored to the Dutch. Pop. about 40,000. The Dutch residency of Amboyna, including the Banda group, Ceram, Buru, and other islands, has an area of 19,870 sq. miles and a population of about 300,000.
Amboyna Wood,a beautiful curled orange or brownish coloured wood brought from the Moluccas, yielded byPterospermum indicum.
Ambra′cia.SeeArta.
Ambrine,a preparation of paraffin, resin, and wax, used as a remedy in the treatment of burns and scalds and in rheumatic disorders. It was discovered by Barthe de Sandford, a French doctor, in 1904.
Am′brose,Saint, a celebrated father of the Church; born inA.D.333 or 334, probably at Trèves, where his father was prefect; died in 397. He was educated at Rome, studied law, practised as a pleader at Milan, and in 369 was appointed governor of Liguria and Æmilia (North Italy). His kindness and wisdom gained him the esteem and love of the people, and in 374 he was unanimously called to the bishopric of Milan, though not yet baptized. For a time he refused to accept this dignity, but he had to give way, and at once ranged himself against the Arians. In his struggles against the Arian heresy he was opposed by Justina, mother of Valentinian II, and for a time by the young emperor himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic troops. Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to deny the Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina, in her son's name, demanded that two should be given up. He had also to carry on a war with paganism, Symmachus, the prefect of the city, an eloquent orator, having endeavoured to restore the worship of heathen deities. In 390, on account of the ruthless massacres at Thessalonica ordered by the emperor Theodosius, he refused him entrance into the church of Milan for eight months. The later years of his life were devoted to the more immediate care of his see. His writings, which are numerous, show that his theological knowledge extended little beyond an acquaintance with the works of the Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, but theTe Deum Laudamus, which has been ascribed to him, was written a century later. He introduced theAmbrosian Chant, a mode of singing more monotonous than the Gregorian, which superseded it. He also compiled a form of ritual known by his name. The best edition of his works is that published in Paris, 1686-90, in 2 vols. fol., and reissued at Lyons in 1853.
Ambro′sia,in Greek mythology the food of the gods, as nectar was their drink.
Ambrosian Chant.SeeAmbrose.
Ambrosian Library,a public library in Milan founded by the cardinal archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles Borromeo, who sent scholars, among them Antonio Olgiati, all over Europe to acquire books. The library was opened in 1609, now containing 230,000 printed books and many MSS., among the latter being the famous collection of Pinelli. It was named in honour of St. Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan.
Am′bry,a niche or recess in the wall of ancient churches near the altar, fitted with a door and used for keeping the sacred utensils, &c.
Ambula′cral System,the locomotive apparatus of the Echinodermata (sea-urchins, star-fishes, &c.), the most important feature of which is the protrusible tube-feet that the animal can at will dilate with water and thus move forward.
Am′bulance (Field),a military medical unit attached to an army in the field for the purpose of providing medical and surgical first-aid to sick and wounded immediately behind the fighting-line. The term field-ambulance was adopted in the British service in 1905-6. The chief and most important duty of a field-ambulance is to relieve fighting troops of their sick and wounded and transfer them to the rear to the collecting-hospitals, known as Casualty Clearing Stations, situated at the head of the line of communications to the army's base. Three field-ambulances are attached to each division in the field, one to each brigade, and their officers and men are divided into bearer and nursing sections and equipped with horse or mule and motor transport for wounded and sick. In the East sick and wounded are often carried in litters on camel-back, two of the cacolets being balanced against each other. A medical ambulance is theoretically able to undertake any hospital work, but in practice it confines itself when in action with its division to clearing the front line, and when at rest to treating the minor maladies such as lice, scabies, and slight illnesses which do not require much time or equipment. The medical and surgical outfit of an ambulance is carried in panniers and is usually in excess of its requirements. The word ambulance is often used to designate the motors or other vehicles employed by military or civil authorities in carrying the sick and wounded.—Bibliography: M. M. Bird,The Errand of Mercy: a History of Ambulance Work upon the Battle-field; G. H. Painton,The Field Ambulance Guide.
Amelan′chier(-kē-ėr), a genus of small trees natives of Europe and N. America, allied to the medlar.A. vulgāris, long cultivated in English gardens, has showy white flowers;A. Botryāpium(grape-pear) andA. ovālis, American species, yield pleasant fruits.
Ameland(ä′me-la˙nt), an island off the north coast of Holland, 13 miles long and 3 broad; flat; inhabitants (about 2000 in number) chiefly engaged in fishing and agriculture.
Amélie-les-Bains(a˙-mā-lē-lā-ban˙), a village of France, department Pyrénées-Orientales, frequented as a winter residence for invalids, and for its warm sulphureous springs. The place was known to the Romans, as it has been proved by the discovery of Roman medals there.
Amen(ā-men′), a Hebrew word, signifying 'verily', 'truly', transferred from the religiouslanguage of the Jews to that of the Christians, and used at the end of prayers as equivalent to 'so be it', 'may this be granted'.
Amend′ment,a proposal brought forward in a meeting of some public or other body, either in order to get an alteration introduced into some proposal already before the meeting, or entirely to overturn such proposal. In Parliament an amendment denotes an alteration made in the original draft of a Bill whilst it is passing through the houses. Amendments may be made so as totally to alter the nature of the proposition; and this is a way of getting rid of a proposition, by making it bear a sense different from what was intended by the movers, who are thus compelled to abandon it.
Ameno′phis(orAmenhotep)III,a king of ancient Egypt about 1500B.C.; warred successfully against Syrians and Ethiopians; built magnificent temples and palaces at Thebes, where the so-called Memnon statue is a statue of this king. He was the only Egyptian king deified during his lifetime.
Amenorrhœ′a,absence or suspension of menstruation. The former may arise from general debility or from defective development, the latter from exposure to cold, from attacks of fever or other ailment, violent excitement, &c.
Amenta′ceæ,an order of plants having their flowers arranged in amenta or catkins; now broken up into several orders, the chief of which are Betulaceæ (the birch), Salicaceæ (the willow), Fagaceæ (the beech), Juglandaceæ (the walnut), and Myricaceæ (bog-myrtle).
Amen′tia,imbecility from birth, especially when extreme; idiocy.
AmentumAmentumHazel (Corylus Avellana) showing Catkins and Nuts.
Amen′tum,in botany, that kind of inflorescence which is commonly known as a catkin (as in the birch or willow), consisting of unisexual apetalous flowers in the axil of scales or bracts.
Amer′ica,or theNew World,the largest of the great divisions of the globe except Asia, is washed on the west by the Pacific, on the east by the Atlantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, while on the south it tapers to a point. On the north-west it approaches within about 50 miles of Asia, while on the north-east the island of Greenland approaches within 370 miles of the European island Iceland; but in the south the distance between the American mainland and Europe or Africa is very great. Extreme points of the continent—north, Boothia Felix, at the Strait of Bellot, lat. 72°N.; south, Cape Horn, lat. 56°S.; west, Cape Prince of Wales, long. 168°W.; east, Point de Guia, long. 35°W.America as a whole forms the two triangular continents of North and South America, united by the narrow Isthmus of Panama, and having an entire length of about 10,000 miles; a maximum breadth (in North America) of 3500 miles; a coast-line of 44,000 miles; and a total area, including the islands, of over 16,000,000, of which N. America contains about 8,300,000 sq. miles. South America is more compact in form than N. America, in this respect resembling Africa, while N. America more resembles Europe. Between the two on the east side is the great basin which comprises the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the West India Islands. Like Europe also N. America possesses numerous islands, while those of S. America are less important and confined almost to the southern extremity.
Three-fourths of the area of America is comparatively flat, and this portion of the surface is bounded on the west by lofty mountain systems which stretch continuously from north to south between the extremities of the continent, generally at no great distance from the west shore. In North America the Rocky Mountains, a broad series of masses partly consisting of plateaux, form the most important portion of the elevated surface, being continued southward in the mountains and tableland of Mexico and the ranges of Central America. Separated by depressions from the Rocky Mountains proper, and running close to and parallel with the western coast, are several lofty ranges (Sierra Nevada, Cascade Mountains, &c.). Near the eastern coast, and forming an isolated mass, are the Appalachians, a system of much inferior magnitude. The loftiest mountains in N. America are M‘Kinley (20,470 feet), in Alaska;Logan (19,514 feet), in N. W. Canada; and Popocatepetl (18,000 feet). The depression of the Isthmus of Panama (about 260 feet) forms a natural separation between the systems of the north and the south. In S. America the Andes form a system of greater elevation but less breadth than the Rocky Mountains, and consist of a series of ranges (cordilleras) closely following the line of the west coast from the Isthmus of Panama to Cape Horn. The highest summits are Aconcagua (23,080 feet), Sorata or Illampu (21,484), and Sahama (21,054). Volcanoes are numerous. Isolated mountain groups of minor importance are the highlands of Venezuela and of Brazil, the latter near the eastern coast, reaching a height of 10,000 feet.
The fertile lowlands which lie to the east of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes form a depression extending through both continents from the northern to the southern oceans. They have somewhat different features and different names in different portions; in N. America areprairiesandsavannahs, in S. Americallanos,selvas, andpampas.
Through these low grounds flow the numerous great rivers which form so characteristic a feature of America. The principal are the Mackenzie, Coppermine, and Great Fish Rivers, entering the Northern Ocean; the Churchill, Nelson, Severn, and Albany, entering Hudson's Bay; the St. Lawrence, entering the Atlantic; Mississippi and Rio del Norte, entering the Gulf of Mexico (all these being in N. America); the Magdalena, Orinoco, Amazon, Paranahiba, Rio de la Plata, Colorado, and Rio Negro, entering the Atlantic (all in S. America); and the Yukon, Fraser, Colombia, San Joaquin, Sacramento, and Colorado, entering the Pacific. The rivers which flow into the Pacific, however, owing to the fact that the great backbone of the continent, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, lies so near the west coast, are of comparatively little importance, in S. America being all quite small. Sometimes rivers traversing the same plains, and nearly on the same levels, open communications with each other, a remarkable instance being the Cassiquiari in S. America, which, branching off from the Rio Negro and joining the Orinoco, forms a kind of natural canal, uniting the basins of the Orinoco and the Amazon. The Amazon or Marañon in S. America, the largest river in the world, has a course of about 3500 miles, and a basin of 2,300,000 sq. miles; the Mississippi-Missouri, the largest river of North America, runs a longer course than the Amazon, but the area of its basin is not nearly so great. North America has the most extensive group of lakes in the world—Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which through the St. Lawrence send their drainage to the Atlantic. Thus by means of lakes and rivers the interior of both N. and S. America is opened up and made accessible.
In regard to climate N. America naturally differs very much from S. America, and has more resemblance to the continents of Europe and Asia (regarded as a whole). In N. America, as in the older continent, the eastern parts are colder than the western, and hence the towns on the Atlantic coast have a winter temperature about 10° lower than those in corresponding latitudes of Europe. The winter temperature of the greater part of N. America is indeed severe, though the intense cold is less felt on account of the dryness of the air. There is no regular season of rainfall unless in the south. Although two-thirds of S. America lies within the tropics the heat is not so great as might be expected, owing to the prevailing winds, the influences of the Andes, and other causes. The highest temperature experienced is probably not more than 100° in the shade; at Rio de Janeiro the mean is about 74°, at Lima 72°. Over a great part of S. America there is a wet and a dry season, varying in different regions; on the upper Amazon the rains last for ten months, being caused by the prevailing easterly winds bringing moisture from the Atlantic, which is condensed on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In each of the Americas there is a region in which little or no rain falls; in N. America it extends over a part of the United States and Northern Mexico, in S. America over a part of the coast region of Peru and Chile.
America is rich in valuable minerals. It has supplied the world with immense quantities of gold and silver, which it still yields in no small amount, especially in the United States. It possesses inexhaustible stores of coal (United States), with iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury, &c. Petroleum may be called one of its specialities, its petroleum wells having caused whole towns to spring into existence. Diamonds and other precious stones are found.
As regards vegetation America may be called a region of forests and verdure, vast tracts being covered by the grassy prairies, llanos, and pampas where the forests fail. In N. America the forests have been largely made use of by man; in S. America vast areas are covered with forests, which as yet are traversed only by the uncivilized Indian. In the north is the region of pines and firs; farther south come the deciduous trees, as the oak, beech, maple, elm, chestnut, &c. Then follow the evergreen forests of the tropical regions. The useful timber trees are very numerous; among the most characteristic of America are mahogany and other ornamental woods, and various dyewoods. In the tropical parts are numerous palms, cacti in great variety, and various species of the agave or American aloe. In the virgin forests of S. America the trees areoften bound together into an impenetrable mass of vegetation by various kinds of climbing and twining plants. Among useful plants belonging to the American continent are maize, the potato, cacao, tobacco, cinchona, vanilla, Paraguay tea, &c. The most important plants introduced are wheat, rice, and other grains, sugar-cane, coffee, and cotton, with various fruits and vegetables. The vine is native to the continent, and both the American and introduced varieties are now largely cultivated.
The animals of America include, among carnivora, the jaguar or American tiger, found only in S. America; the puma or American lion, found mostly in S. America; the grizzly bear of N. America, fully as powerful an animal as either; the black bear, the skunk, the racoon, the American or prairie wolf, several species of foxes, &c. The rodents are represented by the beaver, the porcupine, and squirrels of several species; the marsupials by the opossum. Among ruminants are the bison, or, as it is commonly called, the buffalo, the moose or elk, the Virginian stag, the musk-ox; and in S. America the llama (which takes the place of the camel of the Old World), the alpaca, and the vicuña. Other animals most distinctive of S. America are sloths, fitted to live only in its dense and boundless forests; ant-eaters and armadillos; monkeys with prehensile tails, in this and other respects differing from those of the Old World; the condor among the heights of the Andes, the nandu, rhea or three-toed ostrich, beautiful parrots and humming-birds. Among American reptiles are the boa-constrictor, the rattlesnake, the alligator or cayman, the iguana and other large lizards, large frogs and toads. The domestic animals of America, horses, cattle, and sheep, are of foreign origin. The electrical eel exists in the tropical waters.
The population of America consists partly of an aboriginal race or races, partly of immigrants or their descendants. The aboriginal inhabitants are the American Indians or red men, being generally of a brownish-red colour, and now forming a very small portion of the total population, especially in N. America, where the white population has almost exterminated them. These people are divided into branches, some of which have displayed a considerable aptitude for civilization. When the Europeans became acquainted with the New World, Mexico, Central America, and part of S. America were inhabited by populations which had made great advances in many things that pertain to civilized life, dwelling in large and well-built cities under a settled form of government, and practising agriculture and the mechanical arts. Ever since the discovery of America at the close of the fifteenth century Europeans of all nations have crowded into it; and the comparatively feeble native races have rapidly diminished, or lost their distinctive features by intermixtures with whites, and also with negroes brought from Africa to work as slaves. These mixed races are distinguished by a variety of names, as Mestizos, Mulattoes, Zambos, &c. In North America the white population is mainly of British origin, though to a considerable extent it also consists of Germans, Scandinavians, &c., and the descendants of such. In Central and South America the prevailing white nationality is the Spanish and Portuguese. In the extreme north are the Eskimos—a scattered and stunted race closely allied to some of the peoples of Northern Asia. That the aboriginal inhabitants of America passed over from Asia is tolerably certain, but when and from what part we do not know. The total population of the New World is estimated at 180,000,000, of which perhaps 124,000,000 are whites, 28,000,000 mixed races, 15,000,000 negroes, and 13,000,000 Indians. As regards religion, the bulk of the population of N. America is Protestant; of Central and S. America the religion is almost exclusively Roman Catholic. Several millions of the Indians are heathens.—The independent States of America are all republican in form of government, Brazil having become a republic in 1889. SeeNorth America,Central America,South America,West Indies, &c.
The merit of first opening up the American continent to modern Europe belongs to the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus, who discovered, in Oct., 1492, one of the Bahamas, and named it San Salvador. Europeans, however, had on different former occasions discovered the American coasts, and the coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island were visited by Northmen and named Vinland in the year 1000. Still these discoveries had no influence on the enterprise of Columbus, and cannot detract in the least from his merit; they were forgotten, and had never been made known to the inhabitants of the rest of Europe. Though Columbus was the first of his time who set foot in the New World, it has taken its name not from him, but from Amerigo Vespucci. The mainland was first seen in 1497 by Sebastian Cabot, who sailed under the patronage of Henry VII of England. For further particulars of discovery seeNorth AmericaandSouth America.
The known history of America hardly goes beyond the period of its discovery by Columbus; but it possesses many monuments of antiquity that might take us many centuries backward, could we learn anything of their origin or of those by whom they were produced. Among such antiquities are great earthworks in the form of mounds, or of raised enclosures, crowning the tops of hills, river peninsulas, &c., and no doubt serving for defence. They enclose considerableareas, are surrounded by an exterior ditch, and by ramparts which are composed of mingled earth and stones, and are often of great extent in proportion to the area enclosed. They are always supplied either naturally or artificially with water, and give other indications of having been provided for a siege. Barrows and tumuli containing human bones, and bearing indications of having been used both as places of sepulture and as temples, are also numerous. They are in geometrical forms—circles, squares, parallelograms, &c. A mound on the plain of Cahokia in Illinois, opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet long, 500 feet broad, and 90 feet high. Earth mounds of another class represent gigantic animal forms in bas-relief on the ground. One is a man with two heads, the body 50 feet long and 25 feet broad across the breast; another represents a serpent 1000 feet in length, with graceful curves. The monuments of Mexico, Central America, and Peru are of a more advanced state of civilization, approach nearer to the historical period, and make the loss of authentic information more keenly felt. Here there are numerous ruined towns with most elaborate sculptures, lofty pyramidal structures serving as temples or forts, statues, picture writing, hieroglyphics, roads, aqueducts, bridges, &c. Some remarkable prehistoric remains discovered in recent years are what are known as the abodes of the 'cliff-dwellers'. These consist of habitations constructed on terraces and in caves high up and steep sides of cañons in Colorado and other parts of the western states of N. America. Some of these buildings are several stories high. See alsoMexico,Peru, &c.—Bibliography: L. Farrand,The American Nation; Prescott,The Conquest of MexicoandThe Conquest of Peru; Winsor,Narrative and Critical History of America; F. W. Halsey,Great Epochs in American History(11 vols.).
American Indians.SeeIndians.
Americanism,a term, phrase, or idiom peculiar to the English language as spoken in America, and not forming part of the language as spoken in England. The following is a list of a few of the more noteworthy Americanisms, some of them being rather slangy or vulgar.
Approbate, to approve.Aroundorround, about or near. Tohang aroundis to loiter about a place.Backwoods, the partially-cleared forest regions in the western States.Bee, an assemblage of persons to unite their labours for the benefit of an individual or family, or to carry out a joint scheme.Boss, an employer or superintendent of labourers, a leader.Bug, a coleopterous insect, or what in England is called abeetle.Buggy, a four-wheeled vehicle.Bulldose, to; to intimidate voters.Bunkumorbuncombe, a speech made solely to please a constituency; talk for talking's sake, and in an inflated style.Bureau, a chest of drawers, a dressing-table surmounted by a mirror.Calculate, to suppose, to believe, to think.Camp-meeting, a meeting held in the fields or woods for religious purposes, and where the assemblage encamps and remains several days.Cane-brake, a thicket of canes.Car, a carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman 'travels by rail' or 'takes the train'; the American takes or goes by thecars.Carpet-bagger, a needy political adventurer who carries all his worldly goods in a carpet-bag.Caucus, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party to agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election.Chalk: along chalkmeans a great distance, a good deal.Clever, good-natured, obliging.Cocktail, a stimulating drink made of brandy or gin mixed with bitters, sugar, and water.Corn, maize (in England it means wheat, or grain in general).Corn-husking, orcorn-shucking, an occasion on which a farmer invites his neighbours to assist him in stripping the husks from his Indian corn.Cow-hide, a whip made of twisted strips of raw hide.Creek, a small river or brook; not, as in England, a small arm of the sea.Cunning, small and pretty, nice, e.g. 'It was such acunningbaby'.Dander; to get one'sdander raised, to have one'sdander up, is to have been worked into a passion.Dead-heads, people who have free admission to entertainments, or who have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of charge.Depot, a railway station.Down east, in or into the New England States. Adown-easteris a New Englander.Drummer, a bagman or commercial traveller.Dry goods, a general term for such articles as are sold by linen-drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, &c.Dutch, the German language.—Dutchman, a German.Fix, to; to put in order, to prepare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up the fire.Fixings, arrangements, dress, embellishments, luggage, furniture, garnishings of any kind.Gerrymander, to arrange political divisions so that in an election one party may obtain an advantage over its opponent, even though the latter may possess a majority of votes in the State; from the deviser of such a scheme, namedGerry, governor of Massachusetts.Given name, a Christian name.Guess, to; to believe, to suppose, to think, to fancy; also used emphatically, as 'Joe, will you liquor up?' 'I guess I will.'Gulch, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water.Happen in, to; to happen to come in or call.Help, a servant.High-falutin, inflated speech, bombast.Hoe-cake, a cake of Indian meal baked on a hoe or before the fire.Indian summer, the short season of pleasant weather usually occurring about the middle of November.Johnny Cake, a cake made of Indian corn meal mixed with milk or water and sometimes a little stewed pumpkin; the term is also applied to a New Englander.Julep, a drink composed of brandy or whisky with sugar, pounded ice, and some sprigs of mint.Log-rolling, the assembly of several parties of wood-cutters to help one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled and trimmed; also employed in politics to signify a like system of mutual co-operation.Lot, a piece or division of land, an allotment.Lumber, timber sawed and split for use; as beams, joists, planks, staves, hoops, &c.Lynch law, an irregular species of justice executed by the populace or a mob, without legal authority or trial.Mail letters, to; to post letters.Make tracks, to; to run away.Mitten; toget the mittenis to meet with a refusal.Mizzle, to; to abscond, or run away.Mush, a kind of hasty-pudding.Muss, a state of confusion.Notions, a term applied to every variety of small-wares.One-horse: a one-horse thing is a thing of no value or importance, a mean and trifling thing.Picaninny, a negro child.Pile, a quantity of money.Planks, in a political sense, are the several principles which appertain to a party;platformis the collection of such principles.Reckon, to; to suppose, to think.Rock, a stone of any size; a pebble; as to throwrocksat a dog.Scalawag, a scamp, a scapegrace.Shanty, a mean structure such as squatters erect; a temporary hut.Skedaddle, to; to run away; a word introduced during the civil war.Smart, often used in the sense of considerable, a good deal, as asmart chance.Soft sawder, flattering, coaxing talk.Spanof horses, two horses as nearly as possible alike, harnessed side by side.Spread-eagle style, a compound of exaggeration, bombast, mixed metaphor, &c.Store, a shop, as a bookstore, a grocerystore.Strike oil, to; to come upon petroleum: hence to make a lucky hit, especially financially.Stump speech, a bombastic speech calculated to please the popular ear, such speeches in newly-settled districts being often delivered from stumps of trees.Sun-up, sunrise.Tall, great, fine (used by Shakespeare much in the same sense);tall talkis extravagant talk.Ticket: to vote thestraight ticketis to vote for all the men or measures your party wishes.Truck, the small produce of gardens;truck patch, a plot in which the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised.Ugly, ill-tempered, vicious.Vamose, to; to run off (from the Sp.vamos, let us go).
Approbate, to approve.
Aroundorround, about or near. Tohang aroundis to loiter about a place.
Backwoods, the partially-cleared forest regions in the western States.
Bee, an assemblage of persons to unite their labours for the benefit of an individual or family, or to carry out a joint scheme.
Boss, an employer or superintendent of labourers, a leader.
Bug, a coleopterous insect, or what in England is called abeetle.
Buggy, a four-wheeled vehicle.
Bulldose, to; to intimidate voters.
Bunkumorbuncombe, a speech made solely to please a constituency; talk for talking's sake, and in an inflated style.
Bureau, a chest of drawers, a dressing-table surmounted by a mirror.
Calculate, to suppose, to believe, to think.
Camp-meeting, a meeting held in the fields or woods for religious purposes, and where the assemblage encamps and remains several days.
Cane-brake, a thicket of canes.
Car, a carriage or wagon of a railway train. The Englishman 'travels by rail' or 'takes the train'; the American takes or goes by thecars.
Carpet-bagger, a needy political adventurer who carries all his worldly goods in a carpet-bag.
Caucus, a private meeting of the leading politicians of a party to agree upon the plans to be pursued in an approaching election.
Chalk: along chalkmeans a great distance, a good deal.
Clever, good-natured, obliging.
Cocktail, a stimulating drink made of brandy or gin mixed with bitters, sugar, and water.
Corn, maize (in England it means wheat, or grain in general).
Corn-husking, orcorn-shucking, an occasion on which a farmer invites his neighbours to assist him in stripping the husks from his Indian corn.
Cow-hide, a whip made of twisted strips of raw hide.
Creek, a small river or brook; not, as in England, a small arm of the sea.
Cunning, small and pretty, nice, e.g. 'It was such acunningbaby'.
Dander; to get one'sdander raised, to have one'sdander up, is to have been worked into a passion.
Dead-heads, people who have free admission to entertainments, or who have the use of public conveyances, or the like, free of charge.
Depot, a railway station.
Down east, in or into the New England States. Adown-easteris a New Englander.
Drummer, a bagman or commercial traveller.
Dry goods, a general term for such articles as are sold by linen-drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, &c.
Dutch, the German language.—Dutchman, a German.
Fix, to; to put in order, to prepare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, make up the fire.
Fixings, arrangements, dress, embellishments, luggage, furniture, garnishings of any kind.
Gerrymander, to arrange political divisions so that in an election one party may obtain an advantage over its opponent, even though the latter may possess a majority of votes in the State; from the deviser of such a scheme, namedGerry, governor of Massachusetts.
Given name, a Christian name.
Guess, to; to believe, to suppose, to think, to fancy; also used emphatically, as 'Joe, will you liquor up?' 'I guess I will.'
Gulch, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by the action of water.
Happen in, to; to happen to come in or call.
Help, a servant.
High-falutin, inflated speech, bombast.
Hoe-cake, a cake of Indian meal baked on a hoe or before the fire.
Indian summer, the short season of pleasant weather usually occurring about the middle of November.
Johnny Cake, a cake made of Indian corn meal mixed with milk or water and sometimes a little stewed pumpkin; the term is also applied to a New Englander.
Julep, a drink composed of brandy or whisky with sugar, pounded ice, and some sprigs of mint.
Log-rolling, the assembly of several parties of wood-cutters to help one of them in rolling their logs to the river after they are felled and trimmed; also employed in politics to signify a like system of mutual co-operation.
Lot, a piece or division of land, an allotment.
Lumber, timber sawed and split for use; as beams, joists, planks, staves, hoops, &c.
Lynch law, an irregular species of justice executed by the populace or a mob, without legal authority or trial.
Mail letters, to; to post letters.
Make tracks, to; to run away.
Mitten; toget the mittenis to meet with a refusal.
Mizzle, to; to abscond, or run away.
Mush, a kind of hasty-pudding.
Muss, a state of confusion.
Notions, a term applied to every variety of small-wares.
One-horse: a one-horse thing is a thing of no value or importance, a mean and trifling thing.
Picaninny, a negro child.
Pile, a quantity of money.
Planks, in a political sense, are the several principles which appertain to a party;platformis the collection of such principles.
Reckon, to; to suppose, to think.
Rock, a stone of any size; a pebble; as to throwrocksat a dog.
Scalawag, a scamp, a scapegrace.
Shanty, a mean structure such as squatters erect; a temporary hut.
Skedaddle, to; to run away; a word introduced during the civil war.
Smart, often used in the sense of considerable, a good deal, as asmart chance.
Soft sawder, flattering, coaxing talk.
Spanof horses, two horses as nearly as possible alike, harnessed side by side.
Spread-eagle style, a compound of exaggeration, bombast, mixed metaphor, &c.
Store, a shop, as a bookstore, a grocerystore.
Strike oil, to; to come upon petroleum: hence to make a lucky hit, especially financially.
Stump speech, a bombastic speech calculated to please the popular ear, such speeches in newly-settled districts being often delivered from stumps of trees.
Sun-up, sunrise.
Tall, great, fine (used by Shakespeare much in the same sense);tall talkis extravagant talk.
Ticket: to vote thestraight ticketis to vote for all the men or measures your party wishes.
Truck, the small produce of gardens;truck patch, a plot in which the smaller fruits and vegetables are raised.
Ugly, ill-tempered, vicious.
Vamose, to; to run off (from the Sp.vamos, let us go).
Bibliography: T. Pickering,Vocabulary of Words and Phrases Supposed to be Peculiar to America; J. R. Bartlett,Dictionary of Americanisms; Schele de Vere,Americanisms.
American Jute.SeeAbutilon.
American Organ.SeeOrgan.
Amer′icus,a town of the United States, Georgia, in a good cotton and corn district. Pop. 11,000.
Amerigo Vespucci(a˙-mer-ē′go vespu¨t′chē), a maritime discoverer, after whom America has been named, born, 1451, at Florence; died, 1512, at Seville. In 1499 he coasted along the continent of America for several hundred leagues, and the publication of his narrative, while the prior discovery of Columbus was yet comparatively a secret, led to the giving of his name to the new continent.
Amerongen,a village in Holland. Here, at the château belonging to Count Goddard Bentinck, the ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II took up his residence after signing his letters of abdication at Spa on 9th Nov., 1918.
Amersfoort(ä′merz-fōrt), a town in Holland, province of Utrecht, communicating by the Eem with the Zuider-Zee; manufactures woollen goods, tobacco, glass, and silk yarn. Pop. 28,777.
Ames,Fisher, American statesman, born 1758, died 1808; studied law, and became prominent in his profession—distinguished as a political orator and essayist.
Ames,Joseph, English antiquary, born at Yarmouth, 1689, died 1759. He became a ship-chandler at Wapping, devoted himself to antiquarian pursuits, and was for many years secretary to the Society of Antiquaries. His chief publication is,Typographical Antiquities: being an historical account of Printing in England(1749).
Ametab′ola(Gr.ametabolos, unchangeable), a division of insects, including only the apterous or wingless insects, as lice, spring-tails, &c., which do not undergo any metamorphosis, but which escape from the egg nearly under the same form which they preserve through life.
Am′ethyst,a violet-blue or purple variety of quartz, generally occurring crystallized in hexahedral prisms or pyramids, also in rolled fragments, composed of imperfect prismatic crystals. It is wrought into various articles of jewellery. Theoriental amethystis a rare violet-coloured gem, a variety of alumina or corundum, of much brilliance and beauty. The name is generally said to be of Greek origin, and expresses some supposed quality in the stone of preventing or curing intoxication. The gem was one of the twelve stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest.
Amhara(a˙m-hä′ra˙), a district of Abyssinia, lying between the Tacazzé and the Blue Nile, but of which the limits are not well defined. The Amharic language, developed from the ancient Gheez, and written since the sixteenth century, has gradually gained ground in Southern and Central Abyssinia, and has also become the Court language.
Amherst(am′ėrst), a seaport of Canada, in Nova Scotia, on an arm of Chignecto Bay, with flourishing industries, and trade by railway and sea. Pop. 10,320. Also a port of Burmah, 31 miles south of Moulmein, a health resort of Europeans. Pop. 3750.
Amherst,Jeffrey, Lord, born 1717, died 1797; distinguished British general, who fought at Dettingen and Fontenoy, and commanded in America, where he took Louisburg, Ticonderoga, and Quebec, and restored the British prestige in Canada. He was raised to the peerage, became commander-in-chief, and ultimately field-marshal.
Amherst,William Pitt, first earl, nephew of the above; Governor-General of India, 1823; prosecuted the first Burmese war, and suppressed the Barrackpore mutiny. Born 1773, died 1857.
Amian′thus,a kind of flexible asbestos. SeeAsbestos.
Amice(am′is), an oblong piece of linen with an embroidered apparel sewed upon it, worn under the alb by priests of the Roman Catholic Church when engaged in the sacrifice of the mass.
Amide,orAmine(am′id, am′in), names used in chemistry. The amines are compounds formed by the introduction of alcohol radicles into ammonia, e.g. C2H5NH2, which is known as ethylamine. They closely resemble ammonia in properties. The amides are formed by replacing one of the hydrogen atoms of ammonia by an acid radicle, e.g. C2H3ONH2, which is called acetamide. They are not strongly basic, and are usually crystalline, and have high boiling-points.